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Effect of dreams on daytime mood: The effects of gender and personality
Abstract
Even though dreams quite often affect subsequent waking life, the factors which might modulate this type of continuity are poorly understood. Overall, the findings in a sample of 444 participants showed that dream effects on daytime mood were reported by almost all persons to some extent (about 18% of the dreams affected daytime mood) and - as expected - the most influential factors were dream recall frequency, nightmare frequency, and the intensity of positive and negative dream emotions. In addition, thin boundaries and introversion were related to heightened frequency of dream effects on daytime mood. Longitudinal studies using dream diaries might shed light on the question as to whether and how dreams that affect daytime mood are processed by the waking mind (e.g., sharing the dream, thinking about the meaning of the dream) and whether it is beneficial for the dreamer to initiate such processes, even if the mood was negatively affected in the first place.
... Dreams can also influence feelings during the day. Between 44% and 80% of individuals indicate that their dreams sometimes influence their emotions/mood during the day ($2 times/year or at least "rarely"; Kuiken & Sikora, 1993;Pagel & Vann, 1992;Schredl, 2000Schredl, , 2009. The intensity of positive and negative dream emotions as well as dream recall frequency are positively associated with the frequency of dream effects on daytime mood (Schredl, 2009). ...
... Between 44% and 80% of individuals indicate that their dreams sometimes influence their emotions/mood during the day ($2 times/year or at least "rarely"; Kuiken & Sikora, 1993;Pagel & Vann, 1992;Schredl, 2000Schredl, , 2009. The intensity of positive and negative dream emotions as well as dream recall frequency are positively associated with the frequency of dream effects on daytime mood (Schredl, 2009). The percentage of dreams that have a noticeable effect on daytime mood ranges from 18% (Schredl, 2009) to 26% (Schredl & Reinhard, 2010). ...
... The intensity of positive and negative dream emotions as well as dream recall frequency are positively associated with the frequency of dream effects on daytime mood (Schredl, 2009). The percentage of dreams that have a noticeable effect on daytime mood ranges from 18% (Schredl, 2009) to 26% (Schredl & Reinhard, 2010). The emotional valence of the dreams (from highly negative to highly positive) is associated with the valence of the mood on the following day. ...
This article presents the feeling priming theory (FPT) of dreaming. According to the FPT, dreaming favors the motivation to avoid aversive anticipated events and to approach gratifying anticipated events. It is suggested that one component of anticipated emotions—anticipated feelings—is reproduced in dreams. Upon awakening and during the day, these anticipated feelings would remain activated (primed) in memory. Consequently, anticipated emotions would exert a greater influence on avoidance and approach behaviors, mainly through an increase in the intensity of anticipatory feelings (i.e., feelings of fear or hope/desire). This article comprises five main sections. First, the need for a new theory of the function of dreaming is addressed. Second, key constructs of the theory are described, including the constructs of “emotion” and “feeling.” Third, a brief overview of the theory is presented. Fourth, seven hypotheses that constitute the core of the theory are discussed along with supporting evidence. Fifth, an explanation of nightmares based on the proposed theory is offered. The FPT represents an alternative to theories that attribute an emotion regulation function to dreaming. It offers a new perspective on the relationship between dreaming and waking emotions. In particular, the FPT does not label nightmares as dysfunctional. Instead, nightmares and other dysphoric dreams are hypothesized to result from the same processes as normal dreaming.
... Dreams affect waking life and the most frequent type of effect was the influence on daytime mood and the items of the factor "spontaneous reminiscence." The findings of Schredl (2009b) indicated that negative dream emotions affect morning mood to a larger extend than positive dream emotions. Often, the emotions associated with a dream persist throughout the day thereby exerting their effects on mood and behavior during waking life (Kuiken & Sikora, 1993;Schredl, 2009b). ...
... The findings of Schredl (2009b) indicated that negative dream emotions affect morning mood to a larger extend than positive dream emotions. Often, the emotions associated with a dream persist throughout the day thereby exerting their effects on mood and behavior during waking life (Kuiken & Sikora, 1993;Schredl, 2009b). Once recalled a dream is typically shared with other persons. ...
Despite the interest of laypeople in the subject of dreams in Iranian culture, little research has been done in this field. Dreaming is a mental and personal phenomenon, but sharing dream with others is common. This study was administered to 720 participants whose questionnaire responses were analyzed to determine if they told their dreams to others, how much do they share their dreams, whom they told their dreams, what kind of dreams were more told to others, for what purpose and finally, what is the relationship between sharing positive/negative dreams with positive mental health? Findings showed that dream sharing is common and people most shared their dreams with their close persons includes spouse, mother, and friends, respectively. Dreams were mostly shared with the purpose of understanding the meaning of dreams and people sharing both positive and negative dreams with others but sharing positive dreams, both positive and negative dreams and even not sharing dreams are related to more positive mental health than sharing negative dreams. Overall, the findings indicated that dream sharing is common and can be associated by mental health.
... Though much international research has been reported (Antunes-Alves & De Koninck, 2012;Blagrove, Farmer, & Williams, 2004;Miró & Martínez, 2005;Pesant & Zadra, 2006;Schredl, 2009;Stewart & Koulack, 1993;Yu, 2007), there is no contemporary Australian research available which combines sleep, dreams, stress, and SWB into a single exploratory study. The present study aims to further the understanding of the relationship between sleep, stress, and SWB in an Australian sample using psychometrically robust measures that reflect contemporary understanding of these constructs, and within a sound theoretical framework. ...
... As expected, those who reported having nightmares had reduced SWB compared with participants who reported experiencing no bad dreams or nightmares. Given that SWB largely reflects positive mood, this finding is in keeping with other research showing that people who reported more frequent nightmares also reported negative effects on daytime mood such as anxiety, depression, and stress (Blagrove et al., 2004;Cummins et al., 2012;Schredl, 2009;Yu, 2007). ...
Objective
Getting a good night's sleep is important to ensure we function most effectively in our waking lives. One area that is particularly compromised when adequate sleep is not achieved is affect regulation, which has implications for subjective well-being (SWB). Through the lens of homeostasis theory, an investigation into the relationship between self-reported sleep quality, stress, and SWB was undertaken in an Australian sample, with the primary aim to further understanding of the importance of sleep and its role with regard to affect regulation.Method
The study included 488 Australian participants (77% female) with a mean age of 28.71 (standard deviation = 10.61) who were recruited via advertisements on social media websites. Participants completed measures of SWB, sleep quality, dreaming, and stress.ResultsUsing a bootstrapped mediation analysis, sleep quality was found to partially mediate the relationship between stress and SWB. These results were further explored using a two-way analysis of variance, which revealed significant main effects for sleep and stress on SWB, but no significant interaction effect. Finally, those who had nightmares or bad dreams reported higher stress than those who had no bad dreams or nightmares.Conclusion
These findings provide preliminary evidence to suggest that the impact of stress on SWB may be reduced when adequate sleep quality is achieved, and contribute to the growing field of literature exploring the function of dreams. The findings provide new insight that can inform therapeutic approaches to sleep disorders and stress management and guide clinical interventions.
... Differences between results regarding self-reported affect level upon awakening versus affect reactivity to stimuli indicates that dream affect is more associated (or continuous) with naturally occurring affect, rather than experimentally manipulated affect. However, it cannot be ruled out that significant correlations between negative dream affect and selfreported post-sleep affect reflect a simple carry-over effect with the physiological arousal evoked by dream affect continuing into wakefulness (Schredl, 2009). ...
There is increasing evidence that sleep plays an important role in affective processing. However, it is unclear whether dreaming-the subjective experiences we have during sleep-also serves an affect regulation function. Here, we investigated the within-person relationship between negative affect experienced in dreams and next-day waking affect level, affect reactivity, and affect regulation. For 5 days, 40 participants reported their dreams and rated their dream affect and post-sleep waking affect level upon morning awakening. Thereafter, they performed an affect reactivity and regulation task which involved viewing neutral and negative pictures with the instruction either to simply view the pictures or to down-regulate the affect evoked by these pictures. Multilevel regression analyses showed that the more negative affect people experienced in their dreams at night, the more negative affect and the less positive affect they reported the next morning. However, negative dream affect was associated neither with affect reactivity to the pictures nor with the ability to down-regulate negative affect in response to these pictures. In fact, Bayesian analyses favored the null hypotheses. These findings fail to provide support for the affect regulation function of dreaming and, instead, speak for affective continuity between dreaming and post-sleep wakefulness.
... It is plausible that some subjects could have biases during their dream recall, which could impact the subjective evaluation of their emotions present in the dream and which dreams were reported. For instance, dream recall frequency and intensity of dream emotions are shown to enhance the feeling priming effect on waking states (Schredl, 2009). We consider this limitation to be somewhat unavoidable in dream studies, but it is nonetheless important to mention. ...
Dreams may contribute to psychological adaptation by aiding in mood regulation. One way it could be achieved is through a desensitization process whereby negative events are replayed within the dream under lower conditions of negative emotionality. Evidence of this theory is supported by the tendency of dreamers to evaluate their emotions felt in their dreams more positively compared to an independent judge (i.e., positivity bias). Additionally, it has been observed that while dream emotions are typically more negative than pre-sleep emotions, morning emotions are more positive, suggesting that emotional regulation occurs overnight and may help improve mood in the morning. The present study aimed to examine the relationships between pre-sleep, dream, and morning mood and the potential desensitization function of remembered dreams as indicated by their effects on morning mood and stress.
Methodology: Participants ( N = 188; Mean age = 19.2, SD = 3.0) recorded their dreams ( N = 345 dreams) and self-reported their stress and mood at bedtime, during their dream retrospectively, and upon waking. A judge also evaluated the subjects’ dream moods. Subjects’ positivity bias was defined as the difference between the subjects and the judge’s evaluation of the positive emotions in the dream.
Results: A MANOVA revealed that subjects perceived a higher level of positive emotions in their dreams compared to a judge. Multi-group path analysis revealed that some relationships between pre-sleep, dream, and morning emotions and stress differed in positive and negative dream nights. In both groups, the strongest predictors of morning mood and stress were pre-sleep mood and stress, respectively. The second strongest predictor of positive morning mood was the subjects’ dream positivity bias.
Conclusion: Results provide some support for the association of dreaming in mood regulation attributable to REM sleep. They also highlight that pathways implicated in mood regulation may be distinct from stress regulation.
... While many studies have emphasized a strong bidirectional relationship between sleep and mood (Vandekerckhove & Cluydts, 2010), relatively few have addressed how subjective experiences during sleep influence subsequent waking affect. When retrospectively surveyed about the perception of how dreams influence their waking life, nearly 40% of participants report that their dreams impact their waking mood more than once a month (Schredl, 2000(Schredl, , 2009. In a diary study where participants reported the perceived influence of dreams on waking mood daily, both positive and negative dream moods influenced daily mood, especially when intense (Schredl & Reinhard, 2010). ...
While material from waking life is often represented in dreams, it is less clear whether and how dreams impact waking life. Here, we assessed whether dream mood and content from home diaries predict subsequent waking mood using both subjective self-reports and an objective automated word detection approach. Subjective ratings of dream and morning mood were highly correlated within participants for both negative and positive valence, suggesting that dream mood persists into waking. Text analyses revealed similar relationships between affect words in dreams and morning mood. Moreover, dreams referencing death or the body were related to worse morning mood, as was first-person singular pronoun usage (e.g., "I"). Dreams referencing leisure or ingestion, or including first-person plural pronouns (e.g., "we"), were related to better morning mood. Together, these results suggest that subjective experiences during sleep, while often overlooked, may be an important contributor to waking mood.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42761-021-00080-8.
... While many studies have emphasized a strong bidirectional relationship between sleep and mood (Vandekerckhove & Cluydts, 2010), relatively few have addressed how subjective experiences during sleep influence subsequent waking affect. When retrospectively surveyed about the perception of how dreams influence their waking life, nearly 40% of participants report that their dreams impact their waking mood more than once a month (Schredl, 2000(Schredl, , 2009. In a diary study where participants reported the perceived influence of dreams on waking mood daily, both positive and negative dream moods influenced daily mood, especially when intense (Schredl & Reinhard, 2010). ...
While material from waking life is often represented in dreams, it is less clear whether and how dreams impact waking life in return. Here, we assessed whether dream mood and content from home diaries predict subsequent waking mood using both subjective self-report and an objective automated word detection approach. Subjective ratings of dream and morning mood were highly correlated within participants for both negative and positive valence, suggesting that dream mood persists into waking. Text analyses revealed similar relationships between affect words in dreams and morning mood. Moreover, dreams referencing death or the body were related to worse morning mood, as was first-person singular pronoun usage (e.g., “I”). Dreams referencing leisure or ingestion, or including first-person plural pronouns (e.g., “we”), were related to better morning mood. Together, these results suggest that subjective experiences during sleep, while often overlooked, may be an important contributor to the emotion processing functions of sleep.
... Continuity hypothesis postulates that sleep affect is not independent from the affect regulation during waking states of consciousness (Schredl, 2000(Schredl, , 2003(Schredl, , 2006(Schredl, , 2009. Some individuals are proposed to have a tendency to experience more intense and frequent nightmares regarding their temperament and personality (Kelly, 2017). ...
... Das Alter nimmt auf den Traumprozess offenbar ebenfalls Einfluss, da mehrere Studien eine Abnahme der Traumerinnerungshäufigkeit mit zunehmendem Alter feststellten (Giambra, Jung, & Grodsky, 1996;Schredl & Piel, 2003;Stepansky et al., 1998). Von dieser generellen Tendenz sind Kinder jedoch ausgenommen, da sie weniger Träume erinnern als junge Erwachsene (Schredl, 2009b). Kinder unter sieben Jahren berichteten bei REM-Weckungen in 20 % der Fälle Träume, was gemessen an 80 bis 90% bei Erwachsenen, eine geringe Menge darstellt (Foulkes, 1993 (Mangiaruga et al., 2018). ...
Die vorliegende Studie verglich 447 Patienten (318 mit Restless Legs Syndrom (RLS); 129 mit Periodic Limb Movement Disorder (PLMD)) mit 208 gesunden Kontrollen bezüglich Schlafverhalten, Traumerinnerungshäufigkeit, Traumgefühlen und Trauminhalt. Die Patientengruppe zeigte in allen Parametern, die zur Evaluierung des Schlafes benutzt wurden, signifikant schlechtere Ergebnisse. Diese Erkenntnis ist stimmig mit bisher veröffentlichten Studien, die den Einfluss des Restless Legs Syndrom auf den Schlaf untersucht haben. Bezüglich der Traumerinnerungshäufigkeit konnten, trotz signifikant häufigerem nächtlichem Erwachen unter RLS/PLMD, keine Unterschiede zwischen Patientengruppe und gesunden Kontrollen ermittelt werden. Diese Erkenntnis stellt das Arousal-RetrievalModell, das häufigeres nächtliches Erwachen mit erhöhter Traumerinnerungshäufigkeit verknüpft, zumindest für die Schlafstörungen RLS und PLMD in Frage. Dieses Ergebnis bestätigt die Resultate vorrausgegangener Studien, die für Patienten mit dem Restless Legs Syndrom ebenfalls keine erhöhte Traumerinnerungshäufigkeit finden konnten. Eine Untersuchung der Traumerinnerungshäufigkeit mit Weckungen während der Rapid-Eye-MovementPhasen (REM) könnte möglicherweise andere Ergebnisse erbringen und bedarf somit weiterer Untersuchungen. Die Traumgefühle der Patientengruppe fielen in der externen Einschätzung weniger positiv und in der Selbsteinschätzung signifikant negativer aus. Auch Alpträume, die signifikant mit der RLS/PLMD-bezogenen Belastung assoziiert waren, kamen in der Patientengruppe häufiger vor. Diese Ergebnisse sind möglicherweise die Folge der unangenehmen Empfindungen des RLS, des beeinträchtigten Schlafes und der daraus resultierenden psychischen Belastung der beiden Krankheitsbilder. Demnach finden sich die Beschwerden des Tages während des Schlafes im Traumerleben wieder und würden die Kontinuitätshypothese bekräftigen. Der Trauminhalt wird von RLS/PLMD nach den Erkenntnissen dieser Arbeit nur geringfügig beeinflusst. Bei Auswertung des Trauminhaltes mithilfe eines Traummanuals konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Patientengruppe signifikant häufiger von Problemen träumte, was unter Berücksichtigung des krankheitsbedingten Leidensdrucks, mit der Zusammenfassung 87 Kontinuitätshypothese vereinbar ist. Bei der Trauminhaltsanalyse bezüglich der Bewegungen von Beinen/Armen bzw. der konkreten Nennung von Bein/Arm konnte meine Hypothese eines häufigeren Auftretens dieser in der Patientengruppe nicht bestätigt werden. Paradoxerweise kamen Bewegungen, die mit Armen assoziiert waren in der RLS/PLMD-Gruppe sogar signifikant seltener vor als in der Kontrollgruppe. Dieser signifikante Unterschied verschwand allerdings bei der Subanalyse, die ausschließlich RLS-Patienten berücksichtigte. Zur weiteren Untersuchung potentieller Unterschiede im Trauminhalt könnten in Zukunft Träume nach REM-Weckungen verglichen werden. Außerdem wäre ein interessanter Ansatz Patienten direkt nach periodischen Beinbewegungen, die für RLS und PLMD charakteristisch sind, zu wecken und zu untersuchen inwiefern diese in den Trauminhalt inkorporiert werden.
... Many contemporary cognitive-neuroscientific theories on dreaming support the idea that there is a continuity, both in physiological and psychological aspects, between waking life and dream life (Kramer, Moshiri, & Scharf, 1982;Schredl, 2003Schredl, , 2009Schredl, , 2010. A recent study, for example, showed that a "default network of brain regions is spontaneously active during restful states, and supports (also) mind-wandering and daydreaming during waking" (Domhoff & Fox, 2015, p. 343). ...
The aim of this paper is to show the evolution of the psychoanalytic conception of fantasy/phantasy from a psychic activity aimed at denying reality and/or fulfilling frustrated wishes to a tool useful for adapting to reality. We will then review some recent findings of empirical research on imagination and mental simulation
showing how these activities, and mind wandering in general, is expression of the constant effort of the psyche to set and pursue adaptive goals, to elaborate and test plans, and to master and solve problems and traumas.
Finally, we will show how these empirical data are consistent with the conception of fantasy proposed by the control-mastery theory (CMT; Gazzillo, 2016; Silberschatz, 2005; Weiss, 1993), an integrated cognitive-dynamic relational theory of psychic functioning, psychopathology, and psychotherapy developed and tested
in the last 40 years by the San Francisco Psychotherapy Research Group.
... For convergent validity it was reasoned that a measure of frequent distressing nightmares should correlate significantly with existing separate measures of nightmare frequency and distress as well as variables to which nightmares have been related consistently by previous research. Therefore, in addition to scales of nightmare frequency and distress, measures representing variables previously related to nightmares including dream recall frequency (i.e., Schredl, 2009), post-traumatic stress symptoms (Kilpatrick et al., 1998), neuroticism (Schredl, Bocklage, Engelhardt, & Mingebach, 2009), and general psychological distress (Klѳůzová Kráčmarová & Plháková, 2015) were included. ...
Both nightmare frequency and nightmare distress have been described as cardinal features of the nightmare experience. However, most previous research has either neglected nightmare distress or measured it separately from nightmare frequency. Based on current nosology of nightmare disorder and recent research findings, the current work conceptualizes the two as representing a single construct, frequent distressing nightmares. Four studies are presented involving a total of 819 university students aimed at the development and examination of a brief scale, the Nightmare Experience Scale (NExS), for measuring frequent distressing nightmares. The NExS demonstrated good internal consistency and test–retest reliability. Validity was supported through a unidimensional factor structure and strong correlations with existing measures of nightmare frequency, nightmare distress, and nightmare intensity, as well as moderate correlations with dream recall frequency, general psychological distress, neuroticism, and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. The NExS demonstrated incremental predictive validity of general distress and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms over and above individual measures of nightmare distress,
frequency, and intensity. Moreover, it was able to discriminate individuals who met criteria for nightmare disorder and controls. The results and suggestions for future research are discussed.
... There is a continuity between waking life and dreaming life (Schredl, 2003(Schredl, , 2010, both in physiological and psychological aspects. Dreams are influenced by the emotions, experiences, and thoughts that precede them (Strauch & Meier, 2004), and their content influences the subsequent waking life, such as mood and spontaneous thoughts upon awakening (Kramer, Moshiri, & Scharf, 1982;Schredl, 2009). Several research studies reveal that the more intense emotional experiences of the day are more likely to be incorporated into the dreams of the night (Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006;Malinowski & Horton, 2014;Schredl, 2006). ...
The aim of this paper is to illustrate the meaning and functions of dreams according to control-mastery theory (CMT), a cognitive-dynamic relational theory developed and empirically validated
in the last 40 years by the San Francisco Psychotherapy Research Group (Gazzillo, 2016; Silberschatz, 2005; Weiss, 1993a; Weiss, Sampson, & the Mount Zion Psychotherapy Research Group,
1986). CMT stresses how dreams reflect the person’s efforts to adapt to reality; their production is regulated by a safety principle and is an expression of human unconscious higher adaptive functions.
According to this model, dreams represent our unconscious attempts to find solutions to emotionally relevant problems. In dreams people think about their main concerns, particularly those concerns
that they have been unable to solve by conscious thought alone, and they try to develop and test plans and policies for dealing with them. After having introduced the reader to the main concepts of CMT,
we will illustrate the different facets of the CMT model of dreams with several clinical examples.
Finally, we will describe the core elements of recently developed models of dream functions and meanings based on empirical research on sleep and dreams, and we will show their substantial
compatibility with hypotheses proposed by CMT.
... As facilitating relaxation was the most frequent attitude toward music in the present study, future investigations should analyze the effect of music dreams on the mood of the following day, as these positive dreams might be stimulating. Previous studies have shown that dreams frequently affect daytime mood (Schredl, 2009). ...
A connection between music and dreams has been reported in many cultures. Although inspirations by dreams were reported for famous musicians, there are few studies investigating the occurrence of music dreams in the general population. In the present online study, 1,966 participants filled out an online questionnaire concerning their involvement in music in waking and the occurrence of music in dreams. The basic framework for the study was the continuity hypothesis of dreaming; that is, more musical activity during waking should be related to a higher amount of music dreams. About 6% of all remembered dreams contained music, and the frequency was significantly higher when the participants spent time with music activities in waking like singing, playing an instrument, or listening actively to music—supporting the continuity hypothesis. In addition, music dreams were associated with more positive emotions. Future research should study the effects of music in waking on music in dreams over a longer period of time (dream diaries), as well as the dreams of professional musicians.
... However, this question is still open and dream research's future looks bright. In another vein, a fi eld of research attempts to determine inter-individual differences like age, gender or personality affecting dream recall and perception of the dream phenomenon (Okada, Matsuoka & Hatekeyama, 2000;Schredl, 2002a;Schredl, 2009;Schredl, Nürnberg & Weiler, 1996;Schredl & Schawinsky, 2010;Watson, 2002). For instance, dream recall frequency is known to decrease with age (Chellappa, Münch, Blatter, Knoblauch & Cajochen, 2009) and to be higher in women (Schredl & Piel, 2003;Schredl & Reinhard, 2008). ...
The aim of the current study was to provide a French validation of the MADRE questionnaire (Schredl, Berres, Klingauf, Schelhaas & Göritz, 2014) and to further examine demographic factors that may affect dream-related experiences (Schredl, Berres, Klingauf, Schelhaas & Göritz, 2014). The participants were 357 Belgians aged from 18 to 81 years. Despite some differences caused by the sample features, the results obtained with the French version of the MADRE questionnaire indicated a lot of similarities with the German original version. However, all variables did not reach satisfying retest reliability. The findings regarding the French version of the MADRE questionnaire are encouraging but a replication with a shorter test/retest interval and a more representative sample is needed.
... In one large sample of the general population, 52% of individuals reported having experienced at least one nightmare as an adult and about 14% report having experienced nightmares at least monthly (Schredl, 2013). Despite the high incidence of nightmares and their apparent effect on daytime mood (Schredl, 2009a), what makes some individuals more at risk of developing nightmares than others is not well understood. Freud (1900) suggested that nightmares were the result of intense internal conflict and lessened ego strength that are expressed during sleep due to decreased censorship of repressed content. ...
This article presents three studies aimed at the development and analysis of a proposed measure of nightmare proneness, the tendency to experience nightmares frequently. In Study 1 a sample of 205 university students was utilized to create the Nightmare Proneness Scale (NPS), consisting of personality and symptomatology items that significantly differentiated between individuals reporting frequent nightmares and controls. Study 2 cross-validated the ability of the NPS to discriminate between frequent nightmare reporters and controls among a sample of 275 students. Study 2 also found that the NPS accounted for unique variance in nightmare frequency above other measures of distress. The NPS possessed adequate internal consistency across all studies. Study 3 demonstrated satisfactory test-retest reliability of the NPS. The results and suggestions for future research were discussed.
The classic works of Islamic mysticism, as one of the significant resources of today's Muslims' cultural climate, are rich with dream narratives crafted with the intention of promoting mystical views. Paying attention to how individuals react to dreams in these works might assist to explain how people react to dreams psychologically. We identified 148 narrations connected to post-dream reactions from 28 mystical works from the 4th to 9th lunar centuries for this purpose and classified and analyzed them using the thematic analysis approach. Three topics emerged from this research: 1) affective-physical reactions; 2) cognitive reactions; and 3) behavioral reactions. We propose a three-stage model of post-dream reactions based on the sequence seen in these three categories of reactions and argue that these three phases are theoretically generalizable to all dream reactions. The model and each of the suggested themes were then addressed. Future study might use survey or experimental approaches to validate this model and add more specifics to it.
Emotions experienced within sleep mentation (dreaming) affect mental functioning in waking life. There have been attempts at enhancing dream emotions using olfactory stimulation. Odors readily acquire affective value, but to profoundly influence emotional processing, they should bear personal significance for the perceiver rather than be generally pleasant. The main objective of the present sleep laboratory study was to examine whether prolonged nocturnal exposure to self-selected, preferred ambient room odor while asleep influences emotional aspects of sleep mentation and valence of post-sleep core affect. We asked twenty healthy participants (12 males, mean age 25 ± 4 years) to pick a commercially available scented room diffuser cartridge that most readily evoked positively valenced mental associations. In weekly intervals, the participants attended three sessions. After the adaptation visit, they were administered the odor exposure and odorless control condition in a balanced order. Participants were awakened five minutes into the first rapid eye movement (REM) stage that took place after 2:30 a.m. and, if they had been dreaming, they were asked to rate their mental sleep experience for pleasantness, emotional charge, and magnitude of positive and negative emotions and also to evaluate their post-sleep core affect valence. With rs < 0.20, no practically or statistically significant differences existed between exposure and control in any outcome measures. We conclude that in young, healthy participants, the practical value of olfactory stimulation with self-selected preferred scents for enhancement of dream emotions and post-sleep core affect valence is very limited.
The study explored to what extent dreams have been perceived as being helpful in waking life. More specifically, for “important” waking life (conscious) decision-making, the solving of emotional or nonemotional (practical/technical/work-related) problems, forming/changing an attitude about something or somebody, or a conscious behavioral change of the dreamer (N = 667). On a general level, 62,1% of participants indicated that dreams at some point had been of help or good use (regression analysis found a strong association with dream attitude, measured on Dream Attitude Scale [DAS]). Most often mentioned areas of help were creative input (55,8%) and emotional problem-solving (52,9%). There was a positive association between dream attitude (DAS) and emotional problem-solving and creative input. In all, 8.9% of participants reported that a “dream had influenced an important decision” (e.g., leaving a job, moving, buying a house, or leaving the partner). A regression analysis again indicated that a more positive attitude toward dreams (DAS) was associated with dreams influencing important decisions. Higher dream recall was also associated with all mentioned aspects.
From back cover:
This fascinating and highly original book presents a longitudinal systematic study of the earliest form of human dreaming in a child, from ages four through ten.
Claudio Colace draws upon his extensive children’s dreams research, his expertise in brain science, and an intimate knowledge of a single subject, his son Marco, to demonstrate the validity of an ontogenetic approach to the understanding of dream processes. The availability of ‘first-hand’ information about the daytime experiences of the author’s son in relation to dream contents, as well as the longitudinal approach of the study, prove to be useful for a qualitative in-depth analysis of the nature and function of infantile dreams, and of the changes that occur in the dreaming process as the child grows, from the early forms to more complex ones. Affirming the significance of Freud’s explorations of infantile dreaming, this book attests to the nature of dreaming as a meaningful psychic act, rather than the result of random processes.
Expanding beyond a purely psychotherapeutic context, the book analyzes the development of dreams systematically and in relation to Freud’s theories on the human mind, making it an important read for clinicians, scholars, and researchers interested in dream functions, child development, and psychodynamic theory.
Table of Contents
Introduction Part 1: Methodological aspects of the study 1. The credibility of children's dream reports 2. The methodology of this study Part 2: The debut of dreaming activity: infantile dreams (ages four to five) 3. The predominance of clear wish-fulfilment dreams 4. Nature of the wishes appearing in dream reports 5. Daytime sources and triggering conditions of clear wish-fulfilment dreams 6. How do dreams act? The modus operandi of clear wish-fulfilment dreams 7. Less common forms of dreaming in infancy Part 3: The decline of infantile forms of dreaming (ages six to seven) 8. Changes in dream repertoire and developments in wish-fulfilment dreaming 9. Development of dream bizarreness and dream-work operations 10. Bad dreams 11. Ego and super-ego development and changes in dreaming Part 4: Dreaming in middle childhood (ages eight to ten) 12. Changes in dream repertoire and developments in wish-fulfilment dreams at ages 8-10 13. Dream distortion and new dream-works operations 14. Changes in bad dreams Part 5: The meaning and function of infantile dreams 15. The function of dreams: the affective-reestablishment (AR) hypothesis 16. Infantile forms of dreaming in adults 17. A new ontogenetic psychological-psychoanalytic model of dream Conclusions
Dream-related behaviors like sharing dreams are best measured via questionnaires whereas dream content analysis provides information about dream content, for example, bizarreness of dreams, emotional tone of dreams. The main focus of this chapter is the so-called continuity hypothesis of dreaming, stating that dreams reflect the waking-life experiences of the dreamer. Research had identified factors that affect this continuity between waking and dreaming, for example, emotional intensity of the waking-life experience or the type of the waking-life activity (studying vs. meeting with friends). Also, gender differences in dream content seem to be continuous to gender differences found in waking life.
Das wissenschaftliche Interesse an Träumen wird vorwiegend von zwei Strömungen gespeist: zum einen ist dies die neurowissenschaftliche Seite, die sich für die physiologischen Vorgänge während des Schlafens und des Träumens interessiert, und zum anderen die akademische Psychologie, die sich Trauminhalten und anderen Traumvariablen wie Traumerinnerungshäufigkeit, Umgang mit Träumen usw.
Although a large number of studies investigating factors affecting dream recall frequency (DRF) have been carried out, research investigating the reliability and stability of DRF is scarce. Dream diaries of 196 participants kept over at least 28 days were analyzed. The results of the present study indicate that a time period of 2 weeks was sufficient to obtain reliable measurements of interindividual differences in DRF. Despite the high dayto-day fluctuations of dream recall, the stability of this variable was very high. Studies that investigate the stability of DRF by means of other methodological approaches (e.g., questionnaire scales, laboratory awakenings) and over longer time periods (e.g., 1 year) should be carried out to complement the present findings.
Reports of the incorporation of dream mentation into a spectrum of awake behaviors were obtained from a heterogeneous awake population group through the utilization of self reporting questionnaires (N = 265). Results were analyzed to determine associations between age, gender, race, and the dream use variables. Significantly higher dream use was found in females for a majority of behaviors, and a negative correlation was found between increasing age and all dream questions studied. No significant racial/ethnic variation was found in the responses of this sample. These findings suggest that such a sociological approach to the study of the effects of dream mentation on awake behavior can provide insight into the sleep/dream states.
Several studies point to the existence of two types of effects which describe the temporal relationship between daytime experiences and nighttime dreams: the day-residue effect, i.e., the incorporation into dreams of material from the immediately preceding day, and the dream-lag effect, i.e., the incorporation of material into dreams of material from 6–8 days prior. A review of previous· research suggests that the proportion of dreams containing day residues is about twice that for events occurring 2 days prior to the dream, approximately 65–70% of reports. Much less research supports the dream-lag effect, however. In an attempt to replicate previous demonstrations of these effects, 84 undergraduates were asked to keep home records of their dreams and important daily events for a 14-day period. Dreams were then judged for the extent to which they incorporated these daily events. Results clearly supported the day-residue effect, but gave inconclusive results for the dream-lag effect. At present, imprecision in report collection and other conservative features of the experimental design, as well as findings from previous studies, do not warrant complete rejection of the notion of a dream-lag effect.
The question whether personality dimensions explain the interindividual differences in dream recall frequency has often been investigated by dream researchers. The present findings confirm previous research which has shown that traits such as openness-to-experience and thin boundaries correlate substantially with dream recall frequency. However, correlation coefficients are small and are much larger if attitude towards dreams or a scale measuring different aspects of dream recall are considered. Thus, future studies should consider the differentiation between items measuring dream recall and related aspects and items measuring attitudes towards dreams. Schonbar''s life-style hypothesis should be revised slightly: not dream recall frequency but attitude towards dreams and the way to deal with dreams are part of a broader life style.
According to the boundary concept of Hartmann (1991), the occurence of nightmares was repeatedly shown to be correlated to thin personal boundaries. The present study investigated the relationship between boundary thinness and emotional, cognitive, and behavioral consequences of nightmares in frequent nightmare sufferers. Occurence of nightmares and their respective consequences were recorded daily during a 4-week period by diaries and questionnaires. Confirming previous results, frequent nightmare sufferers had significantly thinner personal boundaries than occasional nightmare sufferers, and nightmare frequency was positively correlated to boundary thinness. In frequent nightmare sufferers, the emotional and cognitive consequences of a nightmare as well as its possible explanations were correlated to boundary thinness; mainly the personal total score and the Boundary Questionnaire scales sleep/wake/dreams, thoughts/feelings/mood and sensitivity. The results indicate that although nightmare frequency is positively correlated to thin personal boundaries, only particular aspects of the concept of personal boundaries are correlated to emotional and cognitive consequences of the nightmares.
Factors affecting or inducing nightmares have been investigated repeatedly. However, little research is carried out on the behavioral consequences of nightmares. The present study thus served to investigate behavioral effects of nightmares in correlation to personality variables. 41 non-clinical participants, who suffer from about 2 nightmares per month recorded their dreams and nightmares over a 4-week period. A nightmare was defined as a dream that frightens the dreamer and could be recalled in detail on awakening. Anxiety and mood were monitored every morning. All nightmares and their behavioral consequences were noted on a questionnaire. Personality traits and life events were assessed at the beginning of the investigation. 100 nightmares were reported by the subjects over the 4-week period (range: 0–8). Following a nightmare, the subjects were significantly more anxious and were of a less stable mental condition compared to nights without nightmares. Additionally, nightmares induced physical complaints. This was considered to be an indicator that something was wrong in their lives and induced them to solve personal problems. The behavioral effects were most pronounced in subjects scoring high on neuroticism and on the number of physical complaints and low on achievement orientation and openness. The results suggest that sufferers of nightmares intend to change their lives, especially those with a neurotic-like personality.
The correlation between film and dream has an extensive theoretical basis in both cognitive science and cinematic literature. Biographical and autobiographical reports from film makers document antidotal descriptions of the use of dream in creative aspects of screen writing, acting and directing film. However, no systematic or analytic approach has been used in the attempt to document dream utilization in film making. Film makers attending the Sundance Film Institute Screenwriter and Director Labs from 1995-7 were asked to complete a previously validated questionnaire regarding dream recall and incorporation into a spectrum of awake behaviors. Compared to a previous general population study, all responses to questions assessing reported dream effects on awake behaviors and recall were significantly higher for the film makers. An in-group study of film makers found that reported dream recall and effects on waking behavior for the Creative group (Directors, Screen writers, Actors) were significantly higher than for the Working group (Crew). Responses from the Professional Group (Producers, Editors and Cinematographers) were intermediate. Within the Creative Group, reported specific dream effects on behavior varied significantly with creative role.
The hypotheses that psychopathology is related to nightmare distress but not nightmare frequency and that cognitive style is related to nightmare frequency were examined. The sample consisted of 85 subjects (58 women and 27 men) who completed several measures: a sleep and dream inventory, Symptom Check List-90-R, Fear Survey Schedule-II, Beck Depression Inventory, an abbreviated version of the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Vividness of Visual Imagery, an absorption scale, a social desirability scale, and the Boundaries Questionnaire. The results strongly support the first hypothesis but only slightly the second. Such findings underscore the need to differentiate nightmare frequency from suffering (waking distress associated with nightmares) and suggest that although frequency may be related to an intensification of dreaming process, suffering is related to waking emotional adjustment.
Administered a questionnaire containing items of varied content believed to be related to hypnotizability to 481 female undergraduates. 2 subsamples of 142 and 171 Ss, respectively, also completed Block's Ego Resiliency and Ego Control questionnaire scales and the Group Scales of Hypnotic Susceptibility. Analysis of the combined questionnaire data yielded 3 replicated higher order factors: the familiar dimensions of Stability and Introversion and a 3rd factor, Absorption. Absorption is interpreted as a disposition for having episodes of "total" attention that fully engage one's representational (i.e., perceptual, enactive, imaginative, and ideational) resources. This kind of attentional functioning is believed to result in a heightened sense of the reality of the attentional object, imperviousness to distracting events, and an altered sense of reality in general, including an empathically altered sense of self. Only Absorption was consistently correlated with hypnotizability. Absorption appears to be of interest for the study of hypnosis and personality. (38 ref)
Nightmares are usually defined as frightening dreams that awaken the sleeper. This study uses the waking criterion to distinguish between nightmares and bad dreams and investigated the variety and intensity of emotions reported in each form of disturbing dream. Ninety participants recorded their dreams for 4 consecutive weeks and, for each dream recalled, noted the emotions present and their intensities on a 9-point scale. Thirty-six participants reported at least one nightmare and one bad dream over the 4 weeks covered by the log, while 29 reported having had at least one bad dream but no nightmares. Nightmares were rated as being significantly (p < 0.001) more intense than bad dreams. Thirty percent of nightmares and 51% of bad dreams contained primary emotions other than fear. The findings support the claim that awakening can serve as an indirect measure of nightmare intensity and raise important implications for the operational definition of nightmares.
The present study was carried out to test whether visual memory may function as a mediator variable in the relationship between absorption in imaginings and dream recall frequency (DRF). Fifty-one subjects completed two visual memory tasks, the absorption questionnaire and estimated their dream recall frequency. Results confirmed the findings that absorption in imaginings is related to DRF, but did not support the above hypothesis concerning the mediator variable visual memory.
Explored the relation between dream recall frequency (DRF) and creative activities and interests in detail. 44 adults (aged 18–37 yrs) were given a verbal creativity test (K. J. Schoppe, 1975) and then asked to complete a questionnaire concerning creative activities. Findings confirmed the results reported in the literature that persons with visual and verbal creative skills recalled more dreams. It is suggested that the visual memory may serve as a mediator variable in the relation between creativity and DRF. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study investigated the relationship between nightmare frequency, nightmare distress and neuroticism. Nightmare frequency was associated with neuroticism; a finding which fits in the general continuity hypothesis of dreaming, i.e., current waking-life experience (stress) is incorporated into subsequent dreams. A systematic overestimation of nightmare intensity or nightmare distress of single nightmares of persons with high neuroticism scores have not been found but other dimensions such as coping with nightmares or seeking professional help might be more pronounced in this group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies investigated perceived interactions between the dream division of consciousness and waking consciousness by asking 25 female and 25 male graduate students (aged 20–53 yrs) to attribute their moods to 1 of 10 possible causes (e.g., interpersonal relationships, personal concerns) and to rate the influence of their dreams for 28 days. Across Ss and days, 11% of recalled dreams were perceived by Ss as the most influential cause of their moods as compared to other causes, and 35% of recalled dreams were considered moderately influential. The sex differences observed suggest that males were more likely to repress dreams and females were more likely to recall them. Findings present preliminary evidence for modest perceived interactions between the dream division of consciousness and waking consciousness in natural settings as well as modest individual and sex differences in either the ability or practice of utilizing these perceived interactions. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The so-called continuity hypothesis of dreaming states that waking experiences are reflected in dreams. The formulation of the continuity hypothesis is very broad and vague, however, so that it seems necessary to investigate factors which might affect the incorporation rate of waking-life experiences. A review of the different research paradigms, e. g. assessing temporal references of dream elements, studying the effects of the pre-sleep situation on dreams, will be presented. Various methodological issues which limit the generalizability of the findings in this area will also be addressed. After this overview, several factors such as (a) the time interval between waking-life experience and dream occurrence, (b) emotional involvement, (c) the type of waking-life experience, (d) personality traits and (e) the time of the night (time interval between sleep onset and dream onset) for which empirical data indicates an influence on incorporation rates of waking-life experiences will be listed. A mathematical model is proposed which should enable researchers to identify influencing factors and their interactions making a more precise formulation of the continuity hypothesis possible. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the frequency of dream effects on waking life in a normal population in order to compare these findings to a previous study (D. Kuiken and S. Sikora, 1993). The hypothesis was that effects of dreams on waking life occur quite often in a normal sample and that their frequencies are strongly related to dream recall frequency. Second, gender differences were tested with dream recall frequency statistically controlled. 85 Ss (mean age 30 yrs) completed dream questionnaires. The findings indicate that dreams affect waking life (e.g., dreams influence daytime mood and dreams help to solve personal problems). A factor analysis yielded 3 factors: a general factor including most items measuring the effect of dreams on waking life, a spontaneous reminiscence and a "social" factor (item "seeking contact to a person dreamed of"). Previously reported gender differences may be due to differences in dream recall frequency as found in this study. It is concluded that future studies should use diary measures to elicit the concrete dreams and their effect on waking life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study revealed a small but distinct relationship between some trait aspects of mental health, dream recall frequency and attitudes towards dreams. The patterns were gender specific: for 47 men (mean age 37.6 yrs), a positive correlation between mental health and dream variables was found, whereas a negative correlation for "self-forgetting vs. self-centered" was found in 42 women (mean age 34.7 yrs). The observed relations may be useful in assessing mental health, i. e. by including dream-related items in research instruments. In addition, the findings suggest that simple techniques such as dream-telling or self-guided dreamwork may have a positive effect on coping with internal and external demands and mental health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Emotions are an integral part of dreaming. From the viewpoint of the continuity hypothesis, two areas are of interest: how are dream emotions affected by day-time mood and how do dream emotions affect subsequent waking life. Seventy-four participants kept a diary over a 2-week period recording daytime mood, emotional valence of daytime events, and their dreams. Confirming earlier findings, the present study demonstrated direct effects of waking life on dreams and of dream emotions on waking-life. Positive and negative effects of daytime events on dreams were reported equally often (i.e., emotional intensity and not emotional valence is important in determining whether daytime events affect dreams). An interesting finding was a second-order effect; that is, the intensity of the negative effects of daytime events on dream content predicts—in addition to emotional intensity of the dream—the effect of that dream on daytime mood. The findings fit in within the framework of the continuity hypothesis, and pursuing this approach might shed further light on the function of dreaming.
The present study investigated the relationship between dream recall frequency (DRF), attitudes toward dreams and personality. The findings partly confirmed the so-called life-style hypothesis of dream recall. But the results indicated a strong influence of gender on the relationship between DRF and personality. Correlations between positive attitude toward dreams and personality dimensions of the 16 PF (personality inventory) were stronger than similar correlation between DRF and personality. Future research on this topic may shed light on the inconsistent findings in the literature concerning DRF and personality.
Although dreaming is a private experience, dream sharing is a common experience for most people. Dreams are disclosed to romantic partners, friends, and relatives, and the sharing is often associated with enhancement of relational intimacy and stress relief (e.g., in the case of nightmares). Research has focused on factors that might affect dream sharing such as dream recall frequency, gender, and emotional intensity of the dream. The present findings indicate that about 14.5% of the dreams were shared and that dream recall frequency, nightmare frequency, attitude toward dreams, gender, extroversion, and thin boundaries are associated independently with the frequency of dream sharing. Longitudinal studies are needed to differentiate between state factors and trait factors and to validate the self-reported positive effects of dream sharing on intimacy in romantic relationships and friendships.
In a new approach, this study compared the effects of trait and state factors on nightmare frequency in a non-clinical sample. Although neuroticism and boundary thinness were related to nightmare frequency, regression analyses indicated that the trait measures did not add to the variance explained by the state measures. This finding supports the so-called continuity hypothesis of dreaming, i. e., nightmares reflect negative waking-life experiences. Second, the moderate relationship between nightmare frequency and poor sleep quality was partly explained by the day-time measures of neuroticism and stress, but it can be assumed that nightmares are an independent factor contributing to complaints of insomnia. Longitudinal studies measuring nightmare frequency and stress on a daily basis will shed light on the temporal relationship between daytime measures and the occurrence of nightmares. It will be also very interesting to study the relationship between stress and nightmare frequency in a sample who have undergone cognitive-behavioral treatment for nightmares.
The authors studied the self-rated effect of dreams on creativity in participants who were not selected for creative abilities. Students (N = 444) and online respondents (N = 636) answered a questionnaire about dreams and creative dreams. In addition, the students completed several personality measures and creativity scales. Results indicated that dreams that stimulated waking-life creativity played a considerable role in the lives of ordinary people (about 8% of all dreams). Examples reported by the online participants fell into 4 categories: (a) dream images used for art, work, or similar areas; (b) dreams that solved a problem; (c) dreams that provided the impetus to do something that the dreamer otherwise had difficulty doing; and (d) dreams containing emotional insights. The main factors influencing frequency of creative dreams were dream recall frequency and the thin boundaries personality dimension. Future researchers should use diary techniques to study the effects of dreams on waking life and should develop techniques to increase the frequency of creative dreams that might be valuable as aids for people in creative jobs.
Many studies have reported gender differences in dream recall. Data from 175 independent studies have been included in the analyses. Overall, estimated effect sizes in five age groups of healthy persons differed significantly from zero. Variables like measurement method and publication year did not affect the gender difference but age groups showed different effect sizes. The smallest effect size was found for children (0.097), the largest for adolescents (0.364), whereas the three adult groups ranged from 0.242 to 0.270. The findings suggest that the age-dependent gender differences in dream recall might be explained by gender-specific 'dream socialization'. Longitudinal studies in this area, however, are still lacking.
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