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Effect of forest bathing on sleep and physical activity
Abstract
Objective: In order to explore the effect of a forest trip on human sleep, we performed continuous monitoring with an accelerometer, including during forest visits. Methods: Twelve healthy male office workers in Tokyo, aged 37 to 55 years old, were selected for the study after obtaining their informed consent. The subjects undertook a three-day/two-night trip to three different forest fields. On the first day, they walked for two hours in the afternoon in a forest field; on the second day, they walked for two hours in the morning and in the afternoon, respectively, in two different forest fields. An accelerometer was used to monitor the duration of sleep and the daily physical activity level. Results: Significant increase of the sleep time during the forest bathing trip was recognized as compared with that noted before the trip. In addition, there was also a significant increase of the daily physical activity during the trip as compared with that after the trip. Conclusions: The authors speculate that the forest bathing trip might have had a beneficial effect on the sleep time, irrespective of the daily physical activity level.
... Among the general health benefits for physical wellbeing, improved sleep effects [39,101,102] were observed together with positive effects on metabolism [103]. Forest interventions, by making people feel more comfortable, more vital and positive, may also support positive social wellbeing, including improved self-esteem and health and promoting positive behaviours towards environment and health, e.g., in undergraduate students and children after FT programmes [104,105]. ...
... A couple of studies suggest that walks and relaxing activities in the forest might improve the general sense of wellbeing, depression and decrease pain and insomnia in patients with fibromyalgia [144] and with chronic wide-spread pain [165]. Moreover, forest visits may have positive effects on people with sleep complaints [101,102], on quality of life and stress also in postmenopausal women [166], in patients with breast-cancer receiving traditional therapy [96] and in patients with metabolic syndrome [141]. ...
Research Highlights: This review gives an overview of existing literature on the emerging topic of human wellbeing-forest contact nexus and provides a preliminary framework linking forests to wellbeing by highlighting key variables affecting this relationship. Background and Objectives: Existing literature reveals the psychological, physiological and social wellbeing benefits of contact with forest ecosystems; however, the role of forests in this relationship remains largely unexplored. The objectives of this review are twofold: (i) to provide an overview of the contributions of forest experiences to human wellbeing and the related interplay with forest ecosystems and (ii) to identify knowledge gaps to inform future research and systematize information available for forest managers and planners to support the development of effective forest-based initiatives. Materials and Methods: A scoping review was performed with a five-phase method integrating a systematic approach on Scopus, Web of Science and PubMed databases and snowball search. Studies were analyzed using a descriptive-analytical method. Results: Overall, 93 papers were included in the review. These are mainly from health-related sciences providing limited information for forest managers, planners and practitioners. Four main underlying variables of the forest-wellbeing relationship are identified: interaction, forest features, sensorial dimension of the forest and individual traits and reactions. Conclusions: Forest-based initiatives provide good opportunities for supporting public health and time spent in contact with forests seems to have a “health-bonus”. Whether and to what extent forest management can contribute to this is still poorly investigated. There is the need to better study causal relationships between specific forest features, type of interactions, frequency and “dose” of experiences, individual reactions and needs and wellbeing effects to maximize benefits from forest-based initiatives.
... Foreign research on forest healing has mainly focused on empirical studies of the health effects of forest healing.Through the collection of empirical and relevant data, those forests with high-quality resources will be built into forest healing bases, and the bases will be certified. At the same time, relevant laws and regulations will be formulated to promote the development of the forest healing industry.Forest bathing trips can increase the activity of NK cells, which releases more anti-cancer proteins, suggesting that forest bathing trips have a preventive effect on the occurrence and spread of cancer [12] . Wang Fuguo et al. also conducted a number of empirical studies on forest bathing and found that forest bathing can alleviate the symptoms of hypertension in the elderly in some aspects and has a good effect on the health of elderly patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [13] . ...
The scientific connotation of forest health highlights the principles of people-centred, forest-based, restoration-focused and healthoriented. In recent years, with the aggravation of population aging and the promotion of Healthy China strategy, forest health industry is booming. Starting from the perspective of the significance of forest recreation, this paper compiles and integrates the current situation of forest health, and analyses in depth that forest health industry can promote the development of low-carbon economy and become an important breakthrough in natural health and wellness, a cultural carrier for the construction of ecological civilization, and an important way of rural revitalization, and that the use of digitalization will definitely enhance the effect and experience of forest recreation. The current situation of digital development of forest recreation industry is described, digital transformation has become the inevitable trend of upgrading the forest recreation tourism industry system, and digital transformation is also the key to the transformation and upgrading of China s economy, as well as the road to high-quality development of the tourism industry. On this basis, the countermeasures research to promote the digital development of forest recreation industry is proposed, which needs to formulate scientific development planning, strengthen management guidance, enhance marketing promotion, actively popularise the new lifestyle of forest recreation, establish forest recreation digital industry demonstration zones, drive the development of the regional economy, as well as increase the training of forest recreationists, optimise the allocation of forest recreation resources and other suggestions for the digital further development.
... At the same time, relevant laws and regulations have been formulated to promote the development of the forest therapy industry. Li Q found that the forest bathing trip can increase the activity of NK cells, thereby releasing more anti-cancer proteins, which shows that the forest bathing trip has a certain preventive effect on the occurrence and spread of cancer [4]. Park Bum-Jin used the POMS survey method to prove that the forest and urban environment enhanced the mental vitality of 47 young male adults who received forest stay therapy. ...
This chapter presents the relevant studies on the short- and long-term health effects of forest bathing and forest therapy. They are scientifically prepared and evaluated. A distinction is made between the relaxing and restorative effects as well as the psychological and physical effects, also on various disease patterns.
In diesem Kapitel werden Ihnen die relevanten Studien zu den kurz- und langfristigen gesundheitlichen Effekten des Waldbadens bzw. der Waldtherapie vorgestellt. Sie werden wissenschaftlich aufbereitet und bewertet. Dabei wird zwischen den entspannenden und erholsamen Effekten sowie den psychischen und den körperlichen Auswirkungen, auch auf verschiedene Krankheitsbilder, unterschieden.
In Japan, a forest bathing trip, called "Shinrinyoku" in Japanese, is a short, leisurely visit to a forest; it is regarded as being similar to natural aromatherapy. This review focuses on the effects of forest bathing trips on human immune function. Beginning in 2005, adult Japanese individuals, both male and female, participated in a series of studies aimed at investigating the effect of forest bathing trips on human immune function. The subjects experienced a 3-day/2-night trip to forest areas, and blood and urine were sampled on days 2 (the first sampling during each trip) and 3 (the second sampling during each trip), and on days 7 and 30 after the trips. Natural killer (NK) activity, the numbers of NK, granulysin-, perforin-, and granzymes A/B-expressing lymphocytes in the blood, and the concentration of urinary adrenaline were measured. The same measurements were made before the trips on a normal working day as a control. The mean values of NK activity and the numbers of NK, granulysin-, perforin-, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells on forest bathing days were significantly higher than those on the control days, whereas the mean values of the concentration of urinary adrenaline on forest bathing days were significantly lower than that on the control days in both male and female subjects. The increased NK activity lasted for more than 30 days after the trip, suggesting that a forest bathing trip once a month would enable individuals to maintain a higher level of NK activity. In contrast, a visit to the city as a tourist did not increase NK activity, the numbers of NK cells, or the level of intracellular granulysin, perforin, and granzymes A/B. These findings indicate that forest bathing trips resulted in an increase in NK activity, which was mediated by increases in the number of NK cells and the levels of intracellular granulysin, perforin, and granzymes A/B.
This paper reviews previous research on the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing), and presents new results from field experiments conducted in 24 forests across Japan. The term Shinrin-yoku was coined by the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries in 1982, and can be defined as making contact with and taking in the atmosphere of the forest. In order to clarify the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku, we conducted field experiments in 24 forests across Japan. In each experiment, 12 subjects (280 total; ages 21.7 +/- 1.5 year) walked in and viewed a forest or city area. On the first day, six subjects were sent to a forest area, and the others to a city area. On the second day, each group was sent to the other area as a cross-check. Salivary cortisol, blood pressure, pulse rate, and heart rate variability were used as indices. These indices were measured in the morning at the accommodation facility before breakfast and also both before and after the walking (for 16 +/- 5 min) and viewing (for 14 +/- 2 min). The R-R interval was also measured during the walking and viewing periods. The results show that forest environments promote lower concentrations of cortisol, lower pulse rate, lower blood pressure, greater parasympathetic nerve activity, and lower sympathetic nerve activity than do city environments. These results will contribute to the development of a research field dedicated to forest medicine, which may be used as a strategy for preventive medicine.
The effect of 40 h of wakefulness on a variety of immunological parameters in the peripheral blood from 10 normal male subjects was studied. Sleep deprivation led to enhanced nocturnal plasma interleukin 1-like and interleukin 2-like activities. The rise in nocturnal response of lymphocytes to pokeweed mitogen stimulation during a normal 24 h sleep-wake cycle was delayed by sleep deprivation, but the response to the phytohemagglutinin mitogen was unaffected. With resumed nocturnal sleep, there was a prolonged decline in natural killer cell activity (measured as spontaneous cytolytic activity for human tumor cells) and return of an increased response to pokeweed mitogen. The altered patterns in immune functions occurred independently of the cortisol circadian rhythm, which remained unchanged.
To investigate the effects of one night's total sleep deprivation (TSD) on NK cell activity, with rigorous control of circadian phase of sampling points as well as physical exercise level in association with sleep deprivation.
The mean sleep onset time of each subject before starting the study was defined as his 0000 h. This study was composed of a Sleep-Sleep session (sleep times, 00:00 h - 08:00 h and 24:00 h - 32:00 h) and a Sleep-Wake session (sleep time, 00:00 h - 08:00 h) with TSD (24:00 h - 32:00 h) placed in a cross-over design with 2-week interval between each session. In each session, the subjects were rested in the supine position under dim light from - 06:00 h to 36:00 h (for 42 hours).
University-based sleep and chronobiology laboratory
10 healthy adult men (mean age, 20.9 y; age range, 19-23 y)
NA.
NK cell activity was measured every 4 hours from 12:00 h. NK cell activity during TSD (at 28:00 h) has been revealed to significantly increase (p=0.01) compared with the corresponding value in the Sleep-Sleep session. This effect was weaker at their usual waking time 32:00 h (p=0.07), and disappeared until 36:00 h (4 hours after awakening). The circadian rhythm phases (dim light melatonin onset time) were coincident between the 2 sessions.
The present findings suggest that one night TSD induces an acute and transient increase in NK cell activity that is not influenced by the effects of circadian rhythm or the amount of physical exercise undertaken during TSD.
In order to explore the effect of forest bathing on human immune function, we investigated natural killer (NK) activity; the number of NK cells, and perforin, granzymes and granulysin-expression in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) during a visit to forest fields. Twelve healthy male subjects, age 37-55 years, were selected with informed consent from three large companies in Tokyo, Japan. The subjects experienced a three-day/two-night trip in three different forest fields. On the first day, subjects walked for two hours in the afternoon in a forest field; and on the second day, they walked for two hours in the morning and afternoon, respectively, in two different forest fields. Blood was sampled on the second and third days, and NK activity; proportions of NK, T cells, granulysin, perforin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells in PBL were measured. Similar measurements were made before the trip on a normal working day as the control. Almost all of the subjects (11/12) showed higher NK activity after the trip (about 50 percent increased) compared with before. There are significant differences both before and after the trip and between days 1 and 2 in NK activity. The forest bathing trip also significantly increased the numbers of NK, perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells. Taken together, these findings indicate that a forest bathing trip can increase NK activity, and that this effect at least partially mediated by increasing the number of NK cells and by the induction of intracellular anti-cancer proteins.
The habituation of human sleep to a noisy environment was investigated by polysomnography (PSG), a wrist activity device (Actiwatch®), subjective evaluation and a performance test on the following morning. Eleven young male students slept for 17 nights in a sleep laboratory. PSG on the first, fourth, fifth, ninth, 14th, and 17th nights was judged visually. Four of the subjects were continuously monitored by the wrist activity device. From the fifth to 14th nights, there was exposure to road traffic noise all-night long, and consecutive experiments were conducted from the fifth to 17th nights. Agreement of sleep/wake assessment for Actiwatch®and PSG was 88·4%, on average, based on the data for 24 nights. Pearson's correlation coefficient of TST for Actiwatch®and sleep PSG was 0·848. Habituation to noise by wrist movement, sleep latency by PSG, and activity of mental muscles was not recognized. The association between wrist activity and mental muscle activity was significant for three subjects out of four (r=0·56, 0·81, 0·71, respectively). Percentages of positive wrist movement in each sleep stage, such as the 3+4 stages, REM stage and stage MT, were compared with those in other stages. Wrist activity in Stage REM was significantly more frequent than that in other stages for the three subjects. Wrist movement in Stage MT was significantly more frequent than in other stages for the three subjects. REM latency, REM cycle, and five factors of subjective sleep, from the Oguri–Shirakawa–Azumi questionnaire (SQ), showed significant differences by analysis of variance for repeated measurements. When change from the 4th night was checked, sleepiness, worry, integrated sleep feeling and sleep initiation by SQ showed habituation of sleep to noise. Namely, sleep quality recovered to the level on a silent night by the fifth noisy night during the experiment. There is thus a habituation of sleep to noise when a subjective evaluation of sleep, such as the SQ, is used.
We previously reported that 2-night/3-day trips to forest parks enhanced human NK activity, the number of NK cells, and intracellular anti-cancer proteins in lymphocytes, and that this increased NK activity lasted for more than 7 days after the trip in both male and female subjects. In the present study, we investigated the effect of a day trip to a forest park on human NK activity in male subjects. Twelve healthy male subjects, aged 35-53 years, were selected after giving informed consent. The subjects experienced a day trip to a forest park in the suburbs of Tokyo. They walked for two hours in the morning and afternoon, respectively, in the forest park on Sunday. Blood and urine were sampled in the morning of the following day and 7 days after the trip, and the NK activity, numbers of NK and T cells, and granulysin, perforin, and granzyme A/B-expressing lymphocytes, the concentration of cortisol in blood samples, and the concentration of adrenaline in urine were measured. Similar measurements were made before the trip on a weekend day as the control. Phytoncide concentrations in the forest were measured. The day trip to the forest park significantly increased NK activity and the numbers of CD16(+) and CD56(+) NK cells, perforin, granulysin, and granzyme A/B-expressing NK cells and significantly decreased CD4(+) T cells, the concentrations of cortisol in the blood and adrenaline in urine. The increased NK activity lasted for 7 days after the trip. Phytoncides, such as isoprene, alpha-pinene, and beta-pinene, were detected in the forest air. These findings indicate that the day trip to the forest park also increased the NK activity, number of NK cells, and levels of intracellular anti-cancer proteins, and that this effect lasted for at least 7 days after the trip. Phytoncides released from trees and decreased stress hormone levels may partially contribute to the increased NK activity.
To investigate the association of individual lifestyle with immune response against tumors, we assayed peripheral blood lymphocytes of 62 healthy males ranging in age from 30 to 60 years for natural killer (NK) cell activity, which is the first line of defense against tumors, and for frequencies of NK cell subsets.
The NK cell activity was determined by 51Cr release assay, and NK cell subsets were counted using surface antigens (CD16, CD57) which recognize NK cell subgroups with different cytolytic potentials. Subjects were classified into groups reporting good, moderate, and poor lifestyles according to their responses on a questionnaire regarding eight health practices (tobacco smoking, alcohol consumption, hours of sleep, physical exercise, eating breakfast, balanced nutrition, hours of work habits, and mental stress).
Individuals reporting good lifestyle habits were found to have the highest NK cell activity and it was significantly higher than the NK cell activity in those reporting poor lifestyle habits. Those reporting good health practices regarding smoking and physical exercise showed significantly higher NK cell activity at an effector-to-target-cell ratio of 40:1.
The higher NK cell activity among individuals reporting good lifestyle practices may reflect an increase in the cytolytic potential of NK cell activity within the CD16+, CD57- subset.
To investigate the association between lifestyle factors and immune responses to tumors, we determined lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cell activity and proportions of lymphocyte subsets in 54 healthy males.
LAK cell activity was determined by 51Cr release assay. The proportions of natural killer cells (CD3-16+56-, CD3-16-56+ or CD3-16+56+ cells), helper/ inducer T cells (CD4+8-), and cytotoxic/suppressor T cells (CD4-8+) in lymphocytes were also determined by flow cytometry. Subjects were classified into two groups, good or poor overall lifestyle, according to their answers on a questionnaire regarding eight health practices (cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, physical exercise, mental stress, sleeping pattern, nutritional balance, eating breakfast, working pattern).
Subjects with good health practices regarding smoking showed significantly higher LAK cell activity. They also showed a significantly higher proportion of natural killer cells and a lower proportion of helper/inducer T cells. LAK cells activity was significantly higher in subjects with a good overall lifestyle than in those with a poor overall lifestyle after controlling for the effects of smoking. There were no significant differences in the proportions of lymphocyte subsets between the two lifestyle groups.
Lifestyle factors are associated with LAK cell activity and the proportion of lymphocyte subsets.
To compare 2 commercially available actigraphs.
Subjects wore the Actiwatch L and the Basic Mini-Motionlogger for 2 nights.
Naturalistic.
20 healthcare workers aged 24 to 64 years.
Measures included sleep latency, total sleep time, wake after sleep onset, and sleep efficiency. Actiwatch L data were analyzed at 3 sensitivity settings.
The Mini-Motionlogger reported more total sleep time, less wake after sleep onset, and greater sleep efficiency than the Actiwatch L set at high sensitivity. It also reported more wake after sleep onset than the Actiwatch L set at low sensitivity.
Both devices achieved similar overall performance when the Actiwatch L was set at medium sensitivity.
It is well documented that natural killer (NK) cells provide host defense against tumors and viruses. We previously showed that lifestyle affects human NK and LAK activities. In order to explore the underlying mechanism, we investigated the effect of lifestyle on intracellular perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL).
114 healthy male subjects, aged 20-59 years, from a large company in Osaka, Japan were selected with informed consent. The subjects were divided into groups reporting good, moderate, and poor lifestyles according to their responses on a questionnaire regarding eight health practices (cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, sleeping hours, working hours, physical exercise, eating breakfast, balanced nutrition, and mental stress). Peripheral blood was taken, and numbers of NK, T, perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells in PBL were measured by flow cytometry.
Subjects with good or moderate lifestyle showed significantly higher numbers of NK, and perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells and a significantly lower number of T cells in PBL than subjects with poor lifestyle. Among the eight health practices, cigarette smoking, physical exercise, eating breakfast, and balanced nutrition significantly affect the numbers of NK, T cells, perforin, granulysin, and/or granzymes A/B-expressing cells, and alcohol consumption significantly affects the number of granzyme A-expressing cells. On the other hand, mental stress, sleeping, and working hours had no effect on those parameters.
Taken together, these findings indicate that poor lifestyle significantly decreases the numbers of NK, perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells in PBL.
Shinrin-yoku (walking and/or staying in forests in order to promote health) is a major form of relaxation in Japan; however, its effects have yet to be completely clarified. The aims of this study were: (1) to evaluate the psychological effects of shinrin-yoku in a large number of participants; and (2) to identify the factors related to these effects.
Four hundred and ninety-eight healthy volunteers took part in the study. Surveys were conducted twice in a forest on the same day (forest day) and twice on a control day. Outcome measures were evaluated using the Multiple Mood Scale-Short Form (hostility, depression, boredom, friendliness, wellbeing and liveliness) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory A-State Scale. Statistical analyses were conducted using analysis of variance and multiple regression analyses.
Hostility (P<0.001) and depression (P<0.001) scores decreased significantly, and liveliness (P=0.001) scores increased significantly on the forest day compared with the control day. The main effect of environment was also observed with all outcomes except for hostility, and the forest environment was advantageous. Stress levels were shown to be related to the magnitude of the shinrin-yoku effect; the higher the stress level, the greater the effect.
This study revealed that forest environments are advantageous with respect to acute emotions, especially among those experiencing chronic stress. Accordingly, shinrin-yoku may be employed as a stress reduction method, and forest environments can be viewed as therapeutic landscapes. Therefore, customary shinrin-yoku may help to decrease the risk of psychosocial stress-related diseases, and evaluation of the long-term effects of shinrin-yoku is warranted.