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Toward a boundaryless career: A closer look at the expatriate career concept and the perceived implications of an international assignment
... Although employees often believe that expatriate assignments will lead to promotions (Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002), relatively few are actually promoted when they return from overseas (Kraimer et al., 2009), and many feel that these assignments have not improved their career prospects (Harvey, 1989). Indeed, one study suggested that international work experience may slow rather than speed the ascent of executives to the highest levels of their firms (Hamori & Koyuncu, 2011). ...
... First, while much research on international mobility has focused on single out-and-back expatriate assignments (e.g. Bossard & Peterson, 2005;Shay & Baack, 2004;Stahl et al., 2002;Suutari & Brewster, 2003), there is a growing awareness that global careers often involve multiple moves over time (Suutari & Mäkelä, 2007). Some of these moves may have more impact on compensation than others. ...
... Second, international mobility varies in whether it takes place within firms or between firms. While much of the management research in this area focuses on expatriates who transfer to different subsidiaries within the same firm (e.g., Shay & Baack, 2004;Stahl et al., 2002), there is growing recognition that many knowledge workers' careers involve moves between firms (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996;Carr, Inkson, & Thorn, 2005). Thus, while some international moves may take the form of within-firm transfers, others may occur at the same time that people move between firms. ...
... The significance of multinationals jobs' shifting orientation has recently been highlighted in IHRM-related publications (Collings et al., 2007;Dickmann and Harris, 2005;Stahl et al., 2002;Thomas et al., 2005). The effect of shifting career attitudes and their bearing on candidates' ...
... Particularly, it is becoming clear that each assignee views the assignment's primary value as the development of personal skills that can be used across enterprises and are appreciated on the external work force (DeFillippi & Arthur, 1996;Stahl and Chua, 2006;Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002). According to Dickmann and Harris (2005: 400), "there is a correlation between IA (international assignment) and the organizational gains in advancement of professional investment seems to be...vague," international assignments may be better for an individual's career and in terms of enhancing personal social capital than in terms of enhancing organizational capital. ...
... IHRM addresses a significant challenge for MNEs in practice by showing how companies may attract, develop, and retain highly competent individuals to lead in international operations and achieve their growth goals (Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002). However, the unexpected scenario is that established procedures created for more traditional local workers can be used to teach and grow such a skilled global workforce. ...
This research has focused a lot on the intercultural impediments that expatriates face when working abroad. It is also demonstrated how intercultural challenges could affect both organizational performance and the performance of expatriates by analyzing past research in this field. It has also covered additional topics like IHRM, expatriate management, cross-cultural management, and so forth that are related to expatriates and intercultural impediments. After studying some past studies, I came up with a model that will help expatriates overcome these intercultural impediments from the expatriation stage through the repatriation stage. Three phases make up my model: Problem stage, IHRM action, and Result. I've included several intercultural challenges that expatriates could face, from the expatriation stage to the repatriation stage. These intercultural impediments were discovered through interviews with two MNCs in Hungary and a review of earlier research. I then attempted to explain specific initiatives that IHRM will take to address those intercultural challenges in the second stage. In the final stage of this approach, I have shown how those activities might improve the wellbeing of both MNCs and expatriates. On the basis of two interviews and past research in this field, I have also developed and examined hypotheses. I have talked about how age, education, international experience, and expatriate failure might affect an expatriate's performance and the success of the organization. So, intercultural impediments are what have an impact on an expatriate's performance and how an organization is influenced by an expatriate's success or failure.
... In expatriate studies, the motives of accepting international assignments among organizational expatriates (OEs) have included personal interest and career progression as being common themes (e.g. Chen, at al. 2010;Tahir & Ismail, 2007;Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002;Naumann, 1993). For example, in a study by Stahl, Miller and Tung (2002) of 435 expatriates found that the majority of respondents ranked 'personal challenge' as the main motivator for managers to accept international assignments. ...
... Chen, at al. 2010;Tahir & Ismail, 2007;Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002;Naumann, 1993). For example, in a study by Stahl, Miller and Tung (2002) of 435 expatriates found that the majority of respondents ranked 'personal challenge' as the main motivator for managers to accept international assignments. However, what motivates OEs may have little relevance in the managing of SIEs (Suutari & Brewster, 2000;Selmer & Lauring, 2010). ...
... Although there is an abundance of literature on expatriate management, there has been less emphasis on the study of self-initiated expatriation as compared to organizational or corporate expatriation. Organizational expatriates (OEs) refer to individuals assigned by their respective employer to work in a foreign country (Dowling, Festing, & Engle, 2017;Selmer & Lauring, 2010;Richardson & McKenna, 2006;Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002;Suutari & Brewster, 2000). Since the decision to move and seek employment in another country is an individual choice, self-initiated expatriates are seen as operating outside of the standard framework of organization-initiated expatriation. ...
Purpose: In the study of expatriation, there has been less emphasis on the study of self-initiated expatriation as compared to organizational expatriation. Since people in the academia profession are amongst the most mobile and have greater opportunity to choose their employment destination, this paper explores the motivations and experiences of a group of British and American self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) that chose to work in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Design/methodology/approach: Guided by a case study approach, purposive sampling was used to gather information from the participants through semi-structured, exploratory questions in order to understand SIEs decisions to expatriate to the Kingdom. Findings: Findings suggest that financial rewards and personal beliefs played significant roles in the participating SIEs decisions to expatriate to the Kingdom. Particularly, this location provides them with job opportunities that offer attractive monetary rewards which fulfills their financial needs, as well as avenues to enrich their personal needs. Research limitations/implications: This study focused on SIEs in a specific location, prior to the outbreak of the global pandemic. The appeal of self-initiated expatriation in the post-pandemic era should be explored further. Practical implications: Data regarding the motivations and experiences of SIEs is beneficial for organizations' managing talent on an international scale because many organizations rely on SIEs as a source of labor. Understanding what motivates individuals to choose expatriation can assist organizations in formulating strategic human resource management decisions. Originality/value: This study focused on the driving factors of academic SIEs in choosing a specific location and found that their decision to expatriate to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was based on the distinctive value of the location itself.
... Esse cenário faz com que os atletas tenham a necessidade de constante mudança de equipe, para que possam continuar a desempenhar o esporte, de forma competitiva e profissional 15 , mesmo que essa mudança leve a mudança de nacionalidade 14 . Em alguns casos, a expatriação está relacionada a certo desconforto, insegurança e problemas psicológicos, pois remete a mudança de país, de clube, de cultura 8,16,17 e a inserção em um novo contexto social é algo que necessita de adaptação e preparação [11][12][13]16,18 . ...
... Para que isso ocorra com todos os atletas, deve-se estabelecer modelos em que a família esteja envolvida, tanto no treinamento, quanto na expatriação propriamente dita. Isso é relevante para o processo de expatriação, pois a literatura aponta que a família auxilia no processo de expatriação 7,11,16,18,37,41,50,51 . Em síntese, os resultados do presente estudo, assim como os da literatura, sugerem que a adaptação social é facilitada quando o atleta tem a família presente 7,9,11,16,18,20,27,37,50,51 . ...
... Isso é relevante para o processo de expatriação, pois a literatura aponta que a família auxilia no processo de expatriação 7,11,16,18,37,41,50,51 . Em síntese, os resultados do presente estudo, assim como os da literatura, sugerem que a adaptação social é facilitada quando o atleta tem a família presente 7,9,11,16,18,20,27,37,50,51 . ...
O objetivo do presente manuscrito foi analisar a adaptação dos atletas de Voleibol ao novo contexto social, após mudarem de equipe e cidade para continuarem a carreira, tanto no contexto internacional, como no nacional. Participaram 68 pessoas (48 atletas e 20 ex-atletas), sendo 43 homens e 25 mulheres, com média de idade de 27,29 anos. Os participantes foram divididos em 2 grupos de investigação: G1 (Atletas Internacionais) e G2 (Atletas Nacionais). Utilizou-se um instrumento com questões estruturadas, as quais poderiam ter respostas abertas ou fechadas com respostas em escala do tipo Likert de 5 pontos. O instrumento utilizado foi desenvolvido e avaliado enquanto evidência de validade via TRI, utilizando-se do ajuste ao modelo de Rasch. No presente manuscrito, apenas as questões pertinentes ao objetivo do manuscrito foram analisadas. Para as análises entre grupos, utilizou-se do teste t para amostras independentes e para análise intragrupo, utilizou-se da frequência absoluta e relativa das respostas, Anova one-way, teste t dependente e Correlação de Pearson. Os resultados, demonstraram que os dois grupos apresentaram boa adaptação ao novo contexto social, muito influenciados pela facilidade dos serviços oferecidos pelas cidades e pela não discriminação. Além disso, os participantes dos dois grupos conseguiram constituir novas amizades, o que facilitou seu convívio no novo contexto social, passeios e relações extra clube. Diante de tais resultados, pode-se concluir que os participantes desse estudo demonstraram recursos pessoais adequados para adaptação, frente as mudanças de contexto, muito possivelmente, por terem utilizado estratégias de coping para esse enfrentamento social.
... My initial academic interest was sparked by the question on why previously employed professionals who reside in affluent EU countries decide to engage in relocation and leave their home countries where they had enjoyed employment and high standards of living. The existing body of literature on migration presents several possible explanations for the phenomenon such as desire of international experience (Stahl et al., 2002;Ognyanova et al., 2014), search for better quality of life (Stone andStubbs, 2007: van Dalen andHenkens, 2007;Benson and O'Reilly, 2009), the structure of modern careers (Arthur, 1994;Arthur and Rousseau, 1996), the demands of modern industries (Massey et al., 1993;Bauer and Kunze, 2004). Furthermore, research suggests that the legal framework of the EU, language competence, as well as transferability of qualifications (Heinz and Ward-Warmedinger, 2006;Nerb et al., 2009;Young et al., 2014;Carrozza et al., 2017) have also facilitated this type of mobility. ...
... Despite providing a wide range of empirical research on German communities around the world, the volume presents rather a historical analysis of migration, and focuses on the linguistic and cultural nuances of German migrants and their descendants (Schulze et al., 2008). Furthermore, only a few research projects have focused on the migration intentions of German nationals (Uebelmesser, 2006;Liebau and Schupp, 2011;Pantenburg et al., 2018;Samarsky, 2020) and experiences of those Germans who actually migrated (Meier, 2014b;Stahl et al., 2002;Ognyanova et al., 2014). These projects concentrated on specific occupational groups (researchers, managers, intra-company transferees), and explored migration from the mover's perspective. ...
... For example, some studies found that mobility of professionals within the EU are motivated by desire for an international experience (Koikkalainen, 2009(Koikkalainen, , 2014Ognyanova et al., 2014). Similarly, two studies on German emigrants overseas and across the EU (not the UK) have also found that international experience is one of the reasons for engaging in relocation and seeking employment abroad for some German professionals, (Stahl et al., 2002;Ognyanova et al., 2014). Other scholars suggest that migration of highly-skilled becomes a normalisation of professional life (Ackers, 2004;Scott, 2006). ...
The aim of the DPhil thesis is to explore the particular case of the migration decision-making and experiences of German professionals in Britain. Not only is the mobility of professionals an integral factor for the economies, but it is also promoted and facilitated on the national and EU levels. Mobile professionals may be regarded as the ideal type of mover: invisible, young, highly-talented, competent in the local language, well-integrated. Indeed, due to these characteristics, they are assumed to integrate easily and enjoy the mobile lifestyle. However, some empirical studies highlight the complexities of this mobility suggesting that even those highly-desired mobile professionals are not immune to challenges, which may lead to instability, insecurity, and stress, suggesting that such migration is not as frictionless and easy as may be suggested.
In this thesis, I aim to address these aspects. Based on the qualitative analysis of 64 interviews with professionals and some of their partners, I draw our attention to the complexities in the lives of these privileged mobile professionals. On the one hand, German professionals moving to Britain may exemplify the notion of frictionless mobility, as they enjoy the right to move freely, they are educated, young, competent in the English language, employed according to their qualifications, and well-integrated. On the other hand, their mobility is more constrained than it first appears and their migratory experiences are not immune to challenges or unanticipated obstacles, such as Brexit. Furthermore, having partners or children may present additional challenges for the households, and not only impact the relocation strategies of the household but also impact the migratory experience of each partner. Discussing these aspects contributes to our understating of the particularities of the experiences of mobile professionals relocating between affluent countries, as well as highlights the realities and complexities of mobility and the lives of these highly-desired professionals.
... As one of the IB sub-fields, IHRM addresses a key challenge for MNEs in practice, and for IB theory broadly-how organizations can attract, develop and retain highly talented individuals to lead in international operations, and implement their growth strategies (Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002). Yet it is not assumed that training and developing such a capable global workforce can be achieved through established processes designed for more conventional local workers. ...
... In line with the career advancement perspective, scholars find that most expatriates are likely to seek new employment for career : 2000, 2005-2009, 2010-20142015. advancement after repatriation (Reiche, Kraimer, & Harzing, 2011;Stahl et al., 2002;Suutari & Brewster, 2003). Yet some researchers also find that repatriates are usually in a "holding pattern" with a low level of authority, no sufficiently challenging job, and few occasions for using their developed competencies (Stahl et al., 2002;Stroh et al., 1998). ...
... advancement after repatriation (Reiche, Kraimer, & Harzing, 2011;Stahl et al., 2002;Suutari & Brewster, 2003). Yet some researchers also find that repatriates are usually in a "holding pattern" with a low level of authority, no sufficiently challenging job, and few occasions for using their developed competencies (Stahl et al., 2002;Stroh et al., 1998). Such inconsistent findings call for more empirical evidence to be obtained in future research, especially in view of the observation that "relatively little is known about the long-term impact of international assignments on managers' careers" (Stahl et al., 2002: 216). ...
This review aims to take stock of the extant international human resource management (IHRM) research by identifying gaps and mapping out a future research agenda for IHRM scholars. Based on an extensive bibliographic analysis of 1924 articles published in the field of IHRM, we confirm three key clusters of existing knowledge: (a) expatriation management; (b) global human capital; and (c) international human resource policies and practices. Moreover, using scientific mapping tools, sub-themes in each cluster are classified, issues and deficiencies are examined and discussed. Furthermore, a future IHRM research agenda is proposed, including managing global work to cope with the adverse social and economic conditions, and to localize emerging market multinationals; building global human capital towards developing sustainability and nurturing digital multinationals; developing new perspectives and theories on transferring IHRM policies and practices; and embracing rigorous or innovative empirical methods in the field.
... Expatriate compensation can influence the ability of multinational companies (MNEs) to attract, motivate and retain valuable employees (Harvey, 1993;Tornikoski, 2011). From the individual perspective, pay can enhance people's willingness to relocate and accept new job offers (Dickmann et al., 2008;Doherty et al., 2011;Dickmann and Watson, 2017;Konopaske and Werner, 2005;Stahl et al., 2002;Wagner and Westaby, 2009) but may be more important to some people than others (Cable and Judge, 1994;Chiang and Birtch, 2005). Effective expatriate assignments are critical for multinational enterprises (MNEs), so it is important to design attractive careers that can correspond to development expectations and reduce uncertainty (McNulty and Vance, 2017), and establishing appropriate rewards for their effort in accomplishing the assignment (Stahl et al., 2002). ...
... From the individual perspective, pay can enhance people's willingness to relocate and accept new job offers (Dickmann et al., 2008;Doherty et al., 2011;Dickmann and Watson, 2017;Konopaske and Werner, 2005;Stahl et al., 2002;Wagner and Westaby, 2009) but may be more important to some people than others (Cable and Judge, 1994;Chiang and Birtch, 2005). Effective expatriate assignments are critical for multinational enterprises (MNEs), so it is important to design attractive careers that can correspond to development expectations and reduce uncertainty (McNulty and Vance, 2017), and establishing appropriate rewards for their effort in accomplishing the assignment (Stahl et al., 2002). Despite numerous attempts to develop taxonomies of motivating factors influencing foreign relocation decisions (Dickmann, 2012;Dickmann et al., 2008;Doherty et al., 2011;Hippler, 2009;Kim and Froese, 2012;Noe and Barber, 1993;Stahl et al., 2002) and to the associated financial packages (Warneke and Schneider, 2011), little effort has been made to uncover the predictors of international salary expectations (though see Bonache, 2006;Suutari and Tornikoski, 2001;Bonache and Z arraga-Oberty, 2017). ...
... Effective expatriate assignments are critical for multinational enterprises (MNEs), so it is important to design attractive careers that can correspond to development expectations and reduce uncertainty (McNulty and Vance, 2017), and establishing appropriate rewards for their effort in accomplishing the assignment (Stahl et al., 2002). Despite numerous attempts to develop taxonomies of motivating factors influencing foreign relocation decisions (Dickmann, 2012;Dickmann et al., 2008;Doherty et al., 2011;Hippler, 2009;Kim and Froese, 2012;Noe and Barber, 1993;Stahl et al., 2002) and to the associated financial packages (Warneke and Schneider, 2011), little effort has been made to uncover the predictors of international salary expectations (though see Bonache, 2006;Suutari and Tornikoski, 2001;Bonache and Z arraga-Oberty, 2017). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explain how candidates' expectations of salary in relation to job offers as expatriates in developing societies are related to country image and to age.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from over 500 engineers living in France, Portugal and Spain, evaluating two hypothetical expatriate proposals to six different African and Latin American countries. Multivariate hierarchical regression was applied to statistically detect significant predictors, with a broad range of control variables, to investigate expatriate salary expectations.
Findings
Results evidence the role of age, seniority, previous international experience and culture attraction for the host country in influencing salary expectations for potential expatriate postings. These results are discussed at the light of selection, optimisation and compensation theory (SOC), conservation of resources theory (COR) and social identity theory.
Practical implications
Findings call for multinational companies to consider age, individual background, career attributes and location concerns when evaluating salary expectations involved in expatriation to developing countries.
Originality/value
The study shows how individual expectations about required salaries for accepting expatriate job offers in developing countries (hardly addressed in the extant literature) result from the potential for professional development opportunities and the responsibility of the jobs being offered, the country image, and the age and motivation of the individuals. Furthermore, it integrates research through use of SOC and COR theories.
... Baseline: Career-related turnover intentions Cappellen and Janssens (2005) argue that a growing number of expatriates are searching for positions outside a parent company, resulting in increased intentions to leave this organization. In this regard, Stahl, Miller, and Tung (2002) found that about half of the studied expatriates indicated that they would leave the company for a better job externally. Similar findings were reported by Suutari and Brewster (2003). ...
... Collin, 2006). Moderating effects of off-the-job embeddedness in relation to turnover intentions of expatriates have been documented previously (Hussain & Deery, 2018 Stahl et al., 2002), it is worth considering in which ways and to what extent an expatriate is actually boundary-free when also part of a family unit. To this discussion, research may also include recently developed ideas about virtual (Lauring & Jonasson, 2023;Lauring, Jonasson, & Stoermer, forthcoming;Selmer, Dickmann, Froese, Lauring, Reiche, & Shaffer, 2022) og hybrid (Lauring & Jonasson, forthcoming;Petani & Mengis, 2023;Purvanova, 2013) ways of obtaining an expatriate career. ...
While the influence of an expatriate's family on adjustment is well-documented, less focus has been directed toward the relation between the family context and the expatriates' career decisions. We use data from 283 European business expatriates located in Asia to show a positive association between a career prospect gap (differences between internal and external career opportunities) and turnover intention. More interestingly, our moderation analysis demonstrates that having a functioning family in the host country reduces the effect of a career prospect gap. Finally, in our triple interaction model, we find that if the expatriate's spouse is not embedded in the host country this can counter the positive effect of expatriate family functionality and again make it more likely that the expatriate will leave the position. Our research, thus, connects notions of expatriate careers with theory building relating to the expatriate family context.
... Direct invitations rejection was observed in every business setting considered in the study, and cases of compelled acceptance following previous multiple rejections were registered (M ario, Nuno), mirroring divergent levels of expatriate willingness with impact in terms of psychological contracts evaluation, and the need for managers to develop deep persuasion efforts to compel candidates or chosen individuals to go abroad (Stahl et al., 2002;Suutari and Valimaa, 2002;Pinto et al., 2012). To this regard, "opportunities" (HR Director, "Tabique") conducive to the acquisition of differential benefits and possible future advantages (e.g. ...
... Compelling behaviors can or should be considered a significant occurrence, in a talent management and employment relations perspective. Among previous examples of managerial compelling behavior, Stahl et al. (2002), Suutari and Valimaa (2002) and Pinto et al. (2012), using German, Finnish and Portuguese expatriates' samples, respectively, reported cases of employees which have accepted international assignments for developmental motives, though they were also aware of negative consequences in case they refuse it. As also observed in these studies, the compelling behavior is not without consequences. ...
Purpose
Managerial discourses tend to portray work-related mobility practices in a positive light, presenting mobility assignments as a place of stimulus and differentiation. A conception of mobility as an opportunity, may contrast, in specific economies and business settings, with lived personal experiences. This article reports the results of a three-year study, aimed to question how multinational companies (MNCs) located in a small and developing European economy (Portugal) are building talent pools for expatriate assignments. Interaction effects, as proposed by the job demands-resources (JD-R) theory, are considered as lens to understand the interplay of company expatriate policies, willingness profiles and psychological contracts of expatriates. By using a Portuguese sample, the study examines whether prior findings in mature economies and consolidated MNCs can be generalized to less developed international business settings.
Design/methodology/approach
A three-year study, encompassing 24 expatriate cases observed in five multinational firms born or located in Portugal. Two techniques of empirical data collection were used: statistical sources and documental analysis and in-depth interviews. A total of 37 interviews were conducted, both in-person and remotely, of which 13 were with company managers and representatives, and 24 with expatriates (as defined and referred like this by the companies under study).
Findings
Heterogeneous company policies, ranging from juvenile, functionalist to more dynamic and flow-based approaches, are presented as qualifying resources of willingness levels and psychological contracts of expatriates. Observed interaction effects between policies, willingness and psychological contracts, empirically mirrored in three profiles (conformist, protean and disrupted expatriates) suggest that incentive effects (emanating from company policies) and job demand-resource balance, factored as terms of social and economic trade, are non-linear and asymmetric, influencing firm propensity to succeed while using international work to support company expansion goals. As job resources, expatriate policies are presented as operating as pull or push factors: functionalist HR approaches seem to act as push factors generating more conformist or compelled willingness profiles.
Research limitations/implications
Generalization of study's outcomes has limitations. Future studies are encouraged to use comparative and longitudinal research designs. Furthermore, future research should include business expatriates with entry-level positions, and increase the number of interviewees, as results can also be considered as limited by sample size.
Practical implications
It is suggested that further strategic work is needed to present expatriation development value, formally screen and consider willingness level as selection criteria, and enlarge the pool (from internal to external) of candidates, in peripheral economic settings such as Portugal. A shift to more dynamic and job resource-dense policies are suggested as beneficial, as pathway to optimize social and economic value from expatriation assignments and work experiences.
Originality/value
By putting the interplay between macro and micro-level processes into perspective, the study provides empirical evidence on how company expatriate policies have come to promote unforeseen differentiation of employee willingness and psychological contracts at the heart of MNCs. This is particularly relevant in developing economies such as Portugal, challenging the need to build talent pools for international work assignments. Empirical data illustrating company policies interactive effects with different willingness profiles and psychological contracts of expatriates is provided.
... In recent years, an increasingly interdependent global economy has transformed how MNCs operate across the world, creating a strong need for culturally sophisticated, and globally agile leaders (Caligiuri, 2013), who must manage international operations effectively. It has become more common for employees to obtain global work experience (Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002), which has triggered an increase in empirical studies on expatriates over the past 20 years. The main interest has been in long-term assignments lasting at least one year (Dickmann & Baruch, 2011), and very commonly around 2 or 3 years, given that such expatriation is a transitional experience for both expatriates and their families. ...
... Typical measures of OCS are salary increases (Spurk et al., 2018), career advancement , and job offers . Alternative perspectives on OCS have also been applied, such as whether IAs facilitate or accelerate employees' route to the top (Bolino, 2007;Stahl et al., 2002). In contrast, SCS is defined as the focal actor's evaluation and experience of achieving career outcomes that are meaningful to them personally (Ng et al., 2005;Shockley, Ureksoy, Rodopman, Poteat, & Dullaghan, 2016). ...
This systematic literature review explores studies addressing the objective career success and subjective career success of company-assigned and self-initiated expatriates after their long-term international assignments. Expatriate work is defined as high-density work that affects employee learning and career trajectories. We develop a holistic expatriate career success framework exploring the following questions: 1) What individual career impact results from international assignments? 2) What are the antecedents of such career success? and 3) What are the outcomes of assignees’ career success? A previously neglected range of theoretical perspectives, antecedents, and outcomes of expatriate career success is identified. Subsequently, a threefold contribution is made. First, we extend the conceptualization of international work density to unveil the differences between general and global career concepts. Second, we identify promising theories that have not been utilized in expatriation research, emphasizing context-related and learning theories that chime with the specific nature of global careers. Lastly, we suggest an extensive future research agenda.
... Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL Stahl et al., 2002). Yet, many also report negative post-return experiences such as being assigned to jobs where they cannot utilise their skills, eroded home networks, inadequate access to commensurate developmental opportunities, and slower career progress (Benson & Pattie, 2008;Bonache, 2005). ...
... Research has implied but not explicitly tested that increases in one's knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics through IWE (e.g., Stahl et al., 2002) present an opportunity for external employability (Bücker et al., 2016). ...
Drawing on human capital theory, our study examines the relationship between international work experience and individuals' career success in terms of promotions and subjective financial success. We propose that these relationships are mediated by external employability and hypothesise a moderating role of national‐level economic freedom. Using data from 19,421 respondents, residing in 30 countries and working in different occupational groups (managers, professionals, clerical and blue‐collar workers), our results suggest that international work experience is positively related to promotions and subjective financial success across our study's different national contexts. These positive relationships were mediated by individuals' perceived external employability. Some support for the moderation of the relationship between international work experience and employability through economic freedom was only found when we differentiate between different types of international work experience. The findings enhance our understanding of the association between international work experience and career success from a human capital perspective.
... This despite research confirming that expatriation can be a life-changing experience for both partners (Brown, 2008;McNulty et al., 2019;M€ akel€ a et al., 2011;Rosenbusch and Cseh, 2012). Prior studies among expatriates indicate that expatriation can offer opportunities for self-reflection, learning and development and can have an extensive developmental effect on career capital (Cappellen and Janssens, 2008;Dickmann and Cerdin, 2018;Dickmann and Doherty, 2010;Stahl et al., 2002;Suutari et al., 2018;Suutari and M€ akel€ a, 2007). Expatriates are also aware that the career capital acquired will be useful in their future job roles (Jokinen, 2010;Dickmann and Cerdin, 2018). ...
... As a result, partners' careers, similarly to expatriate careers (Suutari and M€ akel€ a, 2007), can be regarded as boundaryless careers characterized by uncertainty and flexibility (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996) and the crossing of national and organizational borders. Partners also need to adopt the role of career capitalists and absorb the ideas of the intelligent career, where individuals take greater responsibility for the development of the three forms of knowing (Lamb and Sutherland, 2010;Stahl et al., 2002). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine the effects of expatriation on the development of career capital among the partners of expatriates.
Design/methodology/approach
The study draws on in-depth interviews with 30 Finnish partners of expatriates.
Findings
The results reflect the various learning experiences reported by partners of expatriates that developed their career capital during expatriation. The learning experiences related to the experience of living abroad itself and to the specific activities undertaken when abroad. The extent to which partners developed knowing-why, knowing-how and knowing-whom career capital was found to partly reflect their situation abroad as stay-at-home partners or as employees in less-demanding or more-demanding jobs. Though the experiences were developmental for all partners as have been reported among expatriates, the authors also identified several aspects in which partners' experiences differed from the typical developmental experiences of expatriates.
Practical implications
The results also highlight the influence of initiative, an active role and career self-management skills in partners' career capital development.
Originality/value
This paper advances the understanding of how expatriation affects expatriate partners' career capital, a topic that has not previously been studied in-depth.
... Career development has shifted from being the responsibility of employers to the responsibility of the individual, with a concomitant shift from a focus on careers in one organization to careers in many (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996). While the concept of 'boundaryless careers' has been subject to some critique (Inkson et al., 2012;Rodrigues and Guest, 2010), it is particularly suited to expatriate careers (Andresen, Biemann and Pattie, 2015;Stahl, Miller and Tung, 2002). Makkonen (2016) found that SIEs had three different career self-management approaches: labour market entry, focused on establishing a career in a specific field; employability maintenance, focused on ensuring employability between jobs or during labour market fluctuations; and career advancement. ...
... We extend this by suggesting that, for many, these jobs are part of careers including family breaks, or are related to family relocations, or were in preparation for another career move (especially within the MENA region) -aligning with research on women's careers generally, as affected by contextual factors and family considerations (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985;Kossek, Su and Wu, 2017). There was some limited evidence of the boundaryless career concept being suited to expatriate careers (Andresen, Biemann and Pattie, 2015;Stahl, Miller and Tung, 2002), but in terms of career anchors (Schein, 1996), family took precedence over any external careers. These women were engaged with work, and some women evidenced an interest in career success (Traavik and Richardson, 2010), but few specifically referenced building career capital (Myers and Pringle, 2005) and there was limited focus on future careers. ...
This paper explores the career choices and trajectories of women self‐initiated expatriates (SIEs). Extant research on these issues has tended to view women expatriates as a coherent group. We used a qualitative approach, involving semi‐structured interviews with 51 women SIEs, to examine women's reasons to relocate, reasons for employment, past and current work as part of their overall career and future career plans. Drawing on literature on career theories, gender work segregation theory and women expatriates, we explore how national and individual factors affect women SIEs’ career choices and career trajectories. In providing a more nuanced discussion of the careers of women SIEs, our key findings are that women's careers differ according to national grouping and marital status, with life stages and happenstance playing a more important role in women's careers than a planned career path.
... 565 After the badge certification program, students received a link to participate in a posttest. The posttest included the same questions as the pretest as well as the measures of perceptions of their competency when completing the certification badge and perceived likelihood of suc-570 cess (developed based on qualitative findings of Stahl et al. (2002) and validated) after completing the certification badge were also assessed. ...
This study introduces a typology of follower responses to seemingly deceptive promotional content by a social media influencer (SMI) and the effects of those responses on observers. Through a large‐scale, mixed‐methods analysis of an influencer's “promotional crisis” in early 2023, popularly known as “Mascaragate” on TikTok, we identified follower engagement types that potentially harm both SMI and the promoted brand. The crisis sparked an unusually high level of network activity, providing valuable insights into the ripple effects of follower reactions. Drawing on parasocial relationship theory and social capital theory, we proposed that interactions between influencers and their followers, as well as among followers, evolve systematically through linguistic and social cues. These interactions can shift the original meaning of the influencer's message, leading to unintended consequences for both SMI and the brand. Through netnography and k‐means cluster analysis, we identified three distinct clusters of followers with unique attitudes toward the post and SMI. One group (i.e., “Type 1”) was particularly adept at reshaping the meaning of the SMI post through rational engagement with other followers. A subsequent experiment assessed the impact of each group's comments on the observers within a broader community network, focusing on credibility, skepticism, and the impact of social media dependency. The findings offer practical tools for brands and SMIs to analyze follower comment patterns and suggest strategies for addressing crises stemming from SMI‐linked promotional content, ultimately helping to preserve brand reputation and trust.
... After the badge certification program, students received a link to participate in a posttest. The posttest included the same questions as the pretest as well as the measures of perceptions of their competency when completing the certification badge and perceived likelihood of success (developed based on qualitative findings of Stahl et al. (2002) and validated) after completing the certification badge were also assessed. ...
... En effet, les travaux proposant une synthèse de la littérature, une revue de la littérature systématique ou une revue bibliométrique du champ de l'expatriation font ressortir un nombre très important de dimensions pouvant avoir un impact sur la carrière des expatriés (Mello et al., 2023b ;Andersen, 2021 ;Chiang et al., 2017 ;Knocke et Schuster, 2017: Kraimer et al., 2016. Ainsi, la carrière des expatriés peut être impactée par le temps passé à l'international, la distance géographique et culturelle entre le siège et la filiale, les pratiques de GRH développées ou non par l'organisation, les motifs d'expatriation, les motivations à s'expatrier, la personnalité de l'expatrié, les compétences développées à l'international, l'activisme de carrière, la stratégie internationale des entreprises, etc. L'analyse de cette littérature fait aussi ressortir que de nombreux travaux privilégient soit une explication organisationnelle en insistant sur le rôle de l'entreprise dans la gestion des carrières des expatriés (Sulaymonov, 2017 ;Lazarova et Caligiuri, 2001 ;Suutari et Brewster, 2001) soit une explication individuelle mettant en avant l'importance de l'activisme de carrière des expatriés (Zhao et al., 2020 ;Stahl et al., 2007 ;Leiba-O'Sullivan, 2002). Quelques rares auteurs concilient ces deux explications pour étudier dans leur complexité la carrière des expatriés (Breitenmoser et al., 2017 ;Lazarova et Cerdin, 2007). ...
Les recherches montrent que l’impact d’une expatriation sur la progression de carrière n’est pas univoque : positif pour certains, neutre voire négatif pour d’autres. Notre article propose de comprendre les raisons de cette ambivalence en adoptant une perspective interactionniste de la carrière. L’adoption d’une telle perspective permet d’inscrire pleinement notre article dans le nouvel agenda des chercheurs du champ de la carrière qui appellent de leur vœu à étudier les carrières dans leur complexité c’est-à-dire comme étant le résultat d’un jeu récursif entre l’institution et l’individu. En mobilisant la théorie des scripts de carrière de Barley (1989), notre article analyse l’influence conjointe de l’organisation et de l’expatrié dans la construction de ce moment particulier de la carrière qu’est le retour d’expatriation. Pour cela, nous avons réalisé des entretiens au niveau organisationnel (23 entretiens de responsables en charge de la mobilité internationale dans 10 entreprises multinationales) et au niveau individuel (43 entretiens d’anciens expatriés dans 8 entreprises). Nos résultats permettent d’identifier quatre scripts organisationnels de carrière des expatriés : le script du Dirigeant, du Haut-Potentiel, du Missionnaire et de l’Aventurier. Notre article montre que l’impact d’une expatriation sur la progression de carrière dépend du script dans lequel l’expatrié a été inscrit par son organisation mais aussi de son activisme de carrière lui-même influencé par différentes caractéristiques de son script. Notre article offre ainsi des contributions théoriques pour la compréhension de l’impact de l’expatriation sur la carrière et de la relation entre les scripts de carrière et l’action individuelle.
... Demonstrating Practice: Employees will understand that the company appreciates their personal development when it makes training and development investments. Organizations show their dedication to fostering their professional growth and achievement by providing opportunities for them to improve their knowledge and abilities (Stahl et al., 2017). Higher levels of engagement and happiness result from this recognition of workers' potential and contributions, which also builds loyalty and a sense of respect. ...
Training and development programs often include educational activities that broaden a worker's knowledge and increase motivation to improve job performance. These efforts assist employees in learning and acquiring new skill sets, as well as gaining the necessary professional knowledge to advance in their jobs. The goal of this research is to investigate and establish how an organization develops via the function of development and training. This article will examine the structure and components of an employee training and development program with beneficial effects for both people and employers. Organizations struggle to remain competitive in today's global market. Employee development programs are becoming increasingly important for firms looking to gain a competitive advantage. Employees are valuable resources to the business, and their performance determines the organization's success or failure. As a result, many firms invest heavily in staff training and development initiatives. Furthermore, in training programs, it is beneficial for organizations to emphasize employees' knowledge, competence, and abilities. Professionals and scholars have had extensive discussions about the impact of development programs on both employees and organizations. The study provided here is a thorough review of the literature on the fundamentals of employee development programs and their advantages to both businesses and individuals.
... Both motives seem to be much less important today: in research in 2015, these were 42.8 and 32 percent, respectively. Financial motives currently have less influence on the decision to go abroad than previously shown in research by Stahl et al. (2002). ...
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE: The article’s primary goal is to identify the factors that contribute to traditional emigrants’ adaptation to foreign postings in international corporations in Poland, with particular emphasis on the role of time. At the same time, the essential intention of this research pilot is to verify the research tool. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS: The article presents the current scientific achievements in expatriate adaptation, particularly emphasizing the longitudinal dimension. The pilot study results presented in the empirical part were carried out using the case study method, and the research tool was an interview questionnaire. THE PROCESS OF ARGUMENTATION: To better understand the motives, factors, barriers, and starting points that dynamically occur over time and influence adaptation in different dimensions and areas, Haslberger, Brewster, Hippler 3D model. RESEARCH RESULTS: The main goal of the qualitative pilot study was the initial exploration of the area of expatriate adaptation. The study results fill the research gap by a) using an innovative 3-D model, b) identifying the specifics of this model’s adjustment, importance, and challenges in the international context, and c) showing the crucial role of the longitudinal dimension in the adjustment process. CONCLUSIONS, INNOVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Few Polish researchers dealing with the issue of emigrants’ adaptation have considered the role of time in this process. It should, therefore, be emphasized that this work is new in Polish literature and fills a research gap. Practitioners responsible for adapting expatriates (AEs), knowing the time needed for an AE to adapt to the delegation country’s culture, attitudes, and behaviors, can more effectively determine the goals the employee should achieve. Therefore, having a tool that indicates facilitating factors, motives, or barriers, they can more consciously prepare a training package before entering the market and adjust its intensity over time.
... We also will be using the concepts of Boundaryless and Protean career types, which are associated with continuous learning, professional network building and entrepreneurial connotations (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996). The dynamics of boundarylessness in today's 2023 IJES VOL 31 NO 1 Page 8 employment relationships cut across organizational, geographical and occupational domains (Stahl et al., 2002); whereas the protean career regards the individual as the principal agent in transacting career trajectories (Yan et al., 2002), that also pushes us to direct scholarly conversation from organization career management to personal career management in the student's domain and to upscale and assume the student's responsibility for own career. ...
... The percentage of female expatriates is comparatively high; most women came from the educational or the pharmaceutical organizations and were relatively young. During the 1990s the quota of female expatriates in German organizations was about 10% (Stahl, Miller & Tung 2002), in European organizations the average is about 9% (Price Waterhouse Coopers 2001). The time the interviewees had spent in Mexico until the date of data collection was between 5 weeks and 11 years. ...
Due to the advancement of globalization, overseas assignments are becoming increasingly necessary for the coordination of international subsidiaries or to guarantee the transfer of knowledge, among other things. However many of these assignments are unsuccessful in that either the business expatriates return earlier as planned or they do not perform as well as expected. Multiple reasons for the failure of such assignments have been identified, most of which are related to the ability of an individual to adapt to the host culture and culture learning. In this article it will be argued that power may affect the quality and nature of an expatriate's culture learning and thus may undermine the chance to adapt adequately. The article presents first results of a case study regarding German expatriates of five organizations in Mexico. The data displays evidence that power may restrict sanctions of host country nationals (HCNs) of an expatriate’s culturally inappropriate behaviour. This tendency appears to be reinforced by the high value placed on power distance and an emphasis on hierarchical structures within an organization.
... Job performance, often seen by Western firms as the first criterion for promotion, does not play a major role in this regard. While research recognizes MNCs' problems in dealing with promotion policies abroad (Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002;Vo, 2009), there is a research gap regarding how MNCs can respond to network-related rather than performance-based promotion expectations. The central research themes and suggested questions for each theme are summarized in Table 2 below. ...
While informal networking has been universally regarded as an important feature of expatriate effectiveness, respective network constructs (yongo, wasta, blat/svyazi, etc.) remain weakly understood when taking expatriates' ability to connect to local networks into account. Drawing on informal institution and social capital theory, we present informal networks as an important contextual factor in international human resource management (IHRM), relevant to the work of expatriates in particular. We define informal networks by pointing out their distinctive nature in contrast to social networks and developing central themes to guide future research in this area. This is achieved by integrating the informal network context into research themes relevant to the IHRM domain. In this article, seven research themes centering on focal research questions are developed, which, taken together, constitute a future research agenda and expand the typical domain of IHRM research in the informal network context.
... The literature portrays the necessity of pre-expatriation and repatriation support to expatriate career satisfaction after the international assignment is over. In a study of expatriates from 30 companies, 53% reported a lack of career planning and support, including long-term career planning and reentry planning (Stahl et al., 2002). The authors argued that international assignments must bridge employees' career development in both the pre-expatriation and post-expatriation stages. ...
... Banai and Reisel (1993) show that PCNs have varying levels of allegiance to their parent firms. This finding is consistent with Stahl et al. (2002), who claim that individuals pursue transferable skills that can be used in the external labor market rather than being loyal to a single organization. PCNs, however, are likely to be trustworthy and hardworking during their foreign deployment so as to establish their future status after returning to the parent firm (Kang and Shen, 2016). ...
Purpose
This paper aims to investigate how the gap between a multinational enterprise’s (MNE) productivity and that of its competitor determines the utilization of expatriate managers in its foreign subsidiaries.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors first develop a formal analytical model where expatriate managers are relatively more reliable and expensive while local managers are prone to job-hopping. The authors then test the predictions of the analytical model using subsidiary-level data of Korean MNEs.
Findings
The findings show a positive relationship between the productivity gap and the share of expatriate managers in a foreign subsidiary. The empirical findings also show that the job position (middle versus top managers) is another key determinant of the utilization of expatriate managers.
Originality/value
The results of this paper are consistent with the literature that finds that MNEs choose a governance structure that minimizes the hazard of opportunism in their subsidiaries, yet the paper reveals a novel aspect of the determinants of expatriate utilization.
... We note here that while ODMs select employees to whom they offer HCDPs, there is discretion on the side of the individual employee as to whether to accept them. Having said this, given the benefits of opportunities for training and development and the possible sanctions of not taking part in formal processes (like appraisals) or turning down development offers refusing participation in HCDPs 2 is likely to be rather unusual (Stahl et al., 2002). ...
Paid parental leave and externally provided childcare are social policies designed to enhance parents' labour force participation. These policies influence not only men's and women's decisions regarding their labour market activity but also organisational decision makers' (ODMs) expectations about their employees' availability to work and thus, their willingness to invest in their employees' human capital. Using a sample of over 13,000 individuals from 19 countries, we investigate the interaction between gender and social policies on human capital development practices. In line with statistical discrimination theory, which suggests that ODMs hold different expectations about female and male productivity, we find that paid parental leave and externally provided childcare are negatively associated with the provision of human capital development for women but not for men.
... Harvey & Richey, 2001). Third, by implementing opportunity-enhancing practices, expatriates are more likely to have a strong sense of engagement in the assignment they are working for, which can automatically set up meaningful aspects of work life or a 'boundaryless career' (Lu et al., 2013;Stahl et al., 2002). Thus, we posit: Hypothesis 2. The implementation of EC-Ps is positively related to expatriates' perceptions of QoWL in MNEs. ...
Embracing a mutual-benefit perspective of expatriation management, this study argues that multinational enterprises (MNEs) seeking to build a sustainable expatriation management system should address the goals of both expatriates and organisations simultaneously. To realize such a system, we propose ability-, motivation- and opportunity-attributes as a tripod of expatriate competence-enhancing practices (EC-Ps). Via a matched survey dataset from 150 expatriates and their headquarters (HQs) managers, this study (1) investigates the effects of implementing EC-Ps on both subsidiary and employee outcomes, and (2) explores a sequential mediation mechanism of cross-cultural competence and subsidiary autonomy between the relationships. The implications of the findings for theory and practice are discussed.
... Thorn (2009) identifies career and work opportunities as the most important factor in the decisions of selfinitiated expatriate regarding where to relocate abroad. Other employment-related considerations, such as career advancement, also predispose skilled professionals to seek work abroad (Stahl et al., 2002;Creehan, 2001;D'Costa, 2008). Mahroum (2000) observes, based on an analysis of labor inflows and outflows in the UK, that engineers are "pulled" and "pushed" primarily by wage differentials and employment opportunities. ...
Purpose
This study examines which dimensions of a business environment are most important for attracting globally mobile self-initiated expatriates to a country. The authors use secondary data from the World Bank, the World Economic Forum, IMD and the World Population Review to test eight hypotheses involving six macro-contextual factors that prior studies suggest attract internationally mobile skilled professionals, such as self-initiated expatriates, to a country's business environment. The macro-contextual factors examined are socio-cultural, economic, natural, ecological, technological clusters and legal and regulatory.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors use secondary data from the World Bank, IMD, World Population Report and the World Economic Forum to test eight hypotheses concerning macro-contextual factors that attract self-initiated expatriates to a country's business environment.
Findings
The study finds that factors such as the ease of hiring foreign labor, the use of English, macroeconomic stability, the diversity of the workforce and the quality of life in a country positively influence the attractiveness of its business environment to self-initiated expatriates. The study also finds that a business environment's socio-cultural, natural, economic and legal and regulatory macro-contextual attributes make it attractive to self-initiated expatriates.
Originality/value
To reduce common source bias, the authors use secondary data from four sources to examine which of six macro-contextual factors make a sample of 63 national business environments attractive to self-initiated expatriates. This study is one of the few to examine the impact of business environments on global mobility.
... The knowledge gained would help them to develop another competency in addition to the know-who, which is, know-why. Stahl et al. (2002) defined the concept of know-how as the knowledge or ability to do something. Based on past studies reviewed, researchers tend to believe that repatriates would have been introduced to new technology machines, thus they would have learned the most current or the latest technical skill while working abroad. ...
Purpose
Organizations send their employees for international assignments so as to develop their international working experiences, their global knowledge and skills. These employees are then expected to return to their home countries (hereof known as repatriates) to share their newly gained knowledge or skills with their colleagues. This practice would benefit the organization's performance to some extent. Nonetheless, past literature had pointed out that many of such repatriates tend to leave their respective organizations as a result of not being able to fully utilize their newly acquired knowledge and skills, which led them to perceive that they were overqualified. This occurrence could lead to a loss of valuable knowledge for their organization. Aiming to address this issue at hand, the current study focuses on examining of the antecedents that could influence these repatriates' knowledge sharing behaviour.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper uses a research framework which was developed from three aspects of interest–perceived overqualification, affective commitment and the moderating effect of repatriation support practices on knowledge sharing behaviour of repatriates. Structural model analysis was carried out to assess 152 useable data which were collected from returning corporate repatriates in Malaysia. The SmartPLS 3.0 software was applied.
Findings
Repatriates with highly perceived overqualifications tend to exhibit low affective commitment. The impact of their perceived overqualification on knowledge sharing behaviour was fully mediated by their affective commitment. Repatriation support practice was found to strengthen the positive relationship between affective commitment and knowledge sharing behaviour.
Originality/value
The use of the relative deprivation theory showed that the outcome derived from this study could serve as an insight for organizations to understand how those repatriates' perception of overqualification influences their level of affective commitment, and subsequently, the extent to which they share knowledge upon returning.
... Assessing expatriates' view of their current international assignment, the picture is similarly complex: while only 20% of the expatriates reported to be concerned about career advancement upon repatriation, the perceived positive impact on career opportunities among other potential employers was much higher (89% of respondents saw it as likely or highly likely) than its influence of advancement within the company (which 59% deemed likely/highly likely N ≈ 474; Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002). Interestingly, the positive impact on one's career was overwhelmingly thought to be grounded in personal growth due to the cultural experience (rather than professional skill attainment). ...
... Finally, although the current studies provide consistent evidence that individuals with broader multicultural experiences tend to be more effective leaders, some studies find that multicultural experiences had a neutral or even negative impact on employees' leadership progression (Stahl et al. 2002). For example, one study finds that, among those CEOs who had worked abroad, the more multicultural experiences they had amassed, the longer it took them to reach the top (Hamori and Koyuncu 2011). ...
In an era of globalization, it is commonly assumed that multicultural experiences foster leadership effectiveness. However, little research has systematically tested this assumption. We develop a theoretical perspective that articulates how and when multicultural experiences increase leadership effectiveness. We hypothesize that broad multicultural experiences increase individuals' leadership effectiveness by developing their communication competence. Because communication competence is particularly important for leading teams that are more multinational, we further hypothesize that individuals with broader multicultural experiences are particularly effective when leading more multinational teams. Four studies tested our theory using mixed methods (field survey, archival panel, field experiments) and diverse populations (corporate managers, soccer managers, hackathon leaders) in different countries (Australia, Britain, China, America). In Study 1, corporate managers with broader multicultural experiences were rated as more effective leaders, an effect mediated by communication competence. Analyzing a 25-year archival panel of English Premier League soccer managers, Study 2 replicated the positive effect of broad multicultural experiences using a team performance measure of leadership effectiveness. Importantly, this effect was moderated by team national diversity: Soccer managers with broader multicultural experiences were particularly effective when leading teams with greater national diversity. Study 3 (digital health hackathon) and Study 4 (COVID-19 policy hackathon) replicated these effects in two field experiments, where individuals with varying levels of multicultural experiences were randomly assigned to lead hackathon teams that naturally varied in national diversity. Overall, our research suggests that broad multicultural experiences help leaders communicate more competently and lead more effectively, especially when leading multinational teams.
... Global work experiences, whether selfinitiated or organizationally supported, have become critically important for building employees' global skills (Takeuchi, 2010) and for carrying out successful business activities (Mendenhall, 2001). Therefore, in line with the concept of "boundaryless career," which encompasses both physical and psychological mobility of individuals across organizations and countries (Sullivan and Arthur, 2006), it is not surprising that employees are willing to invest time in international assignments that generate valuable cross-cultural knowledge and global experiences (Stahl et al., 2002). ...
Drawing on Conservation of Resources theory and the socially embedded model of thriving, we examine the resource antecedents and retention outcome of expatriate thriving. Using two-wave panel data from 103 international teachers in the United States, we found that the personal resource of cultural intelligence directly influenced thriving, and thriving led to expatriate actual retention. In addition, the contextual resource of organizational embeddedness served as a boundary condition that augmented cultural intelligence’s positive effect on thriving. Applying the concept of thriving to explicate expatriate experiences, we go beyond the dominant emphasis in the expatriate literature on expatriate adjustment. In doing so, we highlight the joint contribution of both personal and contextual resources associated with global work experiences and pinpoint potential boundary conditions that enable thriving.
... Research has examined a wide range of antecedents of expatriation willingness. Globally, the main motivations to accept an expatriation are the opportunity for a wider and more exciting kind of work, sometimes referred to as cosmopolitanism (Froese, Jommersbach & Klautsch, 2013), the attractiveness of particular locations and the personal and developmental career opportunities the assignment offers (Dickmann, Doherty, Mills & Brewster, 2008;Doherty, Dickmann & Mills, 2011;Richardson & McKenna, 2002;Stahl, Miller & Tung, 2002). The financial packages that tend to go with expatriate assignment also play a part, but national differences in the significance of a financial incentive need to be viewed in relation to the other factors considered important to the decision to move (Dickmann et al., 2008). ...
For organisations and for individuals, effective recruitment, selection and preparation of new employees or employees in new circumstances are always important. This issue is exacerbated in the case of international assignments, where issues of cross-national adjustment complicate the picture. The objective of this chapter is to examine and summarise the extant research on expatriate recruitment, selection and preparation. The chapter is structured as follow. First, we discuss expatriate recruitment sources, methods, and the expatriates' motivations to work abroad. Second, we examine expatriate selection criteria, methods, and how expatriates are selected in practice. Third, we present the variety of expatriate preparation methods, discuss expatriate training effectiveness and expatriate preparation in practice. We conclude by considering future avenues of research. Overall, there is good material for researchers to build on and a growing understanding of the key issues. Nevertheless, there remains here a rich field for exciting research in the future.
... Various researchers have suggested that international assignments could be one of the supporting factors in developing leaders with global mindsets [29], [30], [34]. The overseas assignment provides managers with living in different environment and thus allowing them to cultivate connections and affiliations among worldwide operations [30], [35], [36]. International assignments also expose the manager to a different value system, language, economic and socio-political environment and therefore implant sociocultural intelligence that contributes towards the development of a global mindset [15], [37]- [40]. ...
... Some migrant women choose self-employment as a 3 solution to the deskilling process (Cuban, 2009), and they then learn certain skills through running their 4 own company, which can help them to find better jobs in host countries in the future. These migrant 5 women see a break in their career when shifting contexts, and do not conceptualise their talent as being 6 a mobile asset for a smooth 'boundaryless' career (Stahl, et al. 2002;Tung, 2008;. what I will do in the future. ...
Global careers, and highly skilled expatriates employing their talent in diverse contexts of the world tend to be conceptualized as 'male', and recognized diplomas represent employability. Despite the increasing feminization of migration, highly skilled female migrants and their contributions to economies through careers or entrepreneurship remain overlooked. Many obstacles impede the full employment of their talents. We review extant literature and argue that female migrant talent merits more detailed conceptual attention. By analyzing interview data from 2010 to 2019 in two advanced European countries, we found that female migrants suffer from brain waste in multiple ways, partly due to external institutional aspects and discrimination, and partly due to inherent internalized practices and sociocultural norms. We call for greater intersectionality and interdisciplinarity in examining equality to advance female economic participation. Private and public sectors may improve female talent perception, integration and employment by developing specific responses to the problems identified.
... Having been applied in the research streams of traditional expatriation (Dickmann & Doherty, 2008) and self-initiated expatriation (Al Ariss & Crowley-Henry, 2013), career capital has the potential to provide further insights into the significance or otherwise of FGWAs on individuals' careers (Demel & Mayrhofer, 2010). Work from Stahl, Miller, and Tung (2002) and others (e.g. Bolino, 2007;Rodrigues & Guest, 2010) on the concept of 'boundaryless' careers could also prove fruitful in this space. ...
The topography of global mobility within multinational corporations is evolving where we now have a portfolio of flexible global working arrangements including: international business travellers, flexpatriates, short-term international assignees, international commuters, and rotational assignees. The need for more agile structures and more efficient mechanisms to transfer knowledge internationally are two key enablers in this evolution. With increased interest, this paper offers the first systematic, integrative review of these global work arrangements. The review indicates that these forms of flexible global work appear to be a somewhat, overlooked double-edged sword in that they may confer significant but unrealised value for organisations alongside hidden, adverse consequences for individuals. Notable was the lack of insight into the HR function's input or oversight at either a strategic or operational level. We find that there is a distinct lack of strategic linkages to global mobility and/or HR functions which we argue severely limits the value-creating capacity of these flexible forms of global work. We propose a research agenda that centres on better understanding the international human resource function's role and responsibility in providing a more strategic and sustainable perspective of these increasingly common global work arrangements.
... Research has examined a wide range of antecedents of expatriation willingness. Globally, the main motivations to accept an expatriation are the opportunity for a wider and more exciting kind of work, sometimes referred to as cosmopolitanism (Froese, Jommersbach & Klautsch, 2013), the attractiveness of particular locations and the personal and developmental career opportunities the assignment offers (Dickmann, Doherty, Mills & Brewster, 2008;Doherty, Dickmann & Mills, 2011;Richardson & McKenna, 2002;Stahl, Miller & Tung, 2002). The financial packages that tend to go with expatriate assignment also play a part, but national differences in the significance of a financial incentive need to be viewed in relation to the other factors considered important to the decision to move (Dickmann et al., 2008). ...
For organisations and for individuals, effective recruitment, selection and preparation of new employees or employees in new circumstances are always important. This issue is exacerbated in the case of international assignments, where issues of cross-national adjustment complicate the picture. The objective of this chapter is to examine and summarise the extant research on expatriate recruitment, selection and preparation. The chapter is structured as follow. First, we discuss expatriate recruitment sources, methods, and the expatriates' motivations to work abroad. Second, we examine expatriate selection criteria, methods, and how expatriates are selected in practice. Third, we present the variety of expatriate preparation methods, discuss expatriate training effectiveness and expatriate preparation in practice. We conclude by considering future avenues of research. Overall, there is good material for researchers to build on and a growing understanding of the key issues. Nevertheless, there remains here a rich field for exciting research in the future.
... We note here that while ODMs select employees to whom they offer HCDPs, there is discretion on the side of the individual employee as to whether to accept them. Having said this, given the benefits of opportunities for training and development and the possible sanctions of not taking part in formal processes (like appraisals) or turning down development offers refusing participation in HCDPs 2 is likely to be rather unusual (Stahl et al., 2002). ...
A pesar del interés en la Gestión Internacional de los Recursos Humanos en los últimos años, aún deben abordarse varios problemas para proporcionar claridad y comprensión conceptual. Este artículo tiene como objetivo ofrecer una revisión sistemática de la literatura de la Gestión Internacional de los Recursos Humanos, destacando los principales temas y tendencias observados en este campo. El estudio ofrece una evaluación crítica, profundizando la comprensión de lo que es la Gestión Internacional de los Recursos Humanos, e identificando las líneas de investigación futuras más prometedoras. Se desarrolló un análisis de mapeo científico basado en redes de co-palabras de la literatura, utilizando la herramienta bibliométrica SciMAT. Se siguieron tres pasos: primero, se detectaron temas de investigación; segundo, se visualizaron los temas de investigación y las redes temáticas; y tercero, se midieron mediante análisis de rendimiento las contribuciones hechas por los temas de investigación. Mil setecientos siete documentos publicados entre 1974 y 2020 fueron recuperados de la Web of Science. En el último periodo (2015-2020) los temas motores son el ajuste intercultural, las multinacionales, las carreras globales y la gestión intercultural. La satisfacción de los trabajadores es un tema especializado, mientras que China es un tema transversal. La gestión global del talento, las mujeres en el contexto internacional y la diversidad son temas emergentes. Este análisis ayudará a informar a los investigadores, profesionales y administraciones públicas sobre la importancia de la Gestión Internacional de los Recursos Humanos.
O presente ensaio tem como foco a temática expatriação no esporte e sua relação com a globalização. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi conceituar os fenômenos expatriação e globalização e apontar a relação entre tais fenômenos no contexto esportivo e suas consequências para pessoa que participa da expatriação (migração). Nessa proposta de ensaio teceu-se sobre as diferentes definições que o termo expatriação recebe e como se deu o processo de globalização do esporte, principalmente na sua transformação em produto. Finaliza-se, o presente ensaio, com a relação entre o aumento da expatriação no âmbito esportivo e a globalização do esporte. Na guisa de considerações, o texto apresenta considerações de que a globalização do esporte impulsionou a expatriação de atletas e, com isso, surge a necessidade de melhor compreensão de tais relações, bem como das consequências que a expatriação tende a ocasionar para o atleta, seja positivas ou negativas, além da necessidade de preparação dos atletas antes da expatriação.
본 연구는 해외주재원의 역할과 직무수행에 대한 중요성이 높아지고 있는 현실에서, 주재원 개인의 글로벌 역량과 성격적 특성이 주재원의 직무열의와 이문화 적응에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지 검증하고자 하였다. 또한 글로벌 역량과 성격 특성이 직무열의를 거쳐 이문화 적응에 미치는 영향의 관계에서, 커리어비전이 어떻게 조절된 조절-매개효과로서 작용하는지 검증하고자 하였다. 구체적 가설은 글로벌 역량과 이문화 적응의 관계에서 직무열의의 매개효과를 검증하였고, 그와 같은 매개모형에서 성실성과 커리어비전의 상호작용을 통한 조절된 조절-매개효과가 있는지를 검증하였다. 이와 같은 연구목적의 달성을 위해 한국인 주재원들을 대상으로 설문을 진행하였으며, 최종 164명의 데이터를 분석하였다. 그 결과, 글로벌 역량이 직무열의를 통해 이문화 적응을 높이는 매개효과가 검증되었다. 그리고 커리어비전이 높고 성실성도 높았을 때, 글로벌 역량이 높은 주재원은 직무열의가 높아지고 이문화 적응에도 긍정적 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 하지만 커리어비전이 낮고 성실성이 높았을 때, 글로벌역량이 높은 주재원은 직무열의가 상대적으로 낮아지고 이문화 적응에도 부정적 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 이와 같은 결과를 바탕으로 연구의 의미와 시사점 그리고 한계점 및 향후 연구에 대해 논의하였다.
This chapter focuses on the interactions between mezzo and micro levels of analysis: i.e. it discusses the firm–employee relationship in terms of the clashes of interests and identities. The results from my empirical study demonstrate that the clashes in interests within and across levels of analysis and the related multilevel narratives trigger identity work at the level of the individual. I thus first discuss how agency theory, which deals with the principal–agent relationships, conflicts about priorities by different parties to these relationships, and the related power struggles, can inform the impact of multilevel narratives on assignment outcomes for inter-employee, inter-assignee, inter-entity, and firm–employee collaboration (see Sect. 10.1). Since role transitions, social categorisation, and identity work are featured more prominently in the study, these are the focal part of my theorising and, as such, the primary theoretical contribution of the empirical study. In the second part of the chapter (i.e. Sect. 10.2), I therefore discuss how my findings contribute to role (transition), social categorisation, and social identity theories by showing the particularities of role transitions, social categorisation, and identity work for international assignees (and to a limited extent their colleagues and business partners) and their implications for international assignment management in the context of emerging market firms.
Historiquement considérée comme pourvoyeur de missionnaires pour l’Afrique, la France est devenue grand demandeur des prêtres appelés fidei donum c’est-à-dire des missionnaires envoyés par leur diocèse pour une durée déterminée pour aider une Eglise qui est en situation de pénurie de prêtres. Il s’agit d’une sorte de renversement de la mission. S’appuyant sur des entretiens réalisés auprès de 65 prêtres et 50 collaborateurs bénévoles, cette étude voudrait expérimenter la socialisation organisationnelle des expatriés missionnaires en contexte de paroisse. Confrontés à de multiples difficultés dès leur arrivée, ces missionnaires mettent en œuvre les compétences interculturelles afin de réussir leur intégration dans une société divisée par une crise migratoire sans précédent. Ils tentent quotidiennement de répondre aux nombreux défis qui s’imposent à eux dans une Eglise qui malgré ses écueils internes ne cesse de vanter son identité de « fille aînée de l’Eglise ». Cette étude s’intéresse essentiellement à traiter la problématique de la mise en œuvre des compétences interculturelles des expatriés non-traditionnels dans le processus de leur socialisation dans une organisation à forte culture historique. La méthodologie de recherche est faite d’une étude qualitative qui permet avec les entretiens semi-directifs d’enrichir le modèle à tester et de débattre des stratégies de compétences interculturelles mises en œuvre par les expatriés missionnaires. Cette recherche a mis au jour de nombreuses clés managériales pour rendre les opérations interculturelles beaucoup plus efficaces. Elle montre aux organisations les énormes avantages qu'elles peuvent espérer obtenir en tenant compte des facteurs culturels en situation. Elle montre comment la connaissance de plus d'une culture participe à l’efficacité dans la gestion et peut aider à créer des solutions innovantes.
Multinational corporations (MNCs) are considered as dispersed structures of power, in which diverse headquarters (HQ)–subsidiary power relationships collectively influence performance and management. Yet, few studies have accounted for the subsidiary portfolio characteristics shaped by the entire set of differentiated HQ–subsidiary power relationships, and little is known about their effect on the performance and management decisions of MNCs. Drawing on agency and resource dependence theories, this study investigates how the power structure of the MNC, or the pattern of power distribution in the subsidiary portfolio, affects MNC performance and expatriate utilization. Results from a comprehensive panel of Korean MNCs show that the degree of power concentration in the subsidiary portfolio has inverted U-shaped relationships with MNC performance and the use of expatriate control. However, the results also reveal that these relationships vary between manufacturing and downstream subsidiary portfolios. These findings suggest that the structural characteristics of the subsidiary portfolio are important determinants of MNC performance and management. This study opens an important new avenue for international business scholarship by explicitly conceptualizing the MNC as a portfolio of differentiated subsidiaries and by examining the consequences of the subsidiary portfolio characteristics.
This research explores employee response toward change initiatives in order to create a
working model to identify factors which influence employee response toward changes in the
organization. Change issues include re-structuring; merger and acquisition; transfers, lateral
moves and hiring; etc. This study identifies a workable model to allow management within
organizations undergoing change and transformation to predict the response of its employees
with respect to the identified factors. The resulting instrument is proven to be highly reliable and
will assist organizations managing change initiatives.
This paper studies the ethical response behavior of Indian consumers. Data was collected
from 374 respondents using a questionnaire survey covering issues on the environment and
marketing of products. The study reveals that respondent awareness of the extent of damage
done as a result of economic activity is steadily growing. Consumers are becoming conscious of
adverse affects and are willing to pay more for eco-friendly products. Further, it is evident from
this study that Asian Indians are aware and concerned about the environmental conditions but the
commitment level to take proactive individual actions is moderate.
This study extends the description and explanation of boundaryless careers to the global arena. It presents the case of a new breed of expatriate managers who are becoming more prevalent in multinational corporations--the international itinerant. It defines international itinerants, describes elements typical to their career management, proposes possible differences in career management between traditional expatriate managers and international itinerants, delineates the advantages and disadvantages to the organization and to the individual manager of their employment in multinational corporations (MNCs), and offers propositions regarding these itinerants' career management. Finally, implications for the research of career management and for MNCs' officials and international itinerants are suggested.
Háttér és célkitűzés
A tehetségmenedzsment (TM) a digitalizáció, a demográfiai változások és a COVID –19 munkavállalókra gyakorolt és gazdasági hatásai kapcsán egyre aktuálisabbá válik mind regionális, mind szervezeti szinten. A „tehetségfüggés” fokozottan érvényesül az innováció-és tudásorientált fejlett társadalmakban, valamint recesszió idején, amikor erősödik annak az esélye, hogy a legtehetségesebb szakemberek kiáramlanak egy adott országból. A TM nem csupán gyakorlati, hanem elméleti kihívást is jelent a kutatók számára a koncepció komplexitása miatt. Elméleti összefoglalónk a tehetségről való gondolkodás szervezetpszichológiai aspektusaira fókuszál. Áttekintjük a szervezeti TM jellemző eszköztárát és az elmúlt évtizedekben történt legfőbb változásokat, a jövőre irányuló tendenciákat.
Módszer
Hazai és nemzetközi szakirodalmi forrásokat dolgoztunk fel és szintetizáltunk.
Eredmények és következtetések
A nemzetközi szakirodalmi áttekintés alapján látszik, hogy a munkahelyi TM témaköre leginkább közgazdasági és HR-fókuszú kutatásokban bukkan fel. Áttekintésünk célja, hogy bemutassuk, mely pontokon járulhat hozzá a (szervezet)pszichológia e terület alaposabb, mélyebb megértéséhez és hosszú távon hatékony vállalati TM-programok kialakításához. Bemutatjuk a szervezeti TM hatékony módszereit, jó gyakorlatait, hatásait a szervezetre és az egyénre nézve, valamint az esetleges pszichológiai kockázati tényezőket.
The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of flexpatriates and international business travellers (FIBT) and related issues of FIBTs. Finally, the outcome of the paper is enriched by presenting a policy oriented conceptual model for managerial concern to resolve such issues of FIBSs. A literature-based data compilation was done to develop this model. The model mainly outlines the necessity of giving strategic policy orientation on managing FIBTs by considering several supportive channels: organizational support and social support for both assignees and families.
The globalization of the world economy, the growing boundary-less nature of the workforce, and the reduction in immigration and emigration barriers to the movement of people have helped fuel a “war for talent” (Chambers et al. in McKinsey Q 3(3):44–57, 1998) worldwide. In this paper, we study the immigration policies of three of the most popular destinations of skilled immigrants – the US, Canada, and Australia. According to the 2018 Global Talent Competitiveness Index (Global Talent Competitiveness Index, 2018), these three countries were among the top 15 most attractive destinations in the world, attracting two-thirds of all skilled immigrants worldwide. We analyze the policy frameworks of these countries in terms of attracting skilled immigrants and their evolution over time. We compare and contrast these frameworks and explain how they are similar to and different from each other. We also analyze the background of the immigrants and their overall success in integrating into their host societies. Finally, we provide recommendations on how to make these policies more effective, and how they could help countries in the global battle for talent.
An internationalization strategy is implemented by people—domestic, expatriate, and local managers and employees working from headquarters or subsidiaries. The first people management decision is staffing. Firms decide to use expatriate managers in key positions at subsidiaries to ensure rigorous implementation of decisions made at headquarters and in case local talent are unavailable. Expatriates build personal networks and create effective links between headquarters and subsidiaries, but firms need to be aware of potential conflicts, which may arise from disparity in compensation between local and expatriate managers, from the challenge of selecting expatriates with the right skill sets, and from the importance of consensus and support in expatriate families. Localization, the gradual substitution of expatriate managers with local managers, contributes to the internationalizing firm’s knowledge of local markets and to building local networks. However, local managers may feel more loyal to the subsidiary than to corporate headquarters. Dedicated human resources policies can narrow this “detachment gap” (with, for example, international mobility, temporary assignments at headquarters, coaching, language training and compensation packages). People management policies, which are usually uniform and decided centrally, need to take into account the significant impact of cultural differences. The results of the GLOBE survey confirm that employees in different geographies expect their managers to behave differently, in ways ranging from focus on performance, egalitarianism, levels of involvement, and status-consciousness.
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