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Study of antioxidant potential of tropical fruit durian
Abstract
This research work was carried out to quantify the total phenolics, flavonoids and carotenoides, vitamin C contents, reported as antioxidants, in the extracts of four locally available varieties of durian fruit. Durian fruit was extracted using dichloromethane: pentane (1:1 v/v) and subjected to study the various quality parameters. The total phenolic contents from durian fruit extract, determined following the Folin Ciocalteu assay were found in the range of 690.62-998.29 mg/L, showing the significant inter-varietals variations. The total flavonoids and vitamin C contents from durian fruit extract were found in the range of 211.36-220.34 and 18.87-25.1 mg/L, respectively. Whereas, the total carotenoides contents of durian fruit extract were found in a low concentrations i.e. 0.05-0.08 mg/L. The statistical analysis showed significant (p < 0.05) variations in the total phenolic, carotenoides and vitamin C contents while non-significant (p > 0.05) variation in total flavonoids contents among different varieties of durian. Caffeic acid and quercetin were the dominant antioxidant substances found in durian. In conclusion, the bioactivity of ripe durian was high and the total polyphenols were the main contributors to the overall antioxideant capacity.
... Notably, total phenolic content of durian pulp ranges from 21.44 to 374.30 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g FW [10,43,44], whereas its total flavonoid content varies from 1.90 to 93.90 mg catechin equivalent (CE)/100 g FW [10,42,43]. ...
... Notably, total phenolic content of durian pulp ranges from 21.44 to 374.30 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g FW [10,43,44], whereas its total flavonoid content varies from 1.90 to 93.90 mg catechin equivalent (CE)/100 g FW [10,42,43]. ...
... Among these, 'Monthong' exhibited the highest levels of total phenolic content (361.4 mg GAE/100 g) and flavonoid content (93.9 mg CE/100 g) based on FW measurements. In another study by Ashraf et al. [43], various Malaysian durian cultivars, including 'Chaer Phoy', 'Yah Kang', 'D11', and 'Ang Jin', were analyzed for their phenolic, flavonoid, carotenoid, and vitamin C contents. The durian pulp of the cultivar 'Ang Jin' exhibited the highest concentrations of total phenolics and flavonoids. ...
Durian (Durio zibethinus L.), a tropical fruit celebrated in Southeast Asia for its distinct flavor, is the focus of this comprehensive review. The fruit’s pulp is rich in high-value bioactive compounds, including gamma-glutamylcysteine, a precursor to the essential antioxidant glutathione. With durian cultivation gaining prominence in Southeast Asia due to its economic potential through cultivar enhancement, an in-depth examination of durian-related research becomes crucial. This review explores the health benefits of durian, analyzing the nutritional compositions and bioactive compounds present in the pulp, peel, and seed. It also underscores durian-based food products and the potential for valorizing durian waste. This review encapsulates the significant advancements made in omics-based research, aimed at deciphering the molecular complexities of durian fruit post-harvest ripening and the metabolic shifts impacting its sensory attributes. It is the first to summarize studies across genome, transcriptome, and metabolome levels. Future research should prioritize the development of molecular markers to accelerate the breeding of elite cultivars with preferred traits. It also proposes the exploration of durian waste valorization, including underexplored parts like flowers and leaves for their bioactive compounds, to promote a sustainable bioeconomy. Finally, it suggests the development of innovative durian products catering to the tastes of health-conscious consumers.
... Durian is also rich in polyphenols such as flavonoids (flavanones, flavonols, flavones, flavanols, anthocyanins), phenolic acids (cinnamic acid and hydroxybenzoic acid), tannins, and other bioactive components such as carotenoids and ascorbic acid [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25]. Current epidemiological studies have suggested that polyphenols decrease the risk of chronic diseases (e.g., cardiovascular diseases, cancers and diabetes) [26][27][28][29][30]. ...
... Total polyphenols content of ripe durian is in the range of 21.44 to 374.30 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per 100 fresh weight (FW) ( Table 6). The Thailand variety of Monthong showed the highest polyphenols content with 374.30 mg GAE per 100 FW compared with other durian varieties [10][11][12][13][14][17][18][19][20][21]. Total flavonoid content of different durian varieties is in the range of 1.90 to 93.90 mg catechin equivalent (CE) per 100 g FW [10][11][12]14,[16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. ...
... The Thailand variety of Monthong showed the highest polyphenols content with 374.30 mg GAE per 100 FW compared with other durian varieties [10][11][12][13][14][17][18][19][20][21]. Total flavonoid content of different durian varieties is in the range of 1.90 to 93.90 mg catechin equivalent (CE) per 100 g FW [10][11][12]14,[16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. This review found three main flavonoids, namely flavanones (hesperetin and hesperidin), flavonols (morin, quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, myricetin), and flavones (luteolin and apigenin). ...
Durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.) is an energy-dense seasonal tropical fruit grown in Southeast Asia. It is one of the most expensive fruits in the region. It has a creamy texture and a sweet-bitter taste. The unique durian flavour is attributable to the presence of fat, sugar, and volatile compounds such as esters and sulphur-containing compounds such as thioacetals, thioesters, and thiolanes, as well as alcohols. This review shows that durian is also rich in flavonoids (i.e., flavanols, anthocyanins), ascorbic acid, and carotenoids. However, limited studies exist regarding the variation in bioactive and volatile components of different durian varieties from Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia. Experimental animal models have shown that durian beneficially reduces blood glucose and cholesterol levels. Durian extract possesses anti-proliferative and probiotics effects in in vitro models. These effects warrant further investigation in human interventional studies for the development of functional food.
... The TPC was higher than in other Malaysian varieties such Chaer Phoy (67.12 mg GAE/100 g FW), Durian D11 (71.13 mg GAE/100 g FW), Durian Yah Kang (80.45 mg GAE/100 g FW) and Durian Ang Jin (97.78 mg GAE/100 g FW) and also higher than in four Thai varieties (26.44-112.17 mg GAE/100 g FW) (Ashraf et al., 2011;Charoenkiatkul et al., 2015). TPC content is especially high in the Monthong variety (360 mg GAE/100 g FW) (Ashraf et al., 2011). ...
... mg GAE/100 g FW) (Ashraf et al., 2011;Charoenkiatkul et al., 2015). TPC content is especially high in the Monthong variety (360 mg GAE/100 g FW) (Ashraf et al., 2011). TPC varies, however, with factors such as ripening and ripe durian showed higher total polyphenol content than merely mature durian (Arancibia-Avila et al., 2008). ...
Durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.) is notorious for its stench. However, durian has a smooth texture and creamy taste, and is rich in macronutrients, bioactive compounds, and volatile compounds. These qualities could be useful in combination with other food components such as β-glucan. β-Glucan is a type of soluble fibre that has been approved by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) for beneficially reducing the postprandial glucose response. The aims of this study were to determine the total polyphenol content in durian and to determine the combined effects of durian and β-glucan on glycaemic response and food intake in rats. The total polyphenols content in the durians (variety D24) was 131.40 (22.20) mg GAE/100 g fresh weight. Durian significantly reduced (p < 0.05) postprandial glucose responses at 15, 30, 60, and 120 mins compared with control. A combination of durian and β-glucan significantly (p < 0.05) reduced glucose responses at 30, 60 and 90 mins compared with control. A combination of durian and β-glucan significantly (p < 0.05) reduced glucose responses at 120 mins compared with control and β-glucan. Food intake of the durian + β-glucan group was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the control, durian and β-glucan groups. This study suggests that a combination of durian and β-glucan potentially reduces glycaemic response and food intake but this needs to be tested in humans.
... There are several different bioactive compounds containing in the durian flesh that are benefit to human health [4]. Caffeic acid and quercetin are the dominant antioxidant substances found in durian [5]. The most popular and commercial durian cultivar in Thailand is 'Monthong' [6] attributed to its full-bodied creamy and mildly sweet flesh taste with relatively moderate smell emitted and its smaller seeds [7]. ...
The study aimed to assess the natural fruit ripening duration, fruit quality, and consumer preference of 3 elite durian cultivars-‘Monthong’, ‘Musang King’, and ‘Ocee’-after harvest. From the day of harvest at maturity stage until the second day of the fresh fruits emitted aroma; ‘Monthong’ took 9 days for full ripening measured by the natural fruit ripening duration value significantly (p < 0.05) longer by 4 days than of ‘Musang King’ and ‘Ocee’. This value indicated that the longer ripening duration, the longer storage life was. The flesh weight, percentage of flesh weight, and flesh thickness most significantly influenced fruit quality. ‘Monthong’ had significantly higher flesh weight, percentage of flesh weight, and thicker flesh (p < 0.05) than ‘Musang King’ and ‘Ocee’. A questionnaire and interview guide were used to compare the sensory qualities (flesh smell and flesh taste) of the durian cultivars by 50 Thai consumers through smelling (mild, moderate, strong) and eating the flesh. Consumer preference was determined by eating the flesh and smelling each cultivar by the same 50 consumers and then chose the durian cultivar they mostly prefer. Consequently, consumers mostly preferred ‘Monthong’ (54 %) over ‘Musang King’ (28 %) and ‘Ocee’ (18 %) due to its mild aroma, mildly sweet taste, crispy but soft golden-yellow flesh. In conclusion, the significantly longer natural fruit ripening duration (or long storage life) of ‘Monthong’ plus its higher flesh weight, higher percentage of flesh weight, more flesh thickness, and consumers’ high preference are good indicators of its export quality-suitable for shipping fresh overland especially to China, top importer of Thailand. ‘Musang King’ and ‘Ocee’ had short ripening duration (or short storage life); ergo, poor export quality. Shipping by land, sea, and air, including packaging technology development, should then be studied further for the benefit of export market. HIGHLIGHTS The natural fruit ripening duration of ‘Monthong’ cultivar was significantly longer than ‘Musang King’ and ‘Ocee’ The longer storage life of ‘Monthong’ cultivar, due to its higher flesh weight, percentage of flesh weight, and flesh thickness, is a good indicator of an export quality suitable for shipping fresh fruit overland By means of smelling and eating the durian flesh by 50 Thai consumers, ‘Monthong’ was recorded to be the most preferred cultivar due to its mild aroma, mildly sweet taste, crispy outer but soft inner and golden-yellow colored flesh GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
... Every 100 g of edible durian fruit contains 156 kcal, 62.5 g water, 2.1 g protein, 3.3 g fat, 29.6 g carbohydrate, 1.4 g crude fiber, 0.9 g ash, 29 mg Ca, 34 mg P, 1.1 mg Fe, 46 µg beta carotene, 8 µg vitamin A, 0.16 mg thiamine, 0.23 mg riboflavin, 2.5 mg niacin, and 35 mg vitamin C2 (Toledo et al., 2008). Caffeic acid and quercetin are the dominant antioxidant substances found in durian (Ashraf et al., 2011). Durian is well-known as the "King of Fruits" because of its unique intense aroma and its sweet custard-like aril (Subhadrabandhu and Ketsa, 2001). ...
Application of paclobutrazol 25% WP with foliar spray at 750 ppm or 60 ml/20 L water/tree on juvenile durian trees cv. 'Monthong' for treatment in December 5 (paclobutrazol application) had a significant effect in enhancing flower bud emergence duration faster by 7 days than treatment in November 5 (paclobutrazol application). However, both treatments (November5 and December5) had a very high percentage of flowering ranged from 93.6-97% after flower induction. Application of paclobutrazol for treatment in December 5 contributed to having a high number of flowered branches per tree, high fruit number per tree, high fruit weight per tree and consequently high yield compared with treatment in November5, except one-fruit weight. Although this value was not a significant parameter to determine the high yield. Through stepwise multiple regression analysis, the fruit weight per tree had the most significant influence on yield. The positive coefficient value indicates that by increasing fruit weight per tree, yield also increases. The gross cost of production in both treatments was not significantly different. But, the gross rate of return derived from treatment December5 was significantly higher than from treatment in November5. Treatment in December5 contributed to having mature fruits harvested at the peak season in June, which obtained the selling price higher than treatment in November5 where mature durian fruits harvested at the middle season in May. Therefore, flowering induced by paclobutrazol for treatment in December5 on the juvenile trees of durian cv. 'Monthong' was better than treatment in November5. It accounted for treatment in December5 having a high net profit as indicated by the value of benefit-cost ratio that was greater than 1 suggesting that this treatment can deliver a positive net present value to the producers of the juvenile durian trees and its investors rather than treatment in November5.
... Durian belongs to the category of exotic fruits, having specific taste as a mixture of mango and avocado [2]. Durian is also rich in polyphenols such as flavonoids (flavanones, flavonols, flavones, flavanols, anthocyanins), phenolic acids (cinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids), tannins, and other bioactive components, such as carotenoids and ascorbic acid [3][4][5][6][7]. Durian fruit possessed an acute effect on the blood pressure of hypertensive rats, but heart rate was unaffected [8]. ...
Durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.), like many other exotic, tropical, and conventional fruits, is important in the prevention of different diseases. In this study, the characterization of the main bioactive compounds of the most popular cultivars of durian and their properties are described. The changes in the quality indices of the antioxidant status were determined by CUPRAC, ABTS, FRAP, DPPH, and ORAC assays. The profiling of phytochemicals was carried out by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). For the first time, in vitro studies were performed by the interaction of extracted durian polyphenols with human serum proteins (HSP) such as human serum albumin (HSAlb), fibrinogen (HSFib) and globulin (HSGlo) as novel biomarkers of coronary artery disease (CAD). The fluorescence measurements of the resulting intensity and calculated binding properties of the interaction of polyphenols with proteins showed that the most reactive was Monthong durian cultivar. This study suggests that durian cultivars have relatively strong antioxidant, binding, and health potentials and could be a significant source of natural antioxidants used in daily fresh consumption and for functional foods.
... Researchers generally believed that organic selenium had lower toxicity and higher absorption than inorganic (Ashraf et al., 2011). Peanut was one of the major crops of China and also a popular food for people. ...
In this study, the selenium enriched peanuts and the different solubility proteins extracted from them were investigated. The dried defatted selenium enriched peanuts (SeP) powder (0.3147. μg/g) had a 2.5-fold higher mean total selenium concentration than general peanuts (GP) power (0.1233. μg/g). The SeP had higher concentration of selenium, manganese and zinc than that of GP, but less calcium. The rate of extraction of protein was 23.39% for peanuts and alkali soluble protein was the main component of protein in SeP, which accounted for 92.82% of total soluble protein and combined selenium was 77.33% of total selenium protein. In different forms of proteins from SeP, the WSePr due to higher concentration of selenium had higher DPPH free-radical scavenging activity, higher reducing activity and longer induction time than other proteins.
... Phlorotannins show antioxidative properties due to the presence of multiple phenolic groups that assist the algae to overcome oxidative stress arising from their environment (Airanthi et al. 2010). The TPC and TFC of the methanolic extract of P. tetrastromatica are closely linked to the antioxidant properties of the extract (Ashraf et al. 2011). ...
The in vitro antioxidant, antiproliferative, genotoxic and cytoprotective effects of the methanolic extract of the seaweed Padina tetrastromatica were assayed using the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, superoxide, nitric oxide and hydroxyl radical scavenging assays, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and comet assays. The methanolic extract of P. tetrastromatica showed considerable antioxidant activity through inhibition of DPPH and hydroxyl radicals, with median inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of 45.57 ± 1.63 and 36.58 ± 2.13 µg/ml, respectively. Treatment of the human breast adenocarcinoma cell line MCF-7 with the methanolic extract, at a concentration range of 0-500 µg/ml, showed considerable antiproliferative effects, with an IC50 value of 125 ± 2.03 µg/ml. The genotoxic and cytoprotective effects of the extract on the human breast adenocarcinoma cell line MCF-7 and the embryonic fibroblast cell line 3T3-L1 were evaluated by the in vitro comet assay, and the extract demonstrated a genotoxic effect on MCF-7 and antigenotoxic and cytoprotective effects on 3T3-L1 cells. The methanolic extract of P. tetrastromatica was more effective in inducing a genotoxic effect in MCF-7 cells and a cytoprotective effect in 3T3-L1 cells, compared with the standard cancer chemotherapy drug doxorubicin, which induced greater DNA damage in the normal 3T3 cells.
Agricultural waste is considered as the valuable assert in the world, they can be actively used as fibers, fertilizer, biogas production, softwood furniture manufacturing etc. However, limitations are to be taken into account. Generally, seeds play a major role in agricultural waste which indicated with huge amount of nutritive value and phytoconstituents. They reflect the therapeutic activity. In this review, we discussed the seeds phytoconstituents and their utility as bioactive agent. In near future, it would be efficient to gain knowledge of seeds which is considered as a waste in their therapeutic evaluation and also as nutritive value.
During the past two decades our international scientific group investigated in vitro the physicochemical and nutritional characteristics of some cultivars of durian at various stages of ripening, mangosteen and new cultivars of snake fruit in comparison with widely used avocado, kiwifruit and mango, and in vivo their influence on laboratory animals. The main objective of the present study was to screen and compare the properties of water and ethanol extracts of selected exotic fruits and the influence of their physiologically active compounds on human health. The bioactive compounds were extracted with water and ethanol using similar procedures as are used in pharmaceutical applications and daily fruit consumption. Various analytical methods were used to detect biologically active metabolites derived from exotic fruits (polyphenols, flavonoids, flavanols, tannins, anthocyanins and ascorbic acid), antioxidant radical scavenging assays (DPPH, FRAP, CUPRAC, and ABTS), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, two (2D-FL) and threedimensional (3D-FL) fluorimetry. The correlation between the polyphenols and other bioactive compounds, and their antioxidant activities, is reported for the studied fruit extracts. The properties of the soil, where the investigated fruits were grown, were studied as well. Supplementation of diets with exotic fruits positively affected the plasma lipid profile and antioxidant activity in rats fed cholesterol-containing diets. The interaction between drugs and serum albumin plays an important role in the distribution and metabolism of drugs. The properties of polyphenol extracts of exotic fruits showed the ability to quench serum albumin by forming complexes similar with the ones formed between the proteins and pure flavonoids such as catechin and quercetin. In conclusion, new application of fluorimetry and FTIR spectroscopy for rapid estimation of the quality of exotic fruits in particular and for any fruits and vegetables in general is presented. It is necessary to promote a consumption of exotic fruits (a rich source of natural antioxidants) as a supplement to everyday human diet and for pharmaceutical applications.
The purpose of this study was to examined the antioxidant activities by water and 70% ethanol extract from durian (Durio zibethinus.) seed, sarcocarp and peel. Durian extract were studied for reducing sugar content, polyphenol content, superoxide dismutase (SOD) like activity, electron donating ability, nitrite scavenging ability, flavonoid content, hydroxy radical scavenging activity. Reducing sugar content were increased peel > sarcocarp > seed. Total polyphenol, flavonoid content, DPPH radical scavenging ability and SOD like activity were increased seed > peel > sarcocarp. Total polyphenol content was relatively high as in the ethanol extract of the seed. DPPH radical scavenging ability was relatively high as in the water extract of the seed. Nitrite scavenging ability was no significant difference. Hydroxy radical scavenging activity was increased seed > peel > sarcocarp, was relatively high as in the water extract of the seed.
The antioxidant properties of durian (Durio zibethinus Murr., cv. Mon Thong) at different stages of ripening were investigated using fluorometry, UV spectroscopy, and HPLC/DAD analyses. Total polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins and flavanols in ripe durian were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than in mature and overripe fruits. Free polyphenols and flavonoids were at lower levels than hydrolyzed ones. Caffeic acid and quercetin were the dominant antioxidant substances in ripe durian. In these fruits, methanol extracts contained a relatively high capacity of 74.9 ± 7.1% inhibition using β-carotene–linoleic acid assay. Ferric-reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) and cupric-reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC) assays supported this finding. The correlation coefficients between polyphenols and antioxidant capacities of durian samples with all applied assays were about 0.98. In conclusion, the bioactivity of ripe durian was high and the total polyphenols were the main contributors to the overall antioxidant capacity.
The antioxidant activities of different durian cultivars at the same stage of ripening (Mon Thong, Chani, Kan Yao, Pung Manee and Kradum) were compared in order to choose the best as a supplement in the human diet. Total polyphenols (mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g fresh weight (FW)) and flavonoids (mg catechin equivalent (CE)/100 g FW) in Mon Thong (361.4+/-23.2 and 93.9+/-7.4) were significantly higher (P<0.05) than in Kradum (271.5+/-11.2 and 69.2+/-5.3) and Kan Yao (283.2+/-16.5 and 72.1+/-6.8). The free polyphenols and flavonoids showed lower results than the hydrolyzed ones. Anthocyanins (microg cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalent/100 g FW) and flavanols (microg CE/100 g FW) were significantly higher in Mon Thong (427.3+/-23.8 and 171.4+/-16.3) than in Kradum (320.2+/-12.1 and 128.6+/-9.7) and Kan Yao (335.3+/-14.1 and 134.4+/-11.7). Ultraviolet spectroscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography/diode array detection analyses showed that caffeic acid and quercetin were the dominant bioactive substances in Mon Thong cultivar. The antioxidant activity (microM trolox equivalent/100 g FW) of Mon Thong cultivar (260.8+/-20.2, 1,075.6+/-81.4 and 2,352.7+/-124.2) determined by ferric-reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP), cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC) and 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) with Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assays was significantly higher (P<0.05) than in Kradum (197.4+/-8.9, 806.5+/-31.2 and 1,773.2+/-102.5) and in Kan Yao (204.7+/-9.7, 845.5+/-48.6 and 1,843.6+/-107.5). The correlation coefficients between polyphenols, flavonoids, flavanols and FRAP, CUPRAC and TEAC capacities were between 0.89 and 0.98. In extracted and separated by electrophoresis durian proteins, some differences were found in the sodium dodecyl sulfate-protein bands in the region of 16 and 68 kDa for Kradum, 45 kDa for Mon Thong and three bands for Kan Yao. Antioxidants and proteins can be used for characterization of the quality of durian cultivars. In conclusion, the bioactivity of durian cultivars Mon Thong, Chani and Pung Manee was high and the total polyphenols were the main contributors to the overall antioxidant capacity. The results of our investigation in vitro are comparable with other fruits that widely used in human diets. Therefore, Durian can be used as a supplement for nutritional and healthy purposes, especially Durian Mon Thong, Chani and Pung Manee.
A quantitative high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection method separating 16 phenolic acids was achieved. Six columns and several mobile phases were investigated. Resolution was achieved with a high-purity silica Phenomenex Luna C18 column (150 mm x 4.6 mm, 5 microm) and a binary gradient consisting of CH3OH-water (with 0.1% formic acid) and flow rate set at 0.7 ml/min. Acids were detected and quantitation performed at wavelength representing the lowest energy lambda(max) for individual acids. Extraction procedure from wine was optimized and yields ranged from 79 to 87% based on internal standard recovery. To confirm our quantitative results, identical samples were analyzed both in-house and by a collaborating laboratory. Correlation of two data sets generated linear regression equations that approached unity (0.93-0.98) and R2 values ranging from 0.990 to 0.999.
Fruits and vegetables contain a variety of phytochemicals, including flavonoids, which have antioxidant and anticancer properties. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antiproliferative effects and synergistic interactions of a variety of flavonoids in Hepa-1c1c7, a mouse liver cancer cell line, and LNCaP, a human prostate cancer cell line. Aglycone flavonoids, such as quercetin, kaempferol, and naringenin (at 12.5 to 50 μM), inhibited cancer cell proliferation in both cell lines in a dose dependent manner without cytotoxicity. In contrast, glycone flavonoids (rutin, quercetrin, and naringin) did not inhibit cell growth. Significant synergistic antiproliferative effects were demonstrated in both cancer cell lines when flavonoids were provided in combination treatments. These results suggest that combinations of flavonoids, which are naturally present in whole fruits and vegetables, are more effective in cancer cell growth inhibition than the individual flavonoids.
The physicochemical (pH, soluble solids, titratable acidity, sugars and organic acids), flavour and sensory properties of five Malaysian durian cultivars (D2, D24, MDUR78, D101 and Chuk) were studied. There were significant differences (P < 0.05) among the five cultivars in terms of all physicochemical characteristics tested with the exception for D2 and MDUR 78, which had similar physicochemical characteristics. Twenty two esters, 14 sulphur compounds, 7 alcohols, 3 aldehydes and 1 ketone were detected in the durian pulp of the five different cultivars using solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography-time of flight mass spectrometry. Diethyl disulphide, ethyl-n-propyl disulphide, diethyl trisulphide and ethanethiol were the predominant sulphur-containing compounds in all the cultivars. The major esters present in durian were either ethyl propanoate, ethyl-2-methyl butanoate, or propyl-2-methylbutanoate and their levels varied within cultivars. Principal component analysis applied to the data differentiated all cultivars based on 29 volatile flavour compounds exhibiting significant differences (P < 0.05) between cultivars. Principal components 1 and 2 explained 89% of the total variance. A strong correlation was observed between sensory properties with flavour compound and physicochemical characteristics of the fruit.
Flavour volatile compounds and sensory attributes in minimally processed durian (Durio zibethinus cv. D24) fruit stored at 4 °C for 42 days were examined. The volatile compounds were extracted by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and analysed by gas chromatography–time of flight mass spectrometry (GC–TOFMS). Forty compounds were identified, among which sulfur compounds, esters, and alcohols were found to be the major constituents. During storage of minimally processed durian at 4 °C, decreases in levels of the majority of ester compounds were observed after 14 days of storage. All ester compounds decreased significantly (P ≤ 0.05) after 1 week of storage except for ethyl acetate that decreased after 2 weeks. Ethanethiol, 1-propanethiol, and both isomers of 3,5-dimethyl 1,2,4-trithiolane decreased significantly after 7 days of storage. Total sulfur content of fruit remained unchanged after 42 days of storage. Benzyl alcohol was produced after 4 weeks of storage and increased thereafter. Principal component analysis (PCA) applied to the data differentiated the fruit over the storage period based on 22 compounds exhibiting significant changes between samples and explained 86% of the total variance with two principal components. Quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) was carried out using sixteen descriptors to describe the surface colour, odour, flavour and texture of fruit during storage. Fruit could be stored for 21 days, after which the green aroma became too intense and rendered the fruit unacceptable. Sulfur notes decreased gradually throughout storage while off odours developed on day 21 and increased to an unacceptable level on day 28 of storage. Sweet and fruity aroma correlated strongly with some ester and aldehyde compounds, while correlations between perceived sulphur aromas and sulphur compounds were poor. A green note and off-odours correlated well with benzyl alcohol and 1-hexanol.
Some flavonoid compounds, naringin, hesperidin, neohesperidin, and quercetin, generally present in fruit juices were separated and determined by high performance liquid chromatography using a C6-phenyl-phase column and diode array detector. The method was partly validated with good results. Flavanones naringin, hesperidin, and neohesperidin were identified as markers of 100% Citrus juices. Their contents in analysed juices were compared with published values established by extensive research of Citrus composition. Quercetin, as a constituent of grapefruit and some other fruit juices, was also studied.
The main aim of the present study was the evaluation of proteins and antioxidant potential in ethylene-treated kiwifruit during the first 10 days of ripening. Kiwifruit samples were randomly divided into two groups: treated and untreated. Flesh firmness, sensory value, visual score, free sugars, soluble solids, ethylene biosynthesis, proteins, dietary fibers, total polyphenols and antioxidant potential were determined in both groups. Ethylene (100 ppm) at 20 degrees C for 24 h was used in the treated group. The flesh firmness and acidity in treated samples decreased significantly in the early stage of ripening simultaneously with significant increase in the contents of free sugars, soluble solids, endogenous ethylene production, sensory value, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) content, ACC synthase and ACC oxidase activities, total polyphenols and related antioxidant potential, and was significantly higher than in untreated samples (P < 0.05). Proteins were extracted from kiwifruit and separated by modified sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The separation was resolved into 14 protein bands. Some minor quality changes were found only in the 32 kDa band, which was more pronounced in the treated samples. In conclusion, ethylene treatment of kiwifruits leads to positive changes in most of the studied kiwifruit compounds and to an increase in the fruit antioxidant potential. It shortens the ripening time and improves fruit quality by decreasing its flesh firmness and acidity. Some minor changes in the protein profile did not affect the fruit taste and quality.
The properties of Mon Thong, Chani and Kan Yao durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.) cultivars were compared in vitro and in vivo studies in order to find the best one as a supplement to antiatherosclerotic diet. Total polyphenols (361.4+/-35.3 mgGAE/100g FW), flavonoids (93.9+/-8.9 mgCE/100g FW) and total antioxidant capacity determined by DPPH and beta-carotene-linoleic acid assays (261.3+/-25.3 microMTE/100g FW and 77.8+/-7.8% of inhibition) were maximal in Mon Thong in comparison with Chani and Kan Yao and showed a good correlation between these three variables (R(2)=0.9859). Five groups of rats were fed diets supplemented with cholesterol and different durian cultivars. Diets supplemented with Mon Thong and to a lesser degree with Chani and Kan Yao significantly hindered the rise in the plasma lipids (TC - 8.7%, 16.1% and 10.3% and (b) LDL-C - 20.1%, 31.3% and 23.5% for the Chol/Kan Yao, Chol/Mon Thong and Chol/Chani, respectively) and the decrease in plasma antioxidant activity (P<0.05). Nitrogen retention remained significantly higher in Chol/Mon Thong than in other diet groups. Diet supplemented with Mon Thong affected the composition of plasma fibrinogen in rats and showed more intensity in protein bands around 47 kDa. No lesions were found in the examined tissue of heart and brains. Mon Thong cultivar is preferable for the supplementation of the diet as positively influenced the lipid, antioxidant, protein and metabolic status. The durian fruit till now was not investigated extensively, therefore based on the results of this study durian cultivars can be used as a relatively new source of antioxidants.
The objective of the present study was to measure the glycemic index of durian, papaya, pineapple and water-melon grown in Malaysia. Ten (10) healthy volunteers (5 females, 5 males; body mass index 21.18+/-1.7 kg/m2) consumed 50 g of available carbohydrate portions of glucose (reference food) and four test foods (durian, papaya, pineapple and watermelon) in random order after an overnight fast. Glucose was tested on three separate occasions, and the test foods were each tested once. Postprandial plasma glucose was measured at intervals for two hours after intake of the test foods. Incremental areas under the curve were calculated, and the glycemic index was determined by expressing the area under the curve after the test foods as a percentage of the mean area under the curve after glucose. The results showed that the area under the curve after pineapple, 232+/-24 mmolxmin/L, was significantly greater than those after papaya, 147+/-14, watermelon, 139+/-8, and durian, 124+/-13 mmolxmin/L (p<0.05). Similarly, the glycemic index of pineapple, 82+/-4, was significantly greater than those of papaya, 58+/-6, watermelon, 55+/-3, and durian, 49+/-5 (p<0.05). The differences in area under the curve and glycemic index among papaya, watermelon and durian were not statistically significant. We conclude that pineapple has a high glycemic index, whereas papaya is intermediate and watermelon and durian are low glycemic index foods. The validity of these results depends on the accuracy of the data in the food tables upon which the portion sizes tested were based.