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Ravintsara (Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl.) essential oil and hydrolat in therapeutics
Abstract
The chemical compositions of ravintsara (Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Presl.) essential oil and aromatic fraction of hydrolat were determined by gas chromatography. Six compounds are identified for the first time in this essential oil : linalool, para-menth-2-en-1-ol, δ-terpineol, borneol, trans-nerolidol and globulol. Thirteen compounds are identified in the aromatic fraction of ravintsara hydrolat representing more than 90% of the product. 1,8-cineole is the major component of both essential oil and hydrolat. The determination of the chemical composition of these products is the basis to discuss the use of these products in the field of therapeutics.
... p-Menthan-1,8-diol is reported as < 0.01% in Freesia hybrida flowers, 0.41% in Agastache mexicana, 20 -31% in edible mushroom, Cinnamomum camphora and Magnolia species (Harada and Mihara 1984;Jeannot et al., 2007;Kitzberger et al., 2007;Reyes et al., 2004;Zufa et al., 1993). The plant materials from Karakheila, Luqman Kheil and Shaheed Abad were grouped in one sub-cluster with same cluster distance while the plant material of Malikheil plains stood alone in a separate subcluster. ...
Seriphidium kurramense is an endemic and economic medicinal plant growing in a small narrow valley of tribal region in Pakistan, Upper Kurram Agency, at Pakistan-Afghanistan border. GC-MS analysis of essential oils of S. kurramense identified 28 chemical constituents from 16 populations with two distinct chemotypes, A and B. Both chemotypes represented similar morphological features. Major chemical constituents of chemotype A comprising 12 populations, consisted of -thujone (26.0 -73.4 %), -thujone (3.14 -49.3 %), 1,8-cineole (10.2 -22.3 %) and camphor (0 -26.3 %), while the major chemical constituents of chemotype B from four populations were p-menthan-1,8-diol (23.1 -35.2 %), 1,8-cineole (10.2 -23.8 %) and an unknown chemical compound (12.5 -25.9 %). Significant differences in toxicity levels were observed in all the 16 populations of S. kurramense. Chemotype B showed highest root and Hypocotyle inhibition of lettuce seeds as compared to Chemotype A.
Steam-distilled aerial parts of Ravensara aromatica and Cinnamomum camphora from Madagascar and Leptospermum scoparium from New Zealand have been subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis by means of GC techniques. This allowed the elucidation of conflicting data present in the available literature for these species. Also, the biological activity in vitro was evaluated by measuring MICs and GIZs.
The quality of natural orange blossom water from Morocco was determined via two criteria: quantification of essential oil dissolved and analysis of its chemical composition by gas chromatography. This study was conducted on 10 samples taken from commercial batches.
Objective and Design: To evaluate potential anti-inflammatory properties of tea tree oil, the essential oil steam distilled from the Australian native plant, Melaleuca alternifolia.¶Material and Methods: The ability of tea tree oil to reduce the production in vitro of tumour necrosis factor-α (TNFα), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-8, IL-10 and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated human peripheral blood monocytes was examined.¶Results: Tea tree oil emulsified by sonication in a glass tube into culture medium containing 10% fetal calf serum (FCS) was toxic for monocytes at a concentration of 0.016% v/v. However, the water soluble components of tea tree oil at concentrations equivalent to 0.125% significantly suppressed LPS-induced production of TNFα, IL-1β and IL-10 (by approximately 50%) and PGE2 (by approximately 30%) after 40 h. Gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry identified terpinen-4-ol (42%), α-terpineol (3%) and 1,8-cineole (2%, respectively, of tea tree oil) as the water soluble components of tea tree oil. When these components were examined individually, only terpinen-4-ol suppressed the production after 40 h of TNFα, IL-1β, IL-8, IL-10 and PGE2 by LPS-activated monocytes.
Conclusion: The water-soluble components of tea tree oil can suppress pro-inflammatory mediator production by activated human monocytes.
Tea tree oil, or the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia, is becoming increasingly popular as a naturally occurring antimicrobial agent. The antimicrobial activity of eight components of tea tree oil was evaluated using disc diffusion and broth microdilution methods. Attempts were also made to overcome methodological problems encountered with testing compounds which have limited solubility in aqueous media. After assessing media with and without solubilizing agents, the disc diffusion method was used to determine the susceptibility of a range of micro-organisms to 1,8-cineole, 1-terpinen-4-ol, rho-cymene, linalool, alpha-terpinene, gamma-terpinene, alpha-terpineol and terpinolene. While the disc diffusion method lacked reproducibility, it was considered useful as a procedure for screening for antimicrobial activity. Terpinen-4-ol was active against all the test organisms while rho-cymene demonstrated no antimicrobial activity. Linalool and alpha-terpineol were active against all organisms with the exception of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Minimum inhibitory and minimum cidal concentrations of each component against Candida albicans, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were determined using a broth microdilution method. Modifications to this method overcame solubility and turbidity problems associated with the oil components and allowed the antimicrobial activity of each of the components to be quantified reproducibly. There was reasonable agreement between minimum inhibitory concentrations and zones of inhibition. These results may have significant implications for the future development of tea tree oil as an antimicrobial agent.
Cineole (eucalyptol) is the isolated active agent of eucalyptus oil. Traditionally, it is recommended for treating the symptoms of airway diseases exacerbated by infection. We have examined the inhibitory effect of 1.8-cineole on LPS-and IL1beta-stimulated mediator production by human monocytes in vitro. For the first time, we report on a dose-dependent and highly significant inhibition of production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1beta, leukotriene B4 and thromboxane B2 by 1.8-cineole. In summary, this is the first report on a new mechanism of action of monoterpenes suggesting 1.8-cineole as a strong inhibitor of cytokines that might be suitable for longterm treatment of airway inflammation in bronchial asthma and other steroid-sensitive disorders.
This study investigated the gastroptrotective effect of 1,8-cineole (cineole) on ethanol-induced gastric mucosal damage in rats and the possible mechanisms involved. 1,8-Cineole (50-200 mg/kg), given orally 1 hr before administration of 1 ml of absolute ethanol significantly attenuated the ethanol-induced gastric injury in a manner similar to nordihydroguairetic acid, a known lipoxygenase inhibitor. 1,8-Cineole showed a tendency to restore the ethanol-associated decreases in nonprotein sulfhydryls, suggesting a possible antioxidant effect. In gastric secretion studies, 1,8-cineole, similar to cimetidine, a known histamine-2 receptor antagonist, demonstrated significant inhibitions of both gastric juice volume as well as total acid output. The protection offered by 1,8-cineole was found to be unaltered by 8-phenyltheophylline or L-NAME, indicating that its effect is not mediated by endogenous adenosine or nitric oxide. These results, taken together with the earlier reports, suggest that the antioxidant and lipoxygenase inhibitory actions of 1,8-cineole are of prime importance in affording gastroprotection against ethanol injury in the rat.
This study compared the antimicrobial activity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil with that of some of its components, both individually and in two-component combinations.
Minimum inhibitory concentration and time-kill assays revealed that terpinen-4-ol, the principal active component of tea tree oil, was more active on its own than when present in tea tree oil. Combinations of terpinen-4-ol and either gamma-terpinene or p-cymene produced similar activities to tea tree oil. Concentration-dependent reductions in terpinen-4-ol activity and solubility also occurred in the presence of gamma-terpinene.
Non-oxygenated terpenes in tea tree oil appear to reduce terpinen-4-ol efficacy by lowering its aqueous solubility.
These findings explain why tea tree oil can be less active in vitro than terpinen-4-ol alone and further suggest that the presence of a non-aqueous phase in tea tree oil formulations may limit the microbial availability of its active components.
Airway hypersecretion is mediated by increased release of inflammatory mediators and can be improved by inhibition of mediator production. We have recently reported that 1.8-cineol (eucalyptol) which is known as the major monoterpene of eucalyptus oil suppressed arachidonic acid metabolism and cytokine production in human monocytes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory efficacy of 1.8-cineol by determining its prednisolone equivalent potency in patients with severe asthma. Thirty-two patients with steroid-dependent bronchial asthma were enrolled in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. After determining the effective oral steroid dosage during a 2 month run-in phase, subjects were randomly allocated to receive either 200 mg 1.8-cineol t. i.d. or placebo in small gut soluble capsules for 12 weeks. Oral glucocorticosteroids were reduced by 2.5 mg increments every 3 weeks. The primary end point of this investigation was to establish the oral glucocorticosteroid-sparing capacity of 1.8-cineol in severe asthma. Reductions in daily prednisolone dosage of 36% with active treatment (range 2.5-10 mg, mean: 3.75 mg) vs. a decrease of only 7% (2.5-5 mg, mean: 0.91 mg) in the placebo group (P = 0.006) were tolerated. Twelve of 16 cineol vs. four out of 16 placebo patients achieved a reduction of oral steroids (P = 0.012). Long-term systemic therapy with 1.8-cineol has asignificant steroid-saving effect in steroid-depending asthma. This is the first evidence suggesting an anti-inflammatory activity of the monoterpene 1.8-cineol in asthma and a new rational for its use as mucolytic agent in upper and lower airway diseases.
Eucalyptol is an essential oil that relaxes bronchial and vascular smooth muscle although its direct actions on isolated myocardium have not been reported. We investigated a putative negative inotropic effect of the oil on left ventricular papillary muscles from male Wistar rats weighing 250 to 300 g, as well as its effects on isometric force, rate of force development, time parameters, post-rest potentiation, positive inotropic interventions produced by Ca2+ and isoproterenol, and on tetanic tension. The effects of 0.3 mM eucalyptol on myosin ATPase activity were also investigated. Eucalyptol (0.003 to 0.3 mM) reduced isometric tension, the rate of force development and time parameters. The oil reduced the force developed by steady-state contractions (50% at 0.3 mM) but did not alter sarcoplasmic reticulum function or post-rest contractions and produced a progressive increase in relative potentiation. Increased extracellular Ca2+ concentration (0.62 to 5 mM) and isoproterenol (20 nM) administration counteracted the negative inotropic effects of the oil. The activity of the contractile machinery evaluated by tetanic force development was reduced by 30 to 50% but myosin ATPase activity was not affected by eucalyptol (0.3 mM), supporting the idea of a reduction of sarcolemmal Ca2+ influx. The present results suggest that eucalyptol depresses force development, probably acting as a calcium channel blocker.
Hepatitis B and C constitute an important problem for public health. Currently in France, the prevalence of hepatitis C (HCV) is estimated at 1.1% (approximately 500,000 people 80% of which are viraemic). Its worldwide prevalence is 3%. The prevalence of hepatitis B (HBV) is between 0.2% and 0.5% (at least 100,000 people). 85-90% of persons with HCV go onto develop chronic hepatitis whereas for HBV, this is only 5-10% in immunocompetent carriers. For HCV, the current treatment is bitherapy with interferon pegyl alpha-2a or alpha-2b (IFN-α) and ribavirin. This leads to eradication of the virus in almost 85% of patients infected with genotype 2 or 3 and only 50% in those with genotype 1. Negative side effects of treatment are common. For HBV, allopathic treatments rely on IFN-α and nucleoside analogues such as lamivudine and adefovir. The objectives of treatment are to render the virus non-infective rather than lead to virus eradication. This study was conducted on 60 patients that were chronic carriers of hepatitis B or C (50 HCV and 10 HBV). 42 women and 8 men were recruited between the ages of 12 and 75 years. Essential oils such as ravintsara, Labrador tea, carrot seed, thyme ct thujanol, laurel, niaouli and helichrysum were used orally either in monotherapy or as a complement to allopathic treatment. In patients with HCV treated with bitherapy and essential oils, tolerance and response to treatment was improved (80% good tolerance and 100% complete response especially for genotype 1). For patients with HCV treated with monotherapy (essential oils), an improvement in hepatitis was noted in 64% of cases. For HBV, two cures were obtained with essential oils in monotherapy. Treatment with essential oils may thus offer treatment opportunities either in monotherapy or as complements to allopathic interventions.
In order to establish the value of the use of biological activities as accessory criteria (in conjunction with gas chromatography, but in the absence of enantiomeric analysis) for establishing the authenticity of essential oils, the biological activities of 105 commercial essential oils were investigated against 25 species of bacteria, 20 strains of Listeria monocytogenes, and three filamentous fungi; their antioxidant action was also determined and all the results were related to the actual chemical composition of the oils as determined by gas chromatography. The results showed some relationship between the major components and some bioactivities. There was a negative correlation between 1,8-cineole content and antifungal activity. There was, however, great variability between the biological action of different samples of individual oils and groups of oils under the same general name, e.g. lavender, eucalyptus or chamomile, which was reflected in differences in chemical composition, The results suggest that, although the biological activities are not all related to the main components, any significant blending, rectification and adulteration of commercial oils can be monitored by their biological activities. The use of essential oils named simply as ‘chamomile’ or ‘eucalyptus’, or any commercial oil which has been adulterated, cannot be justifiably used in treating medical conditions unless it can be shown that the action is non-specific and independent of the chemical composition. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
In Collaboration with the Institut Malgache de Recherches Appliquées, Antananarivo, the composition of the essential oils of medicinal plants indigenous to or cultivated in Madagascar was determined. The aim of the study was the evaluation of these plants for their possible safe use in many products of wide consumption such as foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals or cosmetics.
Analyses were performed coupling the data obtained by capillary gas chromatography and 1H- and 13C-NMR techniques. The 13C-NMR spectroscopy proved to be an important tool, which can be very useful in the identification of main constituents, whereas only partial indications can be obtained for minor components. The results of the analyses of the essential oils of commercial plants (Cinnamomum camphora Nees and Eberm., Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyn., Eucalyptus citriodora Hook, Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Eucalyptus spp., Melaleuca viridiflora Soland. ex Gaertn., Ocimum gratissmium L.) and endemic species (i.e., Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humbert, Priadia goyavia Berger, Ravensara anisata Danguy and Choux) are reported. Some antibacterial activities against Escherichia coli of the essential oils are also reported.
Tea tree oil, or the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia, is becoming increasingly popular as a naturally occurring antimicrobial agent. The antimicrobial activity of eight components of tea tree oil was evaluated using disc diffusion and broth microdilution methods. Attempts were also made to overcome methodological problems encountered with testing compounds which have limited solubility in aqueous media. After assessing media with and without solubilizing agents, the disc diffusion method was used to determine the susceptibility of a range of micro-organisms to 1,8-cineole, 1-terpinen-4-ol, ρ-cymene, linalool, α-terpinene, γ-terpinene, α-terpineol and terpinolene. While the disc diffusion method lacked reproducibility, it was considered useful as a procedure for screening for antimicrobial activity. Terpinen-4-ol was active against all the test organisms while ρ-cymene demonstrated no antimicrobial activity. Linalool and α-terpineol were active against all organisms with the exception of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Minimum inhibitory and minimum cidal concentrations of each component against Candida albicans, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were determined using a broth microdilution method. Modifications to this method overcame solubility and turbidity problems associated with the oil components and allowed the antimicrobial activity of each of the components to be quantified reproducibly. There was reasonable agreement between minimum inhibitory concentrations and zones of inhibition. These results may have significant implications for the future development of tea tree oil as an antimicrobial agent.
One hour after the addition of 0.5 ml rosemary oil per cage for evaporation (141 of volume) the concentration of 1,8-cineole in the blood, 11.15 nl/g, approached that in the breathing air, 13.65 nl/ml. Inhalation and oral administration of various doses of rosemary oil produced dose-related increases in blood levels of 1,8-cineole. An increase in locomotor activity was observed in both cases. The disappearance of 1,8-cineole from the blood immediately after the termination of a 60-min inhalation period was biphasic: a rapid phase of elimination of about 10 min with a short blood half life (t/2 = 6 min) was followed by a slower rate of elimination (t/2 = 45 min).
Since the blood levels of 1,8-cineole (if taken as an indicator for the blood levels of rosemary oil) associated with the stimulation of locomotor activity were similar regardless of whether the oil was administered by inhalation or orally, it is suggested that the stimulation of locomotor activity by rosemary oil is due at least in part to the direct pharmacological action of one or more of its constituents.
Beside olfactory or trigeminal stimulation of chemosensory receptor-cells some results in published literature suggest that
fragrances show a direct affect on the brain. The effect of the fragrance 1,8-cineol, which was described in literature as
‘stimulating’, on regional and global cerebral blood flow (rCBF and gCBF) in the human brain after prolonged inhalation was
investigated. The results show an increase of global-CBF without preference to primary or secondary olfactory centres after
an inhalation-time of 20 min.
Isoborneol, a monoterpene and a component of several plant essential oils, showed dual viricidal activity against herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1). First, it inactivated HSV-1 by almost 4 log10 values within 30 min of exposure, and second, isoborneol at a concentration of 0.06% completely inhibited viral replication, without affecting viral adsorption. Isoborneol did not exhibit significant cytotoxicity at concentrations ranging between 0.016% and 0.08% when tested against human and monkey cell lines. Isoborneol specifically inhibited glycosylation of viral polypeptides based on the following data: (1) the mature fully glycosylated forms of two viral glycoproteins gB and gD were not detected when the virus was replicated in the presence of isoborneol, (2) no major changes were observed in the glycosylation pattern of cellular polypeptides between untreated and isoborneol treated Vero cells, (3) isoborneol did not affect the glycosylation of gB produced from a copy of the gB gene resident in the cellular genome, and (4) other monoterpenes such as 1,8-cineole and borneol, a stereoisomer of isoborneol, did not inhibit HSV-1 glycosylation.
The antiviral effect of Australian tea tree oil (TTO) and eucalyptus oil (EUO) against herpes simplex virus was examined. Cytotoxicity of TTO and EUO was evaluated in a standard neutral red dye uptake assay. Toxicity of TTO and EUO was moderate for RC-37 cells and approached 50% (TC50) at concentrations of 0.006% and 0.03%, respectively. Antiviral activity of TTO and EUO against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) was tested in vitro on RC-37 cells using a plaque reduction assay. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of TTO for herpes simplex virus plaque formation was 0.0009% and 0.0008% and the IC50 of EUO was determined at 0.009% and 0.008% for HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively. Australian tea tree oil exhibited high levels of virucidal activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 in viral suspension tests. At noncytotoxic concentrations of TTO plaque formation was reduced by 98.2% and 93.0% for HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively. Noncytotoxic concentrations of EUO reduced virus titers by 57.9% for HSV-1 and 75.4% for HSV-2. Virus titers were reduced significantly with TTO, whereas EUO exhibited distinct but less antiviral activity. In order to determine the mode of antiviral action of both essential oils, either cells were pretreated before viral infection or viruses were incubated with TTO or EUO before infection, during adsorption or after penetration into the host cells. Plaque formation was clearly reduced, when herpes simplex virus was pretreated with the essential oils prior to adsorption. These results indicate that TTO and EUO affect the virus before or during adsorption, but not after penetration into the host cell. Thus TTO and EUO are capable to exert a direct antiviral effect on HSV. Although the active antiherpes components of Australian tea tree and eucalyptus oil are not yet known, their possible application as antiviral agents in recurrent herpes infection is promising.
The local anaesthetic activity of a number of compounds with different structures, contained in essential oils, was studied. Anaesthetic activity was evaluated in vivo in the rabbit conjunctival reflex test and in vitro in a rat phrenic nerve-hemidiaphragm technique. Among the substances tested terpineol and trans-anethole (10(-3) - 1 microg/ml) were able to drastically reduce the electrically evoked contractions of rat phrenic nerve-hemidiaphragm in a concentration-dependent manner, but not eugenol, (-)- and (+)-citronellal, (-)- and (+)-carvone, trans cinnamaldehyde and alpha-terpinene. In the rabbit conjunctival reflex test, the treatment with a solution of terpineol and trans-anethole (10 - 100 microg/ml) effected a concentration-dependent increase in the number of stimuli required to evoke the reflex, thus confirming in vivo the local anaesthetic activity observed in vitro. Eugenol, (-)- and (+)-citronellal, trans-cinnamaldehyde, (-)- and (+)-carvone and alpha-terpinene were as ineffective in the in vivo test as they were in the in vitro results.
The purpose of this study was to examine the antibacterial effects of a wide variety of essential oils on major respiratory tract pathogens. The antibacterial activity of 14 essential oils and their major components was evaluated by agar-plate dilution assay under sealed conditions, with agar used as a stabilizer for homogeneous dispersion. Of the selected strains of four major bacteria causing respiratory tract infection, Haemophilus influenzae was most susceptible to the essential oils, followed by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes. Staphylococcus aureus was less susceptible. No cross-resistance was observed between penicillin-sensitive and penicillin-resistant S. pneumoniae. Escherichia coli, used as a control bacterium, showed the lowest susceptibility. Essential oils containing aldehyde or phenol as a major component showed the highest antibacterial activity, followed by the essential oils containing terpene alcohols. Other essential oils, containing terpene ketone, or ether, had much weaker activity, and an oil containing terpene hydrocarbon was inactive. Based on these findings, thyme (wild, red, and geraniol types), cinnamon bark, lemongrass, perilla, and peppermint oils were selected for further evaluation of their effects on respiratory tract infection.
To investigate the in vitro antifungal activity of the components of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil.
Activity was investigated by broth microdilution and macrodilution, and time kill methods. Components showing the most activity, with minimum inhibitory concentrations and minimum fungicidal concentrations of < or =0.25%, were terpinen-4-ol, alpha-terpineol, linalool, alpha-pinene and beta-pinene, followed by 1,8-cineole. The remaining components showed slightly less activity and had values ranging from 0.5 to 2%, with the exception of beta-myrcene which showed no detectable activity. Susceptibility data generated for several of the least water-soluble components were two or more dilutions lower by macrodilution, compared with microdilution.
All tea tree oil components, except beta-myrcene, had antifungal activity. The lack of activity reported for some components by microdilution may be due to these components becoming absorbed into the polystyrene of the microtitre tray. This indicates that plastics are unsuitable as assay vessels for tests with these or similar components.
This study has identified that most components of tea tree oil have activity against a range of fungi. However, the measurement of antifungal activity may be significantly influenced by the test method.
The monoterpene oxide, 1,8-cineole (cineole, eucalyptol) was examined for its possible influence on the acute phase of trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in rats. The test compound, 1,8-cineole (200 and 400 mg/kg) or vehicle (1 ml, 2% Tween 80) was instilled rectally, 24, and 2 h before (pre-treatment) or 2 and 24 h after (post-treatment) the induction of colitis by intracolonic administration of TNBS (0.25 ml of 25 mg of TNBS in 50% ethanol). Rats were killed 48 h after colitis induction and colonic segments were analysed for gross damage scores, changes in wet weights, myeloperoxidase activity, an indicator of neutrophilic infiltration and glutathione level, a major cellular antioxidant. TNBS induced an extensive inflammation and ulceration in the colon. Colonic damage was associated with an increase in myeloperoxidase activity and by a decrease in glutathione. When compared to vehicle-treated TNBS controls, a marked reduction in gross damage scores and wet weights (mg/cm) of colonic segments were evident in animals pre-treated but not post-treated with 1,8-cineole. Cineole also significantly reduced the myeloperoxidase activity, and caused repletion of glutathione. These results confirm the anti-inflammatory action of 1,8-cineole and suggest its potential value as a dietary flavoring agent in the prevention of gastrointestinal inflammation and ulceration.
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