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Parental Conditional Regard: Psychological Costs and Antecedents
Abstract
Parents often try to promote internalization of valued behaviors by making their regard contingent on children's enactment of those behaviors. We present findings suggesting that while parental conditional regard (PCR) might lead to enactment of expected behaviors, this practice has the following costs: (1) stressful internalization of parental expectations, (2) rigid and low-quality performance (3) self-esteem fluctuations and poor well-being, and (4) negative affect towards parents. Importantly, our research suggests that positive PCR (i.e., giving more regard when children comply) is quite harmful despite its seemingly benign nature. Several studies suggest that: (1) there is an inter-generational transmission of PCR (2) parents' contingent self-esteem and a competitive world view enhance parents' inclination to use PCR, and (3) parents use of PCR increases when they have infants who are easily frustrated. Overall, the findings suggest that PCR is a harmful practice originating, at least partly, from stressful parental experiences. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. All rights are reserved.
... First, there is a high, stable, and less contingent SE profile. This SE profile is understood to be synonymous with true SE, which is independent of external conditions and feedback and is considered to be less fragile (optimal-secure SE; [28,40,41]). It does not have to be tested but arises without continuous self-evaluation [42,43]. ...
... In the last decade, parental conditional regard has been identified as a central and frequently used parenting strategy, especially in the academic domain, that frustrates basic psychological needs, as suggested by self-determination theory (SDT; e.g., by creating an inner ambivalence between autonomy and relatedness). It is considered highly autonomy-suppressive and thus harmful to child (SE) development [40,57,58]. PACR is understood as a specific type of controlling parenting behaviour where parental appreciation is dependent on the child meeting the parent's expectations in the academic domain. ...
... At the same time, these theoretical and empirical explanations provide a possible explanation for the high number of children and adolescents with low-insecure SE and for the strong stability of this profile, regardless of the generally high profile stabilities and the possibility that they were overestimated due to the short measurement interval and thus stable contextual factors. In addition, it can be assumed that parental conditional regard has a double negative impact on children and adolescents, as it not only affects them directly but also undermines the development of their socioemotional competencies [40]. Therefore, social relationships are indirectly negatively influenced, decreasing general well-being and presumably further stabilising low-insecure SE. ...
Background
Numerous studies have demonstrated that low, unstable, or contingent self-esteem negatively affects youth development and is linked to adolescent psychopathology. However, most previous studies have applied variable-oriented approaches, and less is known about the natural combination of self-esteem facets in school-aged adolescents, how parental conditional regard affects self-esteem profiles, and how these profiles relate to self-kindness, self-judgement, and life satisfaction.
Methods
By employing a longitudinal person-oriented approach (i.e., latent profile analysis and latent transition analysis) on two-wave longitudinal data from 587 German secondary school students (52.3% female, Mage=13.52 years), this study aims to (1) identify adolescents’ self-esteem profiles based on the level, stability, and contingency of self-esteem; (2) examine the impact of parental conditional regard on the self-esteem profiles explained using self-determination theory; and (3) examine these profiles’ relationship with self-kindness, self-judgement, and life satisfaction.
Results
Four self-esteem profiles were derived: optimal-secure (~ 8%), good (~ 18%), average (~ 36%), and low-insecure (~ 38%). The results reveal a concerningly high proportion as well as a high stability of low-insecure self-esteem (~ 98%) and indicate the strong negative influence of parental conditional regard on the development of optimal-secure self-esteem. Furthermore, the results demonstrate strong correlations between optimal-secure self-esteem, highly developed self-kindness, and high life satisfaction.
Conclusions
Using a longitudinal person-oriented approach, it was possible to identify a group with highly vulnerable self-esteem, characterised by particularly low self-kindness, strong self-judgment, and lower life satisfaction. The findings of this study support the need for prevention and intervention targeting adolescents with low-insecure self-esteem.
... First, because conditional regard is a form of pressure and coercion, it undermines an important aspect of the need for autonomy, namely, being free from external coercion (Grolnick, 2003). As conditional regard may result in internalization of others' expectations and values in order to secure their love and esteem (i.e., introjection; Assor et al., 2004), it may also lead to the experience of internal coercion and compulsion (Assor et al., 2004;Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014;Roth et al., 2009), further undermining the need to be free from control. ...
... According to SDT, conditional regard fosters a process which yields an introjected type of internalization and motivation (Assor, 2018a;Assor et al., 2004Assor et al., , 2014Roth et al., 2009). In introjected internalization and motivation, people internalize values, goals, and expected behaviors in order to gain and avoid losing selfor other approval (Assor, Vansteenkiste, & Kaplan, 2009;Ryan & Brown, 2003). ...
... As for CPR, the emotional picture is quite di erent. In the case of CPR, unlike CNR, meeting introjected approach standards may yield great psychological gains and therefore create strong internal compulsion and pressure to succeed in meeting these standards (Assor et al., 2014). The theoretical propositions regarding the motivational processes and emotional responses triggered by CPR and CNR were supported by several studies. ...
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a broad theory of psychological growth and wellness that has revolutionized how we think about human motivation and the driving forces behind personality development. SDT focuses on people’s basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness and how social environments that support these needs foster more volition, vitality, and full functioning. SDT has supplied the basis for new and more effective practices in parenting, education, business, sport, healthcare, and other areas of life, fostering higher-quality motivation, engagement, and satisfaction. Drawing on over four decades of evidence-based research and application, The Oxford Handbook of Self-Determination Theory delivers a truly integrative volume by the top researchers and experts within the field of SDT. Edited by SDT co-founder Richard M. Ryan, this Handbook not only provides the theory’s historical and scientific underpinnings but also draws together the latest research and insights, covering topics from the social and biological underpinnings of motivation and wellness to practical applications in all aspects of life. This volume will be an invaluable resource for both researchers and practitioners, as well as any student of human nature, with practical research and guidance.
... Thus, PACNR seems to result from parents' self-esteem concerns. A proposed mechanism is that parents hold performance standards for their children and punish poor performance using PACNR in an attempt to prevent future failures and the accompanying self-esteem threat (Assor et al., 2014;Ng et al., 2014;Wuyts et al., 2015). This is plausible and congruent with the finding that parents with high CCSE are perceived to promote extrinsic goals in their children . ...
... This is plausible and congruent with the finding that parents with high CCSE are perceived to promote extrinsic goals in their children . Therefore, PACNR is widely understood as a parenting tactic to pursue socialization goals related to academic achievement (Assor et al., 2004;Assor et al., 2014;Assor et al., 2020;Curran et al., 2017). ...
... The literature mostly defines conditional regard as a socialization strategy, including the idea that parents (consciously or unconsciously) pursue a long-term socialization goal with their parenting (Assor et al., 2014;Assor et al., 2020;Curran et al., 2017). In terms of operant conditioning, parents may use conditional negative regard to punish low performance, for example, to enhance the child's school engagement. ...
Parents whose self-esteem is contingent on their children’s achievements tend to exert more control over their children by displaying decreased affection and regard after failure in school (parental academic conditional negative regard). The current study examined parental anger and dysregulated anger expression as possible mechanisms in the respective association. In total, 221 mothers reported their child-invested contingent self-esteem, habitual dysregulated anger expression, anticipated anger after child failure, and their explicit use of conditional negative regard; their 12- to 14-year-old adolescent children reported perceived conditional negative regard. The moderated mediation analysis revealed that anger after child failure partially mediated the effect of child-invested contingent self-esteem on maternal explicit use of conditional negative regard, which, in turn, predicted adolescents’ perception of conditional negative regard. The effect of anger was moderated by dysregulated anger expression, and anger was only positively related to conditional negative regard when expressed as medium- to highly-dysregulated. The results support our hypotheses and provide an explanation for parental application of conditional negative regard apart from socialization goals or a lack of knowledge about its suboptimal nature. Furthermore, our results underscore the importance of parents’ self-esteem concerns and strategies for anger regulation. We discuss the practical implications of an anger-driven, reactive type of conditional regard.
... The present research focuses on the socializing practice of using mothers' conditional positive regard (MCPR) to promote adolescents' tendency to suppress fear and anxiety (e.g., Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014;Assor & Roth, 2005;Assor & Tal, 2012;Roth & Assor, 2010;Roth, Assor, Niemiec, Ryan, & Deci, 2009). MCPR refers to mothers' tendency to provide more affection and esteem than usual when their children enact parentally valued behaviors. ...
... As expected theoretically and in line with previous research (e.g., Assor et al., 2014;Assor & Tal, 2012;Roth et al., 2009), M-MCPR correlated positively and significantly with introjected motivation, whereas the correlation of M-MCNR with introjected motivation was not significant. The difference between the correlations of M-MCPR versus M-MCNR with introjected motivation, .20 versus .11, ...
... The findings of Study 2 suggest that mothers' self-reported use of MCPR or MCNR and adolescents' perceptions of their mothers as using these strategies cannot be viewed as reflections of mothers' general warmth. Thus, consistent with the current view of MCPR and MCNR as distinct parental strategies (e.g., Assor et al., 2014) mothers' self-reported use of MCPR and MCNR was not associated with mothers' self-reported general warmth. Moreover, mothers' self-reported MCNR and MCPR predicted adolescents' perception of mothers' use of these strategies when the effect of mothers' self-reported general maternal warmth was controlled. ...
Objective. The focus of the current article was on the parenting strategy of using maternal conditional positive regard to promote adolescents’ suppression of anxiety to assess whether
this strategy is benign or maladaptive. Method. Two studies (N = 230) examined mothers’ and adolescents’ reports of maternal conditional regard, adolescents’ motivation, and mothers’ contingent self-esteem, general warmth, and neuroticism. Results. Study 1 showed that mothers’ self-reported maternal conditional positive regard predicted adolescents’ perceptions of mothers’ use of maternal conditional positive regard, which then predicted adolescents’ introjected
(stressful and internally controlling) motivation to suppress anxiety. These effects obtained when controlling for Maternal Conditional Negative Regard. Study 2 showed that mothers’ contingent
self-esteem predicted mother-reported maternal conditional positive regard and maternal conditional negative regard which, respectively, predicted adolescents’ experience of mothers’ using
maternal conditional positive regard and maternal conditional negative regard. These effects were obtained when controlling for mothers’ general warmth and neuroticism. Conclusions.
The association of maternal conditional positive regard with mothers’ contingent self-esteem and adolescents’ introjected motivation suggests that this seemingly benign practice might be a product and a cause of psychological difficulties, and therefore, should be minimized.
... Inspired by this theory, autonomy-supportive parenting, characterized by acknowledging one's child's view and encouraging self-initiated activities, has proven to support students' academic and psychological adjustment (for an overview, see Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). In contrast, controlling parenting, which counteracts young people's autonomy through, for example, psychological control and conditional regard, can significantly increase adolescents' risks of developing psychopathology and impair their academic achievements (e.g., Assor et al., 2014;Otterpohl et al., 2019). ...
... Previous studies have consistently shown that parental psychological control is related to lower academic achievement, more externalizing and internalizing symptoms, and fewer prosocial behaviors (e.g., Pinquart, 2017;Wong et al., 2021). Lastly, parental conditional regard (PCR) is the practice through which parents show love and appreciation when children fulfill their parental expectations (Assor et al., 2014). PCR can be divided into conditional negative regard (PCNR) and conditional positive regard (PCPR). ...
... First, psychological control is a general parenting technique, whereas PCR is domain specific (e.g., academic, affective, and behavioral domains). Second, psychological control contains components of blame that the child cannot change or influence through behavior, whereas PCR refers to showing esteem and attention depending upon the child's behavior (Assor et al., 2014;Roth et al., 2009). Previous studies have highlighted how PCR has a wide range of detrimental effects on child and adolescent development. ...
The important role of parenting is widely acknowledged, but as most studies have understood and examined it as a stable attribute (e.g., parenting style), the stability of and changes in parenting are less well understood. Using longitudinal person-oriented approaches (i.e., latent profile analyses and latent transition analyses), this study aimed to examine the stability of and changes in autonomy-related parenting profiles and their effects on adolescents’ academic and psychological development. Four autonomy-related dimensions (i.e., autonomy support, warmth, psychological control, conditional regard) were chosen to identify parenting profiles on the basis of Self-Determination Theory. Using five-year longitudinal data from 789 German secondary school students (50.06% female, Mage at T1 = 10.82 years, age span = 10–17), four autonomy-related parenting profiles were found: Supportive (~ 17%), Controlling (~ 31%), Unsupportive-Uncontrolling (~ 17%), and Limited Supportive (~ 35%). The results suggest that the Supportive profile contributes to adolescents’ positive academic and psychological development, whereas the Controlling
profile, which thwarts autonomy development, exacerbates the development of psychopathology, and impairs academic achievement. More importantly, the Limited Supportive profile is as maladaptive as the Unsupportive-Uncontrolling profile. Regarding parenting profiles’ stability and changes, the results showed that about half of each profile stayed in the same group. Overall, it could be observed that parents became more supportive and less controlling over time. However, the findings also indicate that parenting profiles are less stable than expected and can still change during early-to-mid adolescence.
... The construct of achievement-oriented parental control (AOC) refers to parents' tendency to promote children's success in achievement tasks via behaviours that pressure the child to behave in specific ways, while ignoring children's perspectives and denying choice (Assor et al., 2014;Soenens, Vansteenkiste, & Luyten, 2010), and is grounded in self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2017). ...
... Finally, AOC is domain-specific, as it concerns only the achievement domain. Thus, a parent may be inclined to use AOC when issues of achievement arise, but may not be so controlling when other issues that are less important to them are involved (e.g., Assor et al., 2014). ...
... Controlling parental behaviour was found to have negative effects on major markers of poor socio-emotional development such as depressive feelings, behaviour problems, poor conscience development, and noncompliance with parents (e.g., Assor et al., 2014;Barber et al., 2005;Kim et al., 2014;Kochanska et al., 2019;Olson et al., 2002;Soenens et al., 2005). However, its long-term effects on helpless coping have rarely been investigated. ...
Based on Self-Determination theory, we examined three hypotheses: (1) mothers’ achievement-oriented controlling behaviour towards their toddlers predicts children’s helpless coping with failure three years later, (2) mothers’ prenatal orientation to use conditional regard (CR) to promote children’s achievements predicts postnatal controlling behaviour, and (3) the effects of mothers’ prenatal CR-orientation and postnatal controlling behaviour emerge also after controlling for the effects of infants’ temperament disposition towards frustration-reactivity. A four-wave study assessed expectant mothers’ CR-orientation (n = 290), their 8-month-old infants’ frustration-reactivity (n = 184), mothers’ controlling behaviour with their 18-month olds (n = 201), and children’s helpless coping with unsolvable puzzles at 54–60 months (n = 200). No systematic attrition effects were detected. Results supported the hypotheses, and, in addition, suggested that prenatal CR-orientation has an indirect effect on preschoolers’ helplessness, via mothers’ postnatal controlling behaviour. The findings suggest that mothers’ achievement-oriented prenatal CR-orientation and postnatal controlling behaviour may be risk factors that can be addressed in early prevention programs.
... Autonomous motivation manifested in different behaviors, such as helping, provides a positive contribution to the internalization of social values and consolidates prosocial behaviors and altruistic motivations, such as volunteering in later life stages (Penner, 2002;Roth, 2008). Conversely, conditional regard -which means that acceptance, regard and proximity arise only when expectations, wishes and requirements are met-impairs young's self-regulation processes and stabilizes profit-driven instrumental behavior based on extrinsic motivation (Assor, Kanat-Maymon & Roth, 2014;Assor, Roth & Deci, 2004;Kanat-Maymon, Roth, Assor & Reizer, 2012). ...
... For example, emerging adult will help because he thinks the person in need deserves help. Integrated regulation involves assimilation of identities to self (Assor, 2011;Assor et al., 2004Assor et al., , 2014. Integrated regulation of prosocial behavior will occur despite its costs when the individual feels or thinks that helping is a fundamental part of who he is. ...
... Moreover, the findings provided support for the hypothesis that parental conditional regard have negative relation with psychosocial functioning. Consistent with previous findings (Assor et al., 2014;Kanat-Maymon et al., 2012;Roth, 2008), PCR inhibits internal self-regulation and stabilizes externally motivated instrumental behaviors. Assor et al. (2014) reported that the use of a success-oriented practice that includes control and insensitivity, such as providing conditional regard in academic domains, supports a competitive world view. ...
The current correlational study examined the individual (self-regulation) and social (self-construal, parental practices) antecedents of social value orientations (SVO) among middle adolescents and emerging adults. The sample consisted of randomly selected 218 middle adolescents (ages 14–15) and 219 emerging adults (ages 19–25) and their parents in a metropolitan area of Ankara, Turkey. The results revealed that emerging adults have more prosocial SVO than adolescents. Young people’s SVO scores were positively correlated with parental autonomy support and interdependent self-construal. The moderation analysis indicated that the association between parent- reported high autonomy support and young people’s prosocial choices was stronger for young people high in interdependent self-construal. The results also showed that parental autonomy support was related to increasing internal self-regulation of young people in prosocial issues (such as cooperation, helping and sharing) and increasing prosocial choices of young people in social dilemmas.
https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/FFNZHX4XRH2PPTKCUT5B/full?target=10.1080/00221309.2019.1665490
... Although conditional regard may appear more benign than other subtypes of psychological control, research has shown that this autonomy-suppressing parenting practice is harmful for children's development in different age periods (Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014;Deci & Ryan, 2000), particularly in adolescence (e.g., Assor & Tal, 2012), an age period in which autonomy is a particularly salient developmental task (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). As such, it is important to gain insight into the developmental origins and antecedents of this detrimental parental practice. ...
... contingent self-esteem, depressive symptoms, intergenerational continuity, parental academic conditional regard love following desired behavior (parental academic conditional positive regard, PACPR; Assor et al., 2014;Roth, Assor, Niemiec, Deci, & Ryan, 2009). ...
... However, Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) postulates that conditional regard threatens the child's basic psychological needs and thereby has negative implications for the child's psychosocial adjustment. Conditional regard primarily would undermine children's needs for relatedness and autonomy (Assor et al., 2014;Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2010). First, love withdrawal (in the case of PACNR) constitutes a direct threat to the child's need for relatedness (i.e., the need to feel loved and cared for unconditionally). ...
Although research has documented the adverse consequences of parental academic conditional regard in different developmental periods, few studies have examined antecedents and, in particular, the possibility of intergenerational continuity of this parenting dimension. The current study aimed to identify patterns of intergenerational similarity in two types of conditional regard (i.e., positive and negative). Additionally, it examined mothers' and adolescents' contingent self‐esteem (CSE) and depressive symptoms as outcomes of this process. In total, 211 mothers and their 10–16 year‐old adolescents filled out questionnaires assessing perceived conditional regard in the relationship with their own mother (i.e., grandmothers', and mothers' conditional positive (PACPR) and negative regard (PACNR)), contingent self‐esteem (i.e., maternal child‐invested CSE and adolescents' academic CSE), and maternal and adolescents' depressive symptoms. Results revealed direct intergenerational similarity for PACPR, but not for PACNR. Within generations, PACPR was related positively to CSE, which, in turn, was related positively to depressive symptoms. Moreover, PACNR was related positively to depressive symptoms. Our findings provide preliminary evidence for the intergenerational continuity of conditional regard, which has important consequences because of its relation to CSE and subsequent depressive symptoms within both generations. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... In the SDT-based literature, controlling teaching/coaching style is characterized by the use of conditional regard, meaning that approval and acceptance are given only when students behave or live up to the expected and preconceived standards of emotions, cognitions, and behavior (Reeve, 2009;Assor et al., 2014;Bartholomew et al., 2018). Such controlling teaching/coaching may be represented by humiliation, yelling, critique, or punishment, which have been found to nurture external motivational regulations (Soenens and Vansteenkiste, 2010;De Meyer et al., 2016). ...
... The interaction between PC and controlling teaching/coaching conditions has been less studied compared to PC and parenting styles (Soenens et al., 2012;Assor et al., 2014). Hence, the current study tested whether tendencies typically associated with parenting style (an origin of PC), could be extended to the teaching/coaching setting in TDEs. ...
... Activated by aspects of controlling conditions, they are likely to enter a kind of hypervigilant state, driven by emotional stress from their conditional self-worth, which in turn, seems to associate with fear of failure and avoidance motivation (Shafran et al., 2002). Controlling conditions might reinforce this pattern, as a trigger and extension of conditional regard received from another significant other (Assor et al., 2014). The displaying of higher levels of PC might also function as a substitute for being externally controlled, as a way of taking the control back, directing it into self-control, obsessiveness, and relentless pursuit for success (Shafran et al., 2002;Boone et al., 2014). ...
Conceptualized within the framework of self-determination theory, the aim of the current study was to investigate the relation between perfectionistic concerns and (a) controlled (non-self-determined) motivation and (b) performance anxiety through basic psychological need frustration (frustration of competence, autonomy, and realtedness), and if these relations would be moderated by controlling teaching/coaching conditions. We used a cross-sectional moderated mediation design and purposefully selected Norwegian elite junior performers (N = 171; mean age = 17.3; SD age = 0.94) from talent development schools, who completed an online questionnaire to report their perceptions of the study variables. Associations were examined using structural equation modeling. The results showed that perfectionistic concerns were positively associated with controlling conditions, basic needs frustration, controlled motivation, and performance anxiety. Reported controlling teaching/coaching conditions moderated the positive indirect relationship between perfectionistic concerns and (a) controlled motivation and (b) performance anxiety through competence need frustration. Specifically, these indirect associations were evident for performers reporting moderate or high levels of controlling teaching/coaching conditions. In contrast, there were no indirect associations via competence need frustration for those performers who reported low levels of controlling conditions. In conclusion, the results indicate that perfectionistic concerns appear to be a vulnerability factor that exposes elite junior performers to higher risks of entering a debilitative motivational process. This seems especially likely when exposed to controlling teaching/coaching conditions. Coaches and teachers working with elite junior performers should avoid using controlling mechanisms and instead foster autonomous functioning.
... In contrast, "parental conditional negative regard (PCNR)" is when parents are perceived to withhold or give less affection, love, and esteem than they usual do when the child does not meet their expectations. PCPR/PCNR have been identified as disruptive parenting practices linked to significant psychological costs (e.g., introjected regulation, unstable self-esteem, negative emotions, poor relationships and well-being) [59,71,72]. It may be that, as Assor, Kanat-Maymon, and Roth [72] have claimed, children introjecting the desired behaviors and goals of their parents is a way of preventing the loss of parental appreciation or increasing the attention and love they receive from parents. ...
... PCPR/PCNR have been identified as disruptive parenting practices linked to significant psychological costs (e.g., introjected regulation, unstable self-esteem, negative emotions, poor relationships and well-being) [59,71,72]. It may be that, as Assor, Kanat-Maymon, and Roth [72] have claimed, children introjecting the desired behaviors and goals of their parents is a way of preventing the loss of parental appreciation or increasing the attention and love they receive from parents. However, the desire or pressure to avoid feeling unworthy or to obtain self-regard may also result in a dampened sense of autonomy [73]. ...
... However, the desire or pressure to avoid feeling unworthy or to obtain self-regard may also result in a dampened sense of autonomy [73]. Given the fact that PCR has been considered as a "domain-specific" socializing strategy for bolstering contingent introjection [72,74,75], it is plausible that context-specific PCR might serve as a contextual cue that elicits predominantly insecure child-parent attachment schemata in a given context. "ABPD" may be another mechanism by which parents execute "context-specific" maladaptive socializing practices in children's achievement domains (especially in sport) (e.g., [58,67]). ...
Bowlby’s attachment theory has been employed as a broad and integrative framework to explore human wellness across a range of disciplines. Attachment theory has even been labelled one of the last surviving “grand theories” not to have been completely dismissed, replaced, or extensively reworked. However, despite the ubiquitous nature of some of the theory’s fundamental tenets, there are always possibilities for new conceptual development, extension, and revision. In this paper, we critically explore the idea of “context-specific” attachment within parent-child relationships. We briefly outline critical assumptions and key areas of attachment and articulate potential rationale, conceptualization, and relevance of contextual attachment.
... In contrast, "parental conditional negative regard (PCNR)" is when parents are perceived to withhold or give less affection, love, and esteem than they usual do when the child does not meet their expectations. PCPR/PCNR have been identified as disruptive parenting practices linked to significant psychological costs (e.g., introjected regulation, unstable self-esteem, negative emotions, poor relationships and well-being) [59,71,72]. It may be that, as Assor, Kanat-Maymon, and Roth [72] have claimed, children introjecting the desired behaviors and goals of their parents is a way of preventing the loss of parental appreciation or increasing the attention and love they receive from parents. ...
... PCPR/PCNR have been identified as disruptive parenting practices linked to significant psychological costs (e.g., introjected regulation, unstable self-esteem, negative emotions, poor relationships and well-being) [59,71,72]. It may be that, as Assor, Kanat-Maymon, and Roth [72] have claimed, children introjecting the desired behaviors and goals of their parents is a way of preventing the loss of parental appreciation or increasing the attention and love they receive from parents. However, the desire or pressure to avoid feeling unworthy or to obtain self-regard may also result in a dampened sense of autonomy [73]. ...
... However, the desire or pressure to avoid feeling unworthy or to obtain self-regard may also result in a dampened sense of autonomy [73]. Given the fact that PCR has been considered as a "domain-specific" socializing strategy for bolstering contingent introjection [72,74,75], it is plausible that context-specific PCR might serve as a contextual cue that elicits predominantly insecure child-parent attachment schemata in a given context. "ABPD" may be another mechanism by which parents execute "context-specific" maladaptive socializing practices in children's achievement domains (especially in sport) (e.g., [58,67]). ...
Bowlby’s (1969/1982) attachment theory has been employed as a broad and integrative framework to explore human wellness across a range of disciplines. Attachment theory has even been labelled one of the last surviving “grand theories” not to have been completely dismissed, replaced, or extensively reworked (e.g., Carr, 2012; Mercer, 2011). However, despite the ubiquitous nature of some of the theory’s fundamental tenets, there are always possibilities for new conceptual development, extension, and revision. In this paper, we critically explore the idea of “context-specific” attachment within parent-child relationships. We briefly outline critical assumptions and key areas of attachment and articulate potential rationale, conceptualisation, and relevance of contextual attachment.
... Adolescents whose parents tend to ignore them or tend to give them less love and appreciation than usual when they fail to meet their standards, are more likely to be unhappy. As this withdrawal of affection, characteristic of conditional negative regard, is considered one aspect of the broader construct of psychological control (also comprising guilt induction and shaming), positive relations with internalizing symptoms may be expected (Assor et al. 2014). Accordingly, previous studies have clearly shown detrimental effects of conditional negative regard on students' adjustment and motivation (Assor and Tal 2012;Roth et al. 2009). ...
... Adolescents receiving such conditional positive regard may feel pressured to behave in certain ways and may also feel anxious as they perceive that they are appreciated only on certain terms. Additionally, they may be at risk for depression as they fail to receive the unconditional love they seek from their parents (Assor et al. 2014). Limited empirical evidence supports these hypotheses, showing that conditional positive regard is positively related to controlling types of motivation and indicators of maladjustment (e.g., shame or devaluation after failure and resentment towards parents; Assor and Tal;Roth et al. 2009). ...
... All models contained perceived conditional positive regard, responsiveness, SE level and contingency, and depressive and anxiety symptoms, but differed in their inclusion of conditional negative regard vs. psychological control. As an exception, we examined psychological control and conditional negative regard in separate models because of conceptual reasons (one construct is considered a subcomponent of the other; Assor et al. 2014) and to avoid multicollinearity. First, perceived parenting was related to adolescent SE which, in turn, was related to internalizing symptoms (i.e., full mediation). ...
Internalizing symptoms, such as depressive and anxiety symptoms are prevalent in adolescence. We examined the mediational role of two self-esteem dimensions, that is, level and contingency, in comprehensive models linking parenting to adolescent internalizing symptoms. Using a cross-sectional design, a large sample of secondary school students (N = 1958; 56.28% female; mean age = 15.31 years) completed questionnaires on maternal responsiveness, psychological control, conditional regard, as well as on their own self-esteem, depressive and anxiety symptoms. Analyses yielded both direct and indirect effects of adolescent-reported parenting on internalizing symptoms. More perceived responsiveness was uniquely associated with higher self-esteem level which, in turn, predicted less depressive and anxiety symptoms. Perceived conditional negative and positive regard and psychological control were uniquely related to self-esteem level (negative relations) and contingency (positive relations) which, in turn, predicted more internalizing symptoms. In general, our study supported the mediational role of self-esteem level and contingency in the link between parenting and internalizing symptoms. Whereas low self-esteem increased adolescents’ vulnerability for both depressive and anxiety symptoms, high self-esteem contingency appeared as a unique vulnerability factor for anxiety symptoms. © 2018 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
... Consequently, the present article focuses on an examination of the effects of teachers' autonomy support and control on optimal learning experience among Bedouin students, i.e., teacher's behaviors that support versus suppress students' opportunities to express and realize their need for autonomy. Teachers' control is examined in two aspects: autonomy suppression (Deci and Ryan 2000), which refers to control that is more explicit and overt, and the concept of conditional negative regard, which is based on studies grounded in SDT that examined parental practices, and refer to more implicit, manipulative and covert control (e.g., Assor et al. 2014). Previous studies referred to the concept of controlling teaching but not directly to teachers' conditional regard (Madjar et al. 2012;Soenens et al. 2012b). ...
... In comparison to autonomy suppression, conditional regard constitutes more indirect, implicit, and subtle forms of control Kanat-Maymon et al. 2016;Reeve 2009). Studies demonstrate that conditional regard is a controlling practice that predicts negative outcomes in various areas, such as introjected internalization, behavioral enactment, fluctuations in self-esteem, perceived parental disapproval, resentment toward parents, emotion regulation, academic functioning (Assor et al. 2004;Assor et al. 2014;Roth et al. 2009;Roth 2008;Roth and Assor 2012), parental separation anxiety and perfectionism, and adolescents' dependency, self-criticism and depressive symptoms ), children's depressive symptoms and emotion reactivity, through the mediation of children's attributions (Perrone et al. 2016). ...
... For example, behavioral theoreticians are likely to refer to manipulations of affection, praise, and reinforcement as desirable (Gewirtz and Pelaez-Nogueras 1991). An extensive study on conditional regard has been conducted by Roth, Assor and their colleagues that examined the negative implications of conditional positive and negative regard among adolescents, adults, and children (e.g., Assor and Tal 2012;Assor et al. 2014;Roth et al. 2009). ...
The study is based on self-determination theory and focuses on the motivation of high-achieving Bedouin students who belong to a hierarchical-collectivist society. The study focuses on the question: What are the relations between teachers’ autonomy support and control and an optimal learning experience among students? The study is unique in its population and in the distinction it draws between two types of teachers’ control: autonomy suppression (explicit control), and conditional negative regard, a phenomenon examined for the first time in teachers (implicit psychological control). The study population consisted of 144 students from seven high schools (74% girls) who completed questionnaires at two time-points. Structural equation modeling analysis indicated that perceived need satisfaction was positively predicted by teachers’ autonomy support, and negatively predicted by teachers’ conditional negative regard, while perception of a teacher as autonomy suppressive contributed directly and negatively to autonomous motivation. In turn psychological need satisfaction positively predicted autonomous motivation in learning that in turn predicted positive emotions and engagement in learning. The hypothesized mediation model has a good fit with the data. The findings have implications concerning the optimal conditions for learning among Bedouin students in general and high-achieving students in particular, and concerning the importance of autonomy-supportive teaching and refraining from control, explicit and implicit alike.
... In the remainder of this chapter we focus on the three dimensions of need-supportive parenting for our primary goal is the facilitation of greater self-determination. [Those interested in further discussion of need-thwarting parenting are referred to Assor, Kanat-Maymon, and Roth, (2014) ;Grolnick, (2003); and Soenens and Vansteenkiste (2010)]. In discussing need-supportive parenting we describe the basic attitude underlying each dimension as well as their more specific manifestations . ...
... Pressuring language can be quite overt and explicit but also more subtle. Psychologically controlling parents (Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2010) or parents relying on conditional regard (Assor et al., 2014) in particular tend to pressure children in insidious ways by expressing disappointment non-verbally or by appealing to feelings of shame and guilt. ...
... This combination of conditional regard and warmth may create a loyalty conflict, where children strongly feel that they need to choose between having a close bond with their parent and preserving a sense of autonomy. Such internal conflicts ultimately give rise to feelings of resentment towards parents and to emotional costs in children (Assor et al., 2004(Assor et al., , 2014. ...
Although different determinants, including genetics, temperament, and a variety of social-contextual influences, play roles in young people’s development, the role of parents is paramount to healthy psychosocial adjustment. When children’s psychological needs are satisfied, children report more well-being, engage in activities with more interest and spontaneity (intrinsic motivation), more easily accept guidelines for important behaviors (internalization), display more openness in social relationships, and are more resilient when faced with adversity and distress. This chapter will focus on how parental supports or thwarts for children’s basic psychological needs either promote or diminish the children’s mental health, social adjustment, and psychological growth.
... According to the SDT, both forms of PCR relate to maladaptive outcomes and psychological ill-functioning, which lead to, among other things, life dissatisfaction and stress (Assor et al., 2014;Haines & Schutte, 2023). ...
... However, previous research has treated PCNR and PCPR as separate constructs to determine their magnitudes and unique consequences on adolescent well-being (Assor et al., 2004(Assor et al., , 2014Roth et al., 2009). Specifically, in studies that investigated PCNR and PCPR together, the relationship between PCR and depressive symptoms was found to be significantly stronger for PCNR than PCPR (e.g., Otterpohl et al., 2020;Smiley et al., 2020;Wouters et al., 2018). ...
Based on the self‐determination theory, many studies have attempted to uncover the contextual features that satisfy adolescents' basic psychological needs. Most of these, however, have focused on one aspect of the social context, either the school or the family environment, and focused on either the issue of need frustration or need satisfaction and their implications on well‐being. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate whether adolescents' perceptions of parental conditional regard (both positive and negative regards) and teacher autonomy support were associated with need frustration and need satisfaction, which in turn, would be related to adolescents' well‐being (both subjective stress and life satisfaction). To test our hypotheses, we recruited 340 Turkish adolescents ( M age = 16.88 years, SD = 0.86). Results of structural equation modeling showed that parental conditional negative regard was positively related to need frustration, which in turn, was associated positively with adolescents' subjective stress, and negatively with life satisfaction. However, parental conditional positive regard was related to neither need satisfaction nor need frustration. Moreover, teacher autonomy support was positively related to need satisfaction, which in turn, was positively associated with life satisfaction. The results indicate that future research should consider both parent‐ and teacher‐related contexts together in relation to adolescents' basic needs and their well‐being.
... In addition to the examination of parental support, we also focused on parental conditional regard (PCR, Assor et al., 2004), which has been identified in previous studies as an important controlling practice used by parents in order to promote children's motivation to fulfill parental expectations in many domains including, for example, interpersonal relationships, school work, and emotion regulation (Assor et al., 2004;Assor et al., 2014). PCR is a parenting practice which is conceptually based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), a theory of motivation regarding our fundamentally natural tendency to behave in effective and healthy ways. ...
... Parental conditional positive regard has been found to contribute to Male ultra-orthodox dropouts in Israel feelings of internal compulsion, self-aggrandizement following success, contingent self-esteem, and self-devaluation and shame following failure. Parental conditional negative regard has been found to contribute to resentment toward the parent and self-devaluation and shame following failure, and has also been shown to have serious negative effects on children's well-being (Assor et al., 2004;Assor et al., 2014;Assor & Tal, 2012;Otterpohl et al., 2021;Roth et al., 2009). ...
... With an orientation of conditional regard, parents can either withdraw affection in response to their children's failure (conditional negative regard) or increase affection in response to children's success (conditional positive regard; Assor & Roth, 2005;Roth, Assor, Niemiec, Deci, & Ryan, 2009). These two facets of conditional regard are differentially related to different aspects of children's development (Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014;Roth et al., 2009). To date, it is unknown how combinations of them co-occur within individuals and how these within-person combinations relate to developmental outcomes. ...
... Because of its controlling nature, conditional regard is likely to affect the quality of the parent-child relationship and other relationships (Assor et al., 2014). When experiencing conditional negative regard for expressing fear, children report more resentment toward the parent (Roth et al., 2009). ...
SYNOPSIS
Objective. Parental academic conditional regard is a socialization strategy in which parents’ displays of appreciation increase (conditional positive regard; PACPR) or decrease (conditional negative regard; PACNR) depending on the children’s academic achievement. Little is known about how adolescents perceive combinations of conditional positive and negative regard and how within-person combinations of them relate to developmental outcomes. Design. This study uses a person-oriented approach to examine within-person combinations of PACPR and PACNR and their different associations with individuals’ motivation and adjustment. Three different samples reported on perceived PACPR and PACNR: adolescent students (N = 3,891), university freshmen (N = 556), and parents (N = 760). We conducted confirmatory latent profile analyses and investigated associations between profiles and outcome measures (basic need satisfaction, self-esteem level and contingency, ability self-concept, achievement goal orientation, test anxiety, and depressive symptoms). Results. The results supported a 3-class solution in all samples: low (44.4%–61.4%) or high (14.5%–24.5%) on both, and only high on PACPR (14.1%–31.3%). Groups reporting overall high levels of conditional regard scored the least favorably on all outcomes. Individuals with only high scores on PACPR differed from those with overall low scores on conditional regard primarily in terms of higher contingent self-esteem. Conclusions. The two dimensions of conditional regard are distinct. Although combination of the two dimensions is associated with individuals’ general poor adjustment, the presence of PACPR alone is related to a fragile sense of self-esteem. Implications for future research are discussed.
... PCPR and PCNR are regarded as domain-specific, as their manifestations can take different forms across different situations. Parents may, for example, apply PCR in the academic domain but not concerning social behavior (Assor et al., 2004(Assor et al., , 2014. In this study, we focused on PCR in the academic domain, which is developmentally important because adolescents are constantly surrounded by academic issues. ...
... Empirical evidence on the relationship between PCR and CSE is scarce, but supports the theoretical assumptions. Assor et al. (2014) state that PCR leads to fluctuations in children's self-esteem. They reported that PCR was related to lower self-esteem in children with failure, and that success was followed by short lived satisfaction and feelings of superiority. ...
Introduction:
Relations between Parental Conditional Regard (PCR) and children's motivational and emotional functioning have been demonstrated by past research. However, most available studies relied on cross-sectional correlational data, leaving open the causal direction of these relations. In the present article, we sought to contribute to this topic and examined the longitudinal connection between PCR and adolescents' contingent self-esteem (CSE) over time.
Method:
Hypotheses were tested in two longitudinal studies with differently gifted samples of German high school students (N = 188 and N = 202 students, respectively). Data were gathered at three time points in Study 1 and at two time points in Study 2. In both studies, adolescents answered questionnaires regarding positive and negative PCR in the academic domain as well as general CSE (and additionally academic CSE in Study 2).
Results:
Cross-lagged analyses revealed several significant paths from CSE to PCR, and some paths from PCR to CSE, indicating the presumed reciprocal relationship between these constructs.
Conclusion:
Our findings suggest that children high in CSE may lead their parents to engage in PCR and that these effects may be more pronounced than vice versa. Possible reasons for these findings and their implications are discussed.
... In contrast, parental conditional negative regard (PCNR) is when parents are perceived to withhold or give less affection, love, and esteem than they usually do when the child does not meet their expectations. PCPR/PCNR has been identified as disruptive parenting practices linked to significant psychological costs (e.g., introjected regulation, unstable self-esteem, negative emotions, poor relationships, and well-being; perfectionistic strivings and concerns; and competence contingent self-worth) (Assor & Tal, 2012;Assor et al., 2004), Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014;Curran, 2018). Given that PCR has been considered as a "domain-specific" socializing strategy for bolstering contingent introjection (Assor, 2012;Assor et al., 2014;Ryan, Deci, & Grolnick, 1995), it is plausible that context-specific PCR might serve as a contextual cue that elicits predominantly insecure child-parent attachment schema in a given context. ...
... PCPR/PCNR has been identified as disruptive parenting practices linked to significant psychological costs (e.g., introjected regulation, unstable self-esteem, negative emotions, poor relationships, and well-being; perfectionistic strivings and concerns; and competence contingent self-worth) (Assor & Tal, 2012;Assor et al., 2004), Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014;Curran, 2018). Given that PCR has been considered as a "domain-specific" socializing strategy for bolstering contingent introjection (Assor, 2012;Assor et al., 2014;Ryan, Deci, & Grolnick, 1995), it is plausible that context-specific PCR might serve as a contextual cue that elicits predominantly insecure child-parent attachment schema in a given context. "ABPD" may be another mechanism by which parents execute "context-specific" maladaptive socializing practices in children's achievement domains (especially in sport) (e.g., Tofler & Butterbaugh, 2005;. ...
Scant research to date has explored the possibility of context‐specific variation in attachment security within a given relationship. In this paper, two cross‐sectional studies were designed (1) to develop and validate context‐specific attachment scales in Traditional‐Chinese and (2) to explore variations in attachment security within a given parental relationship but between the contexts of sport and academics, relating them to global attachment patterns and indicators of psychological well‐being. Results indicated that Taiwanese youth can and do perceive contextual variation within a given parental relationship. However, the relationship between such contextual variation and psychological outcomes was complex. Contextual variation may be a meaningful and useful way to explore and think about within‐parent attachment fluctuation.
... On the one hand, PACPR appears fairly benign to quite a number of researchers and has been recommended in several parents' guide books (e.g., Frost, 2005;McGraw, 2004). On the other hand, recent research in the field of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) has substantiated that PACPR is associated with serious psychological costs regarding students' motivational and emotional functioning (Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014). ...
... Moreover, our results showed the indirect effect of perceived PACPR on test anxiety to be significant, over and above direct negative effects of perceived PACNR. This is particularly important because previous studies have found that students' perceptions of parental conditional positive and negative regard are remarkably correlated (Assor et al., 2014). Accordingly, one could argue that empirical findings on the negative consequences of perceived PACPR emerge due to a spurious correlation, as perceived PACPR typically goes along with perceived PACNR. ...
Parental academic conditional positive regard (PACPR) is a socializing strategy in which parents provide more affection, esteem, and attention than usual when their child studies hard and achieves in school. It is favored and recommended as a positive parenting strategy, whereas empirical findings increasingly document serious psychological costs of this well-intended strategy. PACPR can be conceptualized as an important antecedent of test anxiety. However, no study has tested this assumption yet, and research on antecedents of test anxiety is generally scarce. Based on assumptions from self-determination and control-value theory, we conducted one study with secondary students (trait test anxiety, N = 653, M = 13 years) and one study with university students (state test anxiety and test performance, N = 166, M = 20 years), to examine distal (i.e., perceived PACPR) and proximal antecedents (i.e., contingent self-esteem as value cognition; ability self-concept as control cognition) of students’ test anxiety. In line with our hypotheses, path analyses revealed a positive relation between perceived PACPR and test anxiety, and that contingent self-esteem mediated this relation. Ability self-concept showed inverse relations with test anxiety, which, in turn, predicted poorer test performance in Study 2. Unexpectedly, we found no interactive effect of contingent self-esteem and ability self-concept. Our results extend prior research on psychological costs of PACPR to the field of achievement emotions, and suggest that the detrimental effects of perceived PACPR on test anxiety can be generalized onto students with high and low ability self-concept, respectively. Possible reasons of our findings, and practical implications, are discussed.
... With regard to CNR in particular, we expect it to negatively affect self-esteem, affect and motivation. Indeed, CNR may be considered a subcomponent of the broader construct of psychological control, also comprising guilt induction and shaming (Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014). According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) psychological control is assumed to thwart adolescents' needs for autonomy and relatedness and to result in negative affect towards its provider. ...
... CNR may be expected to thwart adolescents' needs in similar ways and, thus, result in enhanced negative effects on self-esteem, affect and motivation following failure (Cordeiro, Paixao, Lens, Lacante, & Luyckx, 2016;Kanat-Maymon et al., 2015;Roth et al., 2009;Wouters et al., 2014). With regard to the effects of CPR, studies have shown retrospective reports of CPR in close relationships to have psychological costs (Assor et al., 2014;Kanat-Maymon et al., 2015). However, in the short term showing more personal appreciation after success may be expected to have (temporary) positive effects on the recipients' self-esteem, affect, and motivation (Assor, Roth, & Deci, 2004). ...
Conditional regard refers to regard dependent upon the receiver's fulfillment of certain expectations. Using an experimental design, we examined the effect of conditional negative and positive regard on well-being and eagerness to learn in university freshmen (N = 131). Participants experienced either failure or success followed by conditional vs. unconditional regard. As expected, success and failure had opposite effects on well-being and eagerness to learn. More importantly, there was an increase in positive affect following success in the context of conditional regard, but not in the context of unconditional regard. Additionally, the decrease in positive affect following failure was more pronounced when accompanied by conditional as compared to unconditional regard. Conditional regard thus magnified the impact of success versus failure on students' emotional experiences.
... In fact, a parent can provide a lot of positive feedback without the child feeling as though that feedback is contingent upon their attaining specific outcomes or complying with any sort of demands. Rather, feedback is likely to only be perceived as conditionally regarding when it is directly associated with a person's character or traits (Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014). Upon inspecting the parenting styles that participants provided, there is potential for this misunderstanding to have weakened the activated experience (e.g., if a person wrote about a goal where their mother gave them non-contingent positive feedback, they would be less likely to experience the hypothesized effects of conditional regard, therefore attenuating the conditionrelevant experience). ...
... Another, slightly different, conceptualization of conditional regard is taken from the behaviourist perspective, whereby parents may use reinforcement or punishment to control their child's behaviour (Assor et al., 2014). From the behaviourist perspective, the notion of providing more attention would likely not be limited to compliance, as suggested by Roth and colleagues (2009). ...
According to the dual valuing process model (Grouzet, 2013), the social context can either facilitate the natural human tendency to pursue intrinsic goals, or thwart it by promoting extrinsic goals. Congruent with this idea, research in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) suggests that parental autonomy support (PAS) is associated with the development of intrinsic goals, whereas more controlling parenting styles, such as conditional regard (PCR), are expected to facilitate extrinsic goals. Results from two preliminary studies suggest that mothers tended to use PAS to promote goals that were more intrinsic, as well young adults were more likely to autonomously internalize these goals, whereas PCR was associated with more extrinsic goals. In the current study, we sought to extend these findings by including a general measure of perceived parenting style, as well as asking participants to recall a goal that was promoted during adolescence (i.e., 13-16 years). Results from this study indicate no difference in the type of goal that was promoted or the way in which it was internalized when mothers used either autonomy support or conditional regard, over and above general parenting style. Results will be further discussed with respect to parenting, self-determination theory, and the dual valuing process model.
... Thus, many parenting and relationship guidance books suggest that people may benefit from receiving more attention and affection when they meet another's (e.g., parent , teacher, partner) standards (e.g., Latham, 1994; Sears, Maccoby , & Levin, 1957; Steinberg, 2004). However, research grounded in self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) has questioned the benefits that CPR confers and documented some detrimental effects of parental CPR on children's motivational regulation, performance quality, and well-being (e.g., Assor et al., 2014; Kanat-Maymon, Roth, Assor, & Reizer, 2012). Given the lack of agreement concerning the desirability of CPR as an interpersonal power strategy, there appears to be a clear need for research on CPR. ...
... In other words, the recipients of CNR are likely to feel that the use of this strategy undermines their ability to choose and direct their behavior autonomously and also risks potential rejection. A number of studies that explored the consequences of CPR and CNR substantiated the SDT's perspective on conditional regard (Assor et al., 2014; Kanat-Maymon et al., 2012). With regard to parent-child relationships, Assor et al. (2004) demonstrated that perceptions of parental conditional regard among American college students in four different domains were related to their perception of their parents as disapproving and led to resentment toward their parents. ...
Research on Conditional Positive Regard (CPR) has shown that this seemingly benign practice has maladaptive correlates when used by parents. However, there is no research on the correlates of this practice in romantic relationships, nor on the processes mediating its effects. Building on the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), three studies tested the hypothesis that perceived CPR impairs relationship quality, partly because it undermines the fulfillment of the basic psychological needs for autonomy and relatedness.
Study 1(n=125) examined perceived CPR and relationship quality across four relationship targets: mother, father, romantic partner, and best friend. Study 2 involving romantic partners (n=142), examined whether needs fulfillment mediated the association between perceived CPR and relationship quality. Study 3, involving romantic dyads (n=85), included also partner' reports on CPR.
Across the three studies, CPR was linked with poor relationship quality between relationships, between people, and dyadic partners. Moreover, results of Study 2 and Study 3 revealed that the inverse association between perceived CPR and relationship quality was mediated by dissatisfaction of autonomy but not relatedness.
Despite its seemingly benign nature, CPR is detrimental to relationship quality, partly because it thwarts the basic need for autonomy. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... Bandura 2001), it may be problematic because it can incite people to act in ways that do not reflect their personal values. This can result in people choosing behaviors because the failure to do so can lead to anxiety, guilt, or loss of self-esteem (introjected tasks; Ryan et al. 1993), which in turn lowers performance quality and well-being (e.g., Assor et al. 2014;Kanat-Maymon et al. 2012) and inhibits both autonomous development and actualization of the self (cf. Maslow 1968). ...
... (3) The association between parental conditional regard and introjected regulation will be stronger for positive regard than for negative regard. This hypothesis is based on the theoretical distinction between positive and negative regard (Assor, 2018;Assor & Tal, 2012;Assor et al., 2014), with positive conditional regard perhaps being closer than negative conditional regard to the unconditional acceptance that children desire. As both positive and negative conditional regard may influence contingent self-esteem (Assor, 2018), no differential strength of associations was predicted for this outcome. ...
Introduction
Parental conditional regard involves parents giving or withdrawing affection and approval, depending on children's and adolescents' compliance with parental expectations, to shape behaviors and traits. Research grounded in self‐determination theory suggests parental conditional regard harms psychological development. Using self‐determination theory as a theoretical foundation for investigating outcomes associated with parental conditional regard, the present study consolidated meta‐analytic associations between parental conditional regard and four theoretically important individual difference correlates: introjected self‐regulation, contingent self‐esteem, depressive symptoms, and relatedness.
Methods
Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic literature search was conducted using the PsycINFO, ProQuest, and EBSCO databases for English‐language, peer‐reviewed published studies and unpublished studies. Eligible studies reported an association between parental conditional regard and the four theoretically derived correlates or another correlate of interest in pre‐adolescent children, adolescents, or young adults. The results were based on a random‐effects model for meta‐analyses and the Q statistic for moderator analyses.
Results
Across 31 samples in total, greater parental conditional regard was significantly associated with more introjected regulation (r = .33), contingent self‐esteem (r = .29), and level of depressive symptoms (r = .22); and less relatedness (r = −.24). Moderator results for parental conditional regard type found parental conditional regard's association with introjected regulation was significantly stronger for studies measuring giving regard (parental conditional positive regard) than withdrawing regard (parental conditional negative regard). The association of parental conditional regard with depressive symptoms was significantly stronger for studies measuring parental conditional negative regard than parental conditional positive regard.
Conclusions
The meta‐analytic results provide theoretical and empirical support for the connections between self‐determination and the impact of parental conditional regard.
... Indeed, when psychologically controlling parents notice that their adolescent complies with the parental requests, they may react in a loving and affectionate way and provide positive feedback about adolescent's behavior. Such an increase in parental love and positive feedback after adolescents display desired behavior, which may reflect conditional positive regard, may represent a threat to adolescents' psychological needs only in the long run (Assor et al., 2014). Possibly then, compulsive compliance is especially maladaptive when it is used on a more general and persistent basis. ...
To explain why there is substantial heterogeneity in the degree to which adolescents suffer from psychologically controlling parenting, it is important to take into account adolescents’ active contribution to the socialization processes and to their coping with controlling parenting in particular. This study aimed to examine whether adolescents’ coping with controlling parenting (i.e., oppositional defiance, compulsive compliance, negotiation, and accommodation) moderated associations between psychologically controlling parenting, adolescents’ experiences of psychological need frustration, and their internalizing and externalizing problems. A total of 161 adolescents (M age = 15.56 years; SD age = 1.14; 61.5% female) and either their mother or their father participated in 7-day diary study. As expected, accommodation played an adaptive role, thereby buffering within-person (daily) associations between psychologically controlling parenting, adolescents’ need frustration, and subsequent problems. Unexpectedly, compulsive compliance played a similar adaptive role. Overall, the moderating effects of coping were rather limited, suggesting that adolescents’ coping can alter the daily negative consequences associated with psychologically controlling parenting only to a certain extent.
... Specifically, parents have been observed offering either more or less affection, accessibility, and recognition, depending upon how the child performs and meets their expectations. This is known as parental conditional regard (PCR; Assor et al., 2014). Parents' subjective evaluation of their children's successes and failures has the potential to serve as influential "contextual cues" that shape children's IWMs, and therefore their attachment beliefs within a given context (Lai and Carr, 2018). ...
The aim of this research was to examine whether attachment relationships to significant others, such as to parents and/or sports coaches, enable thriving and competition performance within sport. Two studies employing cross-sectional and prospective designs were carried out across different samples of athletes of varied skill levels and sports. In Study 1, we found athletes’ attachment to their sports coach was significantly associated with athlete thriving and mediated by psychological needs satisfaction. Results of Study 2 found that athletes’ secure attachment to their mother and/or father positively predicted the experience of thriving at the competition while athletes’ insecure attachment did not predict thriving. Furthermore, athletes’ attachment to both mother and father did not predict competition performance. Together, these two studies acknowledge the significant role that athletes’ secure attachment relationships with parents and coaches play in facilitating thriving in athletes. These findings have significant implications for research and practice.
... On the other hand, conditional regard (PCR) involves acceptance, respect, and closeness if only expectations or demands are met and is related to a higher level of focusing on gain. Success-oriented practices toward issues such as the academic domain support a competitive worldview (Assor et al., 2014). ...
The current study examined the intergenerational similarity of middle adolescents’ and emerging adults’ social value orientations (SVO) using different variable-centered and person-centered approaches and whether perceived parental autonomy support and conditional regard would play a role in similarity. The sample consisted of 218 middle adolescents (ages 14–15, eighth and ninth grades) and 219 emerging adults (ages 19–25, attending university) and their mothers and fathers in a metropolitan area of Ankara, Turkey (N = 437 triads). Our findings revealed that mother-father similarity was higher than parent-child similarity. Results indicated more similarities between emerging adults-parents than adolescents-parents, and autonomy support contributed to the similarity. Higher levels of maternal and paternal SVO has linked with prosociality of offsprings. Besides, when mothers and fathers were incongruent in reporting SVO, the emerging adults’ probability of having prosocial SVO was lower.
... Specifically, this study investigates three hypotheses: (1) Mothers' achievementoriented controlling behaviour towards their toddlers will predict children's helplessness-oriented coping with failure three years later. (2) Mothers' prenatal orientation to use conditional regard to promote children's achievements (i.e., the provision of more affection and esteem when the child complies with parental expectations, and less affection and esteem when the child does not comply, Assor et al., 2014) will predict mothers' postnatal controlling behaviour. (3) The effects of mothers' prenatal orientation to use conditional regard and of mothers' postnatal controlling behaviour will emerge even after controlling for the effects of infants' temperament, specifically infants' frustration-reactivity disposition. ...
This special issue on Prevention and Social-Emotional Development in Childhood and Adolescence aimed to outline the growing conceptual and empirical connections between promotion of SED and the prevention of problem behaviour in children and adolescents. The general goal was to present studies that explore the meeting point between preventive interventions and different dimensions of SED while taking into account possible differences in age, culture, community, socio-economic status, and life circumstances. The studies included in the current Special Issue encourage progress along this path and demonstrate how SEL holds vital relevance for children’s development and for societal and community well-being.
... The former reflects a withdrawal of affection when children fail to comply with parent expectations, whereas the latter involves a promise of affection when children do comply with parent expectations. Such a distinction may prove useful when examining the development of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism in future research (Assor, Kanat-Maymon & Roth, 2014). ...
Theory and research indicate that perfectionism can be intergenerationally transmitted by, among other things, social learning (e.g., parental imitation) and controlling forms of parental socialization. The current study extends this literature by combining and testing these ideas in a mediation model whereby child reported self-oriented and socially prescribed is the result of both parent reported self-oriented and socially prescribed per-fectionism and child perceptions of parental conditional regard. One hundred and fifteen parent-child dyads (parent Mage = 46.93 years, SD = 5.41; child Mage = 14.11 years, SD = 1.87) completed a standardised questionnaire. Path analysis revealed that child self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism were positively predicted by parent self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism and that these relationships were accounted for, in part, by child perceptions of parental conditional regard. Our findings indicate that combining social learning and parent socialization perspectives provide a fuller understanding of the intergenerational transmission of perfectionism.
... Future research may examine the effects of these practices in young children. Lastly, research may examine socializing practices promoting the development of the unauthentic inner compass (see Assor 2018; and a large body of research on processes promoting introjection; Assor et al. 2014;Ryan and Deci 2017). ...
Ample research has demonstrated the benefits of basic autonomy supportive practices (e.g., perspective-taking, choice, minimizing-control) for adolescents’ psychosocial functioning. Herein, we posit that there is one additional autonomy supportive practice with specific importance for adolescents’ development: Reflective Authentic Inner Compass facilitation. This practice is posited to contribute to the formation of an Authentic Inner-Compass: An action-guiding schema, informing youth on what they truly value, need, and want, and consisting of two parts: (1) A foundation including authentic values, interests, and life-aspirations, and (2) Autonomous commitment to future-oriented goals and decisions, based on the foundation. A longitudinal study of 18–19 year-old Israeli adolescents showed that perceived Reflective Authentic Inner Compass Facilitation by instructors uniquely predicted (beyond Basic Autonomy Support) adolescents’ experience of having an authentic inner-compass in the military domain, which then predicted autonomous engagement in plan-promoting activities. A cross-sectional study with 16−18 year-old Belgian adolescents showed that perceived Reflective Authentic Inner Compass Facilitation by parents uniquely predicted (beyond Basic Autonomy Support) the experience of having an authentic inner-compass, which then related positively to well-being. Implications of the notion of the authentic inner compass for the conceptualization of autonomy support and the experience of autonomy are discussed.
... Future research would do well, as suggested by Sedikides et al. (2019), to examine whether thwarting of the basic psychological needs represents a mediating mechanism explaining the role of conditional regard in narcissism. Conditional regard threatens children's psychological needs, in particular because the need for relatedness is pitted against the need for autonomy (Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014;. In turn, the development of narcissism may represent a defensive strategy to cope with these threatened needs. ...
This special issue brings together seven contributions which, in spite of the diversity of the topics and theories being covered, all make use of Self‐Determination Theory (SDT) as their guiding, complementary, or contrasting framework. In this commentary we first reflect on how SDT has developed organically and conservatively from “within,” based on emerging patterns of evidence, as well through ongoing challenges from other models and frameworks. We then discuss each of the various contributions to this special issue, addressing themes that include SDT's breadth of methods, and its relevance to topics such as narcissism, wisdom, individual differences, big‐five traits, and the neuropsychology of motivation, among others. Across these discussions we highlight fruitful avenues for research and cross‐fertilization across the fields of personality, development, motivation, and neuroscience. At the same time, we counter some claims made about SDT, and forward certain cautions regarding the integration of SDT and other personality frameworks and models. We conclude by revisiting the value of broad theory for coordinating complex research findings across levels of analysis, and perhaps more importantly, for pointing us to the right questions.
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... vgl. Assor, Kanat-Maymon & Roth, 2014). Bei der Erfassung sollte also möglichst ausgeschlossen werden, dass bedingte Wertschätzung mit personenunabhängiger Verstärkung verwechselt wird, indem die Items entsprechend spezifisch formuliert werden und sich immer explizit auf die Person beziehen ("Wenn ich mich ärgere und dies zeige, spüre ich, dass meine Mutter mich deswegen weniger wertschätzt."). ...
Zusammenfassung. Elterliche bedingte Wertschätzung ist eine weit verbreitete Erziehungsstrategie zur Förderung erwünschten kindlichen Verhaltens im Lern- und Leistungskontext und im Kontext der Emotionsregulation. Hierbei bringen Eltern ihren Kindern mehr Wertschätzung als üblich entgegen, wenn diese erwünschtes Verhalten zeigen, und entziehen Wertschätzung, wenn diese unerwünschtes Verhalten zeigen. Da bedingte Wertschätzung sowohl mit der psychosozialen Anpassung (z. B. dem Selbstwert und der Emotionsregulation) als auch mit der Schulleistung negative Zusammenhänge aufweist, ist es notwendig über ein diagnostisches Instrument zu verfügen, mit dem elterliche bedingte Wertschätzung erfasst werden kann. In der vorliegenden Studie wurde erstmalig eine deutsche Adaptation der Parental Conditional Regard Scale (PCR; Roth, Assor, Niemiec, Ryan & Deci, 2009 ) zwei Stichproben von Jugendlichen (N = 144; N = 293) im Alter von 10 bis 17 Jahren vorgelegt. Für die PCR-D zeigten sich die erwartete Faktorenstruktur, sehr gute interne Konsistenzen und akzeptable Retest-Reliabilitäten. Die PCR-D korrelierte erwartungskonform mit konstruktnahen Kriterien wie dem Selbstwert, der Emotionsregulation sowie Schulnoten und erwies sich als messinvariant bei Jungen und Mädchen.
... When parents' vary their affect toward children in response to children's performance-for example, decrease their affection when children fail and increase it when children succeed-there are psychological costs for children (e.g., Assor & Tal, 2012;Hokoda & Fincham, 1995;Roth, Assor, Niemiec, Ryan, & Deci, 2009). In essence, when parents' affect in interacting with children is contingent on children's performance, children come to understand that parents' regard for them depends on their performance, which can undermine children's psychological adjustment (Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2014). ...
This research examined whether American and Chinese mothers' tendencies to base their worth on children's performance contributes to their affective responses to children's performance. Study 1 used daily interviews to assess mothers' warmth (vs. hostility) and children's school performance (N = 197; Mage = 12.81 years). In Study 2, such affect was observed in the laboratory following children's manipulated performance on cognitive problems (N = 128; Mage = 10.21 years). The more mothers based their worth on children's performance, the more their warmth (vs. hostility) decreased when children failed in Study 1. This pattern was evident only among Chinese mothers in Study 2. In both studies, child-based worth did not contribute to mothers' affective responses to children's success.
... The fulfilment of these needs leads to shaping a person with self-determination, while denying or preventing the fulfilment of these needs damages the quality of the motivation and sometimes decreases its strength. Therefore, encouraging motivation among students is important, essential, and critical in educational processes (Assor et al. 2014). However, motivation alone is not sufficient in order to achieve positive academic achievements. ...
... Bandura 2001), it may be problematic because it can incite people to act in ways that do not reflect their personal values. This can result in people choosing behaviors because the failure to do so can lead to anxiety, guilt, or loss of self-esteem (introjected tasks; Ryan et al. 1993), which in turn lowers performance quality and well-being (e.g., Assor et al. 2014;Kanat-Maymon et al. 2012) and inhibits both autonomous development and actualization of the self (cf. Maslow 1968). ...
Conditional positive regard (CPR) is providing warmth, affection, acceptance, and the like when certain conditions, standards, and/or expectations are met. This entry discusses the reasons for using CPR and the disadvantages and deleterious effects that arise from using it. Rogerian and self-determination theory perspectives on CPR are briefly discussed, as is effective uses of positive regard.
... The fulfilment of these needs leads to shaping a person with self-determination, while denying or preventing the fulfilment of these needs damages the quality of the motivation and sometimes decreases its strength. Therefore, encouraging motivation among students is important, essential, and critical in educational processes (Assor et al. 2014). However, motivation alone is not sufficient in order to achieve positive academic achievements. ...
The goal of the research was to examine the contribution of learning strategies as a mediator for motivation and a sense of achievement in a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC), among students who participate in a unique program in Israel, called “Academy Online – MOOCs in the Israeli Education System”. The goal of the program was to integrate an innovative distant teaching-learning strategy in science and technology into the education system. 163 students participated in the study, of whom 70 were students in an astronomy-related sciences program, and 93 were students in mechatronics-robotics course. At the end of the course, the students answered a Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), and a Sense of Achievement in a MOOC questionnaire, which was based on the principles of the pedagogical model of the program. The findings of the SEM path analysis show that the variable ‘Learning Strategies’ is a significant mediator for motivation and a sense of academic achievement in a MOOC for both groups, and a stronger mediator for the astronomy-related sciences students. It may be concluded that using a variety of learning strategies in a curriculum which integrates a MOOC affects the sense of academic achievement. It is clear that social learning strategies and self-regulated learning, which were a unique layer in the pedagogical layout of the program, have assisted in promoting the learning in MOOCs.
Over 750 studies have examined parental psychological control (PPC) in different cultures. However, the conceptualization of PPC remains unclear, and operationalizations of PPC have been inconsistent. Herein we review and refine conceptual models of PPC, focusing on intrusiveness and emotional manipulation as two core facets of PPC. Guided by Social Domain Theory, we relate intrusiveness to the boundaries of the child’s personal domain, which can vary by culture and age group. We describe how our conceptual model of PPC can clarify the disagreement in the literature about whether PPC may be arguably less damaging in interdependent cultures than it is in independent cultures or not; operationalizing PPC as mainly emotional manipulation – inducing guilt – might have contributed to this argument, and testing PPC with both intrusiveness and emotional manipulation can show both universal and culture specific consequences of PPC. Next, we describe how cultural norms and cultural values can influence how parents and children may interpret intrusiveness and emotional manipulation. We outline how our conceptual model promotes examining developmental continuity of PPC, which will expand the literature that has mainly emphasized PPC in adolescence. We conclude with recommendations for applying our conceptual model in future studies.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a broad theory of psychological growth and wellness that has revolutionized how we think about human motivation and the driving forces behind personality development. SDT focuses on people’s basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness and how social environments that support these needs foster more volition, vitality, and full functioning. SDT has supplied the basis for new and more effective practices in parenting, education, business, sport, healthcare, and other areas of life, fostering higher-quality motivation, engagement, and satisfaction. Drawing on over four decades of evidence-based research and application, The Oxford Handbook of Self-Determination Theory delivers a truly integrative volume by the top researchers and experts within the field of SDT. Edited by SDT co-founder Richard M. Ryan, this Handbook not only provides the theory’s historical and scientific underpinnings but also draws together the latest research and insights, covering topics from the social and biological underpinnings of motivation and wellness to practical applications in all aspects of life. This volume will be an invaluable resource for both researchers and practitioners, as well as any student of human nature, with practical research and guidance.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a broad theory of psychological growth and wellness that has revolutionized how we think about human motivation and the driving forces behind personality development. SDT focuses on people’s basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness and how social environments that support these needs foster more volition, vitality, and full functioning. SDT has supplied the basis for new and more effective practices in parenting, education, business, sport, healthcare, and other areas of life, fostering higher-quality motivation, engagement, and satisfaction. Drawing on over four decades of evidence-based research and application, The Oxford Handbook of Self-Determination Theory delivers a truly integrative volume by the top researchers and experts within the field of SDT. Edited by SDT co-founder Richard M. Ryan, this Handbook not only provides the theory’s historical and scientific underpinnings but also draws together the latest research and insights, covering topics from the social and biological underpinnings of motivation and wellness to practical applications in all aspects of life. This volume will be an invaluable resource for both researchers and practitioners, as well as any student of human nature, with practical research and guidance.
The current study examines the potential role of parenting practices posited to affect youths' need for autonomy in youths' acceptance of academic dishonesty. Results of Study 1, employing concurrent reports of 127 pairs of high school students and their parents in Mainland China, support the hypotheses that parental basic autonomy support correlates with autonomy need satisfaction, which is then associated with lower acceptance of academic dishonesty both directly and via agreement with parents' values. Study 2 extends the investigation by examining 304 Hong Kong college students longitudinally, with additional parenting practices measured. Results indicate that the parental practices of basic autonomy support, inherent value demonstration, and (absence of) conditional regard correlate with autonomy need satisfaction, which then predict reduced acceptance of academic dishonesty. Overall, this research demonstrates the importance of parental support for youths' need for autonomy for reducing students' acceptance of academic dishonesty.
‘Youth as Active Agents in Prevention’ is a project based on a Positive Youth Development framework that enables young university students to be involved in prevention and take an active role. The project provides them with training and practical experience in implementing an evidence-based prevention programme (PCF 12–16)—a family-focused strategy for the selective prevention of drug abuse in vulnerable adolescents. This chapter presents (i) a training protocol to boost students’ skills and proficiency for future professional relationships with other young people, and (ii) a pilot study on skills and proficiency levels so as to develop more meaningful learning strategies in designing more effective prevention activities. The students' proficiency profiles provide information on their strengths so that training can be improved to empower young university students, especially in task development and management. Proficiency in interpersonal and intrapersonal skills and environmental aspects were identified as strengths and students achieved notable improvements in their understanding of prevention content, their ability to use it, and their awareness of its importance. The participation of young students in the project contributed to their academic, professional and personal development, in addition to the awareness of the project's potential for them to act as role models for adolescents.
p>The purpose of this study is to explore motivations mediated by the integrated learning strategies of Communication Information Technology (ICT) for improving the technology leadership of school principals by moderating the gender variable in the virtual class seesaw during the training of strengthening the competency of the Principal of the Kendal Vocational School in 2019. This research was conducted using quantitative approach using cross-sectional design. Path analysis is used to determine the effect of motivation on the principal's leadership through learning strategies with gender moderator factors. Vocational school principals who participated in this study as many as 30 participants who participated in the training of strengthening the competency of vocational school principals. At the end of the training, the principals answered the motivation questionnaire, learning strategies and principals' leadership. The findings from the path analysis show that the learning strategy variable is a significant mediator in the relationship between the independent motivation variable and the dependent variable in the improvement of the principal's technological leadership where the sex factor as a moderator is equally strong. It can be concluded that motivation by the use of learning strategies in the principal's training curriculum that integrates ICT through seesaw virtual classes can improve the technology leadership of SMK headmasters for all genders indirectly. The findings from the path analysis show that the learning strategy variable is a significant mediator in the relationship between the independent motivation variable and the dependent variable in the improvement of the principal's technological leadership where the sex factor as a moderator is equally strong. It can be concluded that motivation by the use of learning strategies in the principal's training curriculum that integrates ICT through seesaw virtual classes can improve the technology leadership of SMK headmasters for all genders indirectly. The findings from the path analysis show that the learning strategy variable is a significant mediator in the relationship between the independent motivation variable and the dependent variable in the improvement of the principal's technological leadership where the sex factor as a moderator is equally strong. It can be concluded that motivation by the use of learning strategies in the principal's training curriculum that integrates ICT through seesaw virtual classes can improve the technology leadership of SMK headmasters for all genders indirectly.
Keywords: Motivation, learning strategies, technology leadership, mediators,
moderator
</p
This chapter focuses on a distinction between two conceptualizations of autonomy and the relevance of this distinction for adolescent development. Specifically, we discuss theory and research dealing with autonomy-as-independence (i.e., the degree to which adolescents are self-reliant and make decisions without input from others) and autonomy-as-volition (i.e., the degree to which adolescents regulate their behavior based on deeply held values, preferences, and interests). We argue that this distinction helps to provide nuanced answers to controversial questions related to adolescent autonomy. Specifically, we revisit six questions about adolescent autonomy in light of the distinction between independence and volition. Throughout the chapter, we highlight the complex interplay between the two conceptualizations of autonomy and we call for future research addressing their combined and interactive role in adolescent development.
Im Kapitel „Motivation in Schule und Hochschule“ wird gezeigt, dass motivationale Variablen das Lernverhalten von Schülern und Studierenden und in der Folge deren Lernleistung ganz wesentlich beeinflussen. Dabei ist dieser Einfluss sowohl vor der Initiierung als auch im Lernprozess selbst gegeben. Die beiden wichtigsten proximalen Determinanten des Lernverhaltens sind (Erfolgs-)Erwartung und (Aufgaben-)Wert. Diese sind abhängig von Überzeugungen, die Lernende in Bezug auf ihr Fähigkeitsselbstkonzept, ihren Selbstwert und ihre Ziele haben, sowie von früheren leistungsbezogenen Erfahrungen bzw. deren kausaler Erklärung und begleitenden Affekten. Als distale Determinanten spielen die Verhaltensweisen von Sozialisationspersonen und das kulturelle Milieu eine wichtige Rolle. Es werden mögliche pädagogische Anwendungen beschrieben, deren Beachtung Lehrenden hilft, ihr (Unterrichts-)Verhalten so zu regulieren, dass es sich positiv auf Lernverhalten und Lernerfolg der Lernenden auswirkt.
This chapter illustrates the significant influence of motivational variables on the learning behavior and performances of students. This influence is present before and during the learning process. The two most important proximal determinants of learning behavior are expectancy (of success) and value (of the task). Both depend on students’ beliefs about their academic self-concept, self-worth, and goals as well past experiences with achievement situations and their causal explanations and associated affect. The behavior of influential socializing others and students’ cultural background are important distal determinants. The chapter describes potential pedagogical recommendations for teachers on how to regulate their behavior in a way that can benefit their students.
In this paper we summarise the basic tenets of Self-Determination Theory (SDT). As a special occasion for this overview, we review two recently published edited books on relationship motiv ation (WEINSTEIN 2014) and work motivation (GAGNE 2014) because both of them rely extensively on SDT concepts and principles while they extend the conceptual frames of the theory to several directions and applied fields. Furthermore, we argue that the basic propositions of SDT may contribute to the emerging field of the so called Relationship Science, the continuously forming interdisciplinary knowledge base on close relationships. On the other hand we propose that SDT could and should be further enriched by broader system theoretical approaches. Therefore we outline the evolutionary theoretical principles of human agency as represented in Niche Construction Theory and its applications in social sciences. While a complete theoretical integration exceeds the frames of a review, we draw a series of conclusions that may point in this direction. © 2017 Semmelweis University Institute of Mental Health, Budapest.
Research on conditional positive regard (CPR) and conditional negative regard (CNR) has shown that these practices are associated with some maladaptive qualities of romantic relationships. The current study investigated the associations between CPR and CNR and romantic relationship satisfaction using a daily diary methodology. A multilevel analysis of a sample of 80 individuals revealed that both CPR and CNR were negatively linked to relationship satisfaction at the between-person level. However, at the within-level, CPR was positively linked to relationship satisfaction, whereas CNR showed a negative association. The findings are discussed within self-determination theory (E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 2000) and highlight how motivating one's partner by providing positive regard may be satisfying in the short term but controlling in the long run.
Narcissists are thought to display extreme affective reactions to positive and negative information about the self. Two experiments were conducted in which high- and low-narcissistic individuals, as defined by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), completed a series of tasks in which they both succeeded and failed. After each task, participants made attributions for their performance and reported their moods. High-NPI participants responded with greater changes in anxiety, anger, and self-esteem. Low self-complexity was examined, but it neither mediated nor moderated affective responses. High-NPI participants tended to attribute initial success to ability, leading to more extreme anger responses and greater self-esteem reactivity to failure. A temporal sequence model linking self-attribution and emotion to narcissistic rage is discussed.
The authors examined whether stability and level of self-esteem interact with daily hassles in predicting severity of depressive symptoms. As predicted, Time 2 depression scores (with Time 1 scores controlled) were highest among individuals with unstable self-esteem who reported considerable daily hassles. By contrast, self-esteem level did not interact with daily hassles to predict Time 2 depressive symptoms. These findings held even after negative self-concept items were eliminated from the depressive symptom inventories. Additional analyses revealed that self-esteem stability accounted for variance independent of the tendency to over generalize following failure or negative event attributional style. These findings support the contention that unstable self-esteem reflects fragile feelings of self-worth that exacerbate depressive symptoms under certain circumstances.
A process model for conceptualizing identity formation that is developmental, contextual, and life-span in scope is proposed. The framework is consistent with an Eriksonian approach to identity but focuses more specifically on the process of identity exploration. The framework consists of four major components: individual characteristics brought to bear on the identity process, contexts of development, the identity process in specific domains (e.g., occupation, ideology, values, relationships), and interdependencies among the identity domains. Current research in each area is briefly reviewed, and recommendations for future research are outlined.
This study examines the relationships among hostility, grandiosity, dominance, narcissism, and self-esteem in samples of 84, 57, and 300 Ss. The intercorrelations among various self-report and observer ratings of these constructs suggest that (1) hostility, grandiosity, dominance, and narcissism are substantially intercorrelated and form a coherent system of constructs and (2) the common variance in this system of constructs significantly predicts variations in Ss' self-esteem. The notion that some people use grandiosity, dominance, and a more generalized narcissistic personality style to manage their hostility and maintain a sense of positive regard was evaluated using hierarchical analyses. The results of these analyses were consistent with this model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
On the basis of self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), the authors examined whether 2 different types of introjected motivation—an avoidant type aimed at avoiding low self-worth and an approach type aimed at attaining high self-worth—are both associated with a less positive pattern of correlates relative to identified motivation—acting because one identifies with the value of the action. Two studies focusing on the academic and sports domains (N = 1,222) showed that children and adolescents differentiated between the 2 types of introjected motivation. Although introjected avoidance motivation was associated with a more negative pattern of affective and performance correlates than was introjected approach motivation, identified motivation was associated with a much more positive pattern of correlates than both types of introjected motivation. Furthermore, being high on introjected approach motivation did not yield any benefits even when combined with high identified motivation. Results suggest that past findings portraying introjected motivation as being less desirable than identified motivation cannot be ascribed to the avoidance component of introjected motivation. Findings are consistent with the view that even an approach-oriented introjected motivation has very limited benefits when compared with identified motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Maternal perceptions of threat in the environment were examined as concomitants of controlling (vs. autonomy supportive) parenting.
Forty mothers and their third-grade children were videotaped while completing homework-like tasks together. Maternal controlling
(vs. autonomy supportive) behavior was measured both attitudinally by questionnaire, and behaviorally by coding of the videotapes.
Mothers reported on their perceptions of environmental threat (worry, instability, scarcity). Results indicated that perceptions
of threat were positively associated with controlling behaviors exhibited during the tasks, and negatively associated with
children's motivation. Further, the relation between perceived instability and children's motivation was mediated by controlling
parenting. Controlling parenting is associated with parental perceptions of threat and is one pathway through which threat
may be associated with children's achievement goals.
Research on self-esteem has focused almost exclusively on level of trait self-esteem to the neglect of other potentially more important aspects such as the contingencies on which self-esteem is based. Over a century ago, W. James (1890) argued that self-esteem rises and falls around its typical level in response to successes and failures in domains on which one has staked self-worth. We present a model of global self-esteem that builds on James' insights and emphasizes contingencies of self-worth. This model can help to (a) point the way to understanding how self-esteem is implicated in affect, cognition, and self-regulation of behavior, (b) suggest how and when self-esteem is implicated in social problems; (c) resolve debates about the nature and functioning of self-esteem; (d) resolve paradoxes in related literatures, such as why people who are stigmatized do not necessarily have low self-esteem and why self-esteem does not decline with age; and (e) suggest how self-esteem is causally related to depression. In addition, this perspective raises questions about how contingencies of self-worth are acquired and how they change, whether they are primarily a resource or a vulnerability, and whether some people have noncontingent self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
Matching theory is a mathematical account of behavior, many aspects of which have been confirmed in laboratory experiments with nonhuman and human subjects. The theory asserts that behavior is distributed across concurrently available response alternatives in the same proportion that reinforcement is distributed across those alternatives. The theory also asserts that behavior on a single response alternative is a function not only of reinforcement contingent on that behavior, but also of reinforcement contingent on other behaviors and of reinforcement delivered independently of behavior. These assertions constitute important advances in our understanding of the effects of reinforcement on behavior. Evidence from the applied literature suggests that matching theory holds not only in laboratory environments, but also in natural human environments. In addition, the theory has important therapeutic implications. For example, it suggests four new intervention strategies, and it can be used to improve treatment planning and management. Research on matching theory illustrates the progression from laboratory experimentation with nonhuman subjects to therapeutic applications in natural human environments.
This research focuses on offspring's perceptions of their parents' usage of conditional regard and autonomy-supportive practices in response to the offspring's experiences of negative emotion. Participants were 174 college students (60% were females). As predicted from self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), students' perceptions of parents as hinging their regard on students' expression or suppression of negative emotions predicted a maladaptive pattern of emotion regulation and intimacy capacity. In contrast, autonomy-supportive parenting predicted more adaptive emotion regulation and intimacy patterns. Also as predicted, emotion-regulation mode mediated the relations between parental practices and intimacy capacity. The innovative aspect of the study is the finding that parents who use conditional regard to encourage children's expression (sharing) of negative emotions may actually undermine their children's socioemotional capacities.
Theory and research suggest that psychologically controlling parenting can be driven by parental concerns in two different domains, that is, interpersonal closeness and achievement. Three studies addressing this hypothesis are presented. Study 1 provides evidence for the validity of the Dependency-Oriented and Achievement-Oriented Psychological Control Scale (DAPCS), a new measure assessing psychological control in these two domains. Study 2 showed that dependency-oriented and achievement-oriented psychological control were related in expected ways to parental separation anxiety and perfectionism in a sample of mothers and fathers. Finally, Study 3 showed that dependency-oriented and achievement-oriented psychological control were differentially related to middle adolescent dependency and self-criticism and that these personality features act as specific intervening variables between the domain-specific expressions of psychological control and depressive symptoms. It is argued that the distinction between two domain-specific expressions of psychological control may allow for a more intricate analysis of the processes involved in intrusive parenting.
The authors conducted 2 studies of 9th-grade Israeli adolescents (169 in Study 1, 156 in Study 2) to compare the parenting practices of conditional positive regard, conditional negative regard, and autonomy support using data from multiple reporters. Two socialization domains were studied: emotion control and academics. Results were consistent with the self-determination theory model of internalization, which posits that (a) conditional negative regard predicts feelings of resentment toward parents, which then predict dysregulation of negative emotions and academic disengagement; (b) conditional positive regard predicts feelings of internal compulsion, which then predict suppressive regulation of negative emotions and grade-focused academic engagement; and (c) autonomy support predicts sense of choice, which then predicts integrated regulation of negative emotions and interest-focused academic engagement. These findings suggest that even parents' use of conditional positive regard as a socialization practice has adverse emotional and academic consequences, relative to autonomy support.
Theories of internalization typically suggest that self-perceptions of the "causes" of (i.e. reasons for) behavior are differentiated along a continuum of autonomy that contains identifiable gradations. A model of perceived locus of causality (PLOC) is developed, using children's self-reported reasons for acting. In Project 1, external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic types of reasons for achievement-related behaviors are shown to conform to a simplex-like (ordered correlation) structure in four samples. These reason categories are then related to existing measures of PLOC and to motivation. A second project examines 3 reason categories (external, introject, and identification) within the domain of prosocial behavior. Relations with measures of empathy, moral judgement and positive interpersonal relatedness are presented. Finally, the proposed model and conceptualization of PLOC are discussed with regard to intrapersonal versus interpersonal perception, internalization, cause-reason distinctions, and the significance of perceived autonomy in human behavior.
Study 1 examined the extent to which stability and level of self-esteem predicted cognitive and emotional reactions to interpersonal feedback. Among high self-esteem individuals, instability was associated with acceptance and positive emotions following positive feedback but to rejection and defensiveness following negative feedback. Among low self-esteem individuals, instability was unrelated to reactions to positive feedback but was related to less defensiveness and greater acceptance of negative feedback. Study 2 examined the extent to which variability and importance of specific self-evaluations were associated with instability of global self-esteem. Discussion focused on the roles of level and stability of self-esteem in reactions to evaluations and on the nature of self-esteem instability.
A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent, and performance-contingent rewards significantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d = -0.40, -0.36, and -0.28, respectively), as did all rewards, all tangible rewards, and all expected rewards. Engagement-contingent and completion-contingent rewards also significantly undermined self-reported interest (d = -0.15, and -0.17), as did all tangible rewards and all expected rewards. Positive feedback enhanced both free-choice behavior (d = 0.33) and self-reported interest (d = 0.31). Tangible rewards tended to be more detrimental for children than college students, and verbal rewards tended to be less enhancing for children than college students. The authors review 4 previous meta-analyses of this literature and detail how this study's methods, analyses, and results differed from the previous ones.
Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theory has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness--which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy.
Four studies examined associations between E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan's (1985, 2000) construct of autonomy, responses to relationship disagreements, and dissatisfaction after conflict. In Study 1, diary data showed that trait autonomy predicted relationship autonomy, which in turn predicted relative satisfaction after disagreements. In Study 2, trait autonomy predicted relationship autonomy, which was associated with less defensive and more understanding responses to conflict. Studies 3 and 4 examined whether one's partner's relationship autonomy uniquely predicted reported and observed behavior during conflict. Autonomous reasons for being in the relationship (of both self and partner) predicted both reported and observed responses to conflict and feelings of satisfaction.
This study examined associations between changes in sibling relationships and changes in parental differential treatment and corresponding changes in children's adjustment. One hundred thirty-three families were assessed at 3 time points. Parents rated children's externalizing problems, and children reported on sibling relationship quality, parental differential treatment, and depressive symptoms. On average, older siblings were 10, 12, and 16 years old, and younger siblings were 8, 10, and 14 years old at Waves 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Results from hierarchical linear modeling indicated that as sibling relationships improved over time, children's depressive symptoms decreased over time. In addition, as children were less favored over their siblings over time, children's externalizing problems increased over time. Findings highlight the developmental interplay between the sibling context and children's adjustment.
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
In this article, I present a theoretical perspective on the nature of "optimal" self-esteem. One of my major goals is to show that optimal and high self-esteem are different from each other. High self-esteem can be fragile or secure depending upon the extent to which it is defensive or genuine, contingent or true, unstable or stable, and discrepant or congruent with implicit (nonconscious)feelings of self-worth. Optimal self-esteem is characterized by qualities associated with genuine, true, stable, and congruent (with implicit self-esteem) high self-esteem. A second major goal is to present a conceptualization of the construct of authenticity. I propose that authenticity as an individual difference construct may be particularly important in delineating the adaptive features of optimal self-esteem. Authenticity can be characterized as the unobstructed operation of one's true, or core, self in one's daily enterprise. I argue that authenticity has 4 components: awareness, unbiased processing, action, and relational. Initial data pertaining to these components are highly encouraging. Finally, I discuss some implications of the fragile versus secure high self-esteem distinction for narcissism, defensive processing models, and cross-cultural self-esteem perspectives.
Two experiments tested the hypothesis that narcissistic men as defined by the NPI (Narcissistic Personality Inventory; Raskin & Hall, 1979) would self-handicap more than low-NPI individuals because it makes it easy to claim potentially undeserved credit for success. In both experiments, high and low narcissistic men received either response contingent or noncontingent success feedback on a test of intelligence and then provided an opportunity to self-handicap prior to a second evaluation. In both studies, high-NPI men self-handicapped significantly more than low-NPI men regardless of the contingency of the performance feedback. Narcissistic self-handicapping appeared to be motivated by a self-aggrandizing attributional style rather than by self-presentational concerns or the desire to self-enhance. Findings are discussed with regard to the role of self-esteem instability and the motive to self-protect in both narcissism and self-handicapping.
The effect of social reinforcement delivered to target subjects on the attentive behavior of adjacent peers was examined in a classroom setting. In a combined reversal and multiple baseline design, two pairs of mentally retarded children were sequentially exposed to three reinforcement phases. After baseline rates of attentive behavior were obtained, praise was delivered to the target subject in each subject pair for attentive behavior. After a reversal phase, praise was delivered contingently to target subjects for inattentive behavior. In a final phase, contingent praise for attentive behavior was reinstated for the target subjects. Throughout the study, nontarget subjects received no direct reinforcers. The results indicated a vicarious reinforcement effect Reinforcing attentive behavior of target subjects increased this behavior in adjacent peers. However, reinforcing inattentive behavior of target subjects also increased the attentive behavior of adjacent peers. The effects obtained through vicarious reinforcement were considered to reflect the discriminative stimulus properties of reinforcement, which may serve as a cue for the performance of nonreinforced peers.
examine the concept of human autonomy as it relates to both normal and psychopathological development / set forth a definition of autonomy that is informed by philosophical and clinical analyses, and that differentiates it from closely related constructs such as independence and detachment / explore how autonomy is intertwined with the developmental processes of intrinsic motivation, internalization, and emotional integration [and regulation during childhood], paying particular attention to how conditions in the social context either support the motivational and emotional bases of normal development or, alternatively, undermine these bases and contribute to psychopathology
examine how the development of individual autonomy is intertwined with issues in attachment and the development of interpersonal relatedness, and how both autonomy and relatedness represent critical aspects of the development of self / discuss the dynamics of autonomy and relatedness with regard to varied clinical disorders of a psychological nature, which we view as outcomes of nonoptimal developmental antecedents (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
focuses on the processes of acquisition of overt moral actions, without appealing to value principles, developmental-stage notions, or dimensions of sociomoral knowledge / mechanisms that underlie moral action are outlined for pre- and post-language acquisition individuals, and take into account behaviors that are public or private, physical or verbal, and that may denote altruism, empathy, self-sacrifice, sharing, caring, conscience, justice, loyalty, or virtue
in a developmental context, it is shown how the operant-learning paradigm—with its emphasis on action and extrinsic stimuli—can account for both moral behavior and moral rules as joint outcomes of conditioning processes
moral behavior is seen as under the control of nonverbalizable direct contingencies in prelinguistic children, and later, with advances in the child's language skills, much of that behavior is seen as coming under the control of verbalizable explicit rules
our present examination of the acquisition of moral behavior patterns places emphasis on the analysis of functional relations between environmental contingencies on the individual's behavior / focus is on extrinsic stimuli that, when provided contingently on particular response classes, shape, increase or decrease their rate (or any other attribute, like latency, amplitude, or duration) (those stimuli being termed reinforcers or punishers), showing how variations in environmental conditions comprising the social context can affect and control the child's sociomoral behavior in context / emphasis is also placed on the acquisition of rules that become functional for the child's moral behavior (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Achievement behavior in schools can be understood best in terms of students' attempts to maintain a positive self-image. For many students, expending effort is scary because a combination of effort and failure implies low ability. Students have a variety of techniques for avoiding failure, ranging from cheating to setting goals that are so easily achieved that no risk is involved. Although teachers usually reward achievement and punish lack of effort, for many students risking the sense of defeat that comes from trying hard and not succeeding is too daunting. In "Making the grade," Martin Covington extracts powerful educational implications from self-worth theory and other contemporary views that will be useful for educators, parents, and all people concerned with the educational dilemmas we face. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In "Shame: The Underside of Narcissism" Andrew Morrison not only fulfills the promise of Kohut's later theorizing for an intrapsychic elaboration of shame but, in the process, provides a critical history of previous analytic and psychiatric attempts to make sense of this most basic affective experience. Beginning with Freud's own promising but unrealized remarks about shame, Morrison chronicles subsequent writings that addressed, sometimes obliquely, shame phenomena. Separate chapters detail the role of shame in theorizing about the ego ideal and the ideal self; primitive object relations; narcissistic phenomena as they were understood before Kohut; and narcissistic phenomena as they have been reconceptualized through the contributions of self psychology.
The clinical section of the book begins with a detailed clinical case, followed by chapters on manifestations of shame that can also, in certain clinical contexts, function as defenses against shame (e.g., anger, rage, envy, contempt, and depression). Concluding chapters integrate Morrison's ranging understanding of shame phenomena into a clinical typology that will be welcomed by analyst and therapist alike. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)