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Tropical forestry practices for carbon sequestration: A review and case study from Southeast Asia
Abstract
In order to fulfill their commitments to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the industrialized countries started searching for cost- effective alternatives for reducing their greenhouse gas emissions. This has led to a rising interest in forestry-based carbon (C) offsets. Tree planting or silvicultural treatments can be used to actively remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Alternatively, conservation practices or improved forest management can be used to prevent or reduce current trends of carbon release from existing forests. In this paper, we describe a series of carbon offset projects that have been initiated using these approaches. A project involving planting of degraded forests in Sabah, Malaysia, is described in more detail. It is estimated that this project will offset 183 Mg C ha-1 after a 60-yr rotation, or an average of 100 Mg C ha-1 yr-1 during the same rotation period.
... Rehabilitative silvicultural treatments were applied to a subset of the logged coupes (logged 1981-1989 Moura Costa, 1996). The purpose of these interventions was to offset carbon dioxide emissions. ...
... The purpose of these interventions was to offset carbon dioxide emissions. These active restoration strategies comprised a combination of liberation cutting, girdling of early successional tree species and planting of seedlings every 3 m along parallel lines (cut 2 m wide and 10 m apart) throughout the targeted areas (Face the Future, 2011; Moura Costa, 1996). Seedlings were grown in nurseries to a height of ~50 cm and with at least 10 leaves (4-8 months growth), before being planted in logged forests, and were a mix of 52 dipterocarp species, five non-dipterocarp canopy species and 16 non-dipterocarp native fruit tree species (Table S1; Face the Future, 2011; Moura Costa, 1996). ...
... These active restoration strategies comprised a combination of liberation cutting, girdling of early successional tree species and planting of seedlings every 3 m along parallel lines (cut 2 m wide and 10 m apart) throughout the targeted areas (Face the Future, 2011; Moura Costa, 1996). Seedlings were grown in nurseries to a height of ~50 cm and with at least 10 leaves (4-8 months growth), before being planted in logged forests, and were a mix of 52 dipterocarp species, five non-dipterocarp canopy species and 16 non-dipterocarp native fruit tree species (Table S1; Face the Future, 2011; Moura Costa, 1996). After the initial restoration effort, sites were maintained by clearing competing vegetation every 3 months for 3 years, with no subsequent management implemented (Face the Future, 2011; Moura Costa, 1996). ...
Active restoration through silvicultural treatments (enrichment planting, cutting climbers and liberation thinning) is considered an important intervention in logged forests. However, its ability to enhance regeneration is key for long‐term recovery of logged forests, which remains poorly understood, particularly for the production and survival of seedlings in subsequent generations. To understand the long‐term impacts of logging and restoration we tracked the diversity, survival and traits of seedlings that germinated immediately after a mast fruiting in North Borneo in unlogged and logged forests 30–35 years after logging. We monitored 5119 seedlings from germination for ~1.5 years across a mixed landscape of unlogged forests (ULs), naturally regenerating logged forests (NR) and actively restored logged forests via rehabilitative silvicultural treatments (AR), 15–27 years after restoration. We measured 14 leaf, root and biomass allocation traits on 399 seedlings from 15 species. Soon after fruiting, UL and AR forests had higher seedling densities than NR forest, but survival was the lowest in AR forests in the first 6 months. Community composition differed among forest types; AR and NR forests had lower species richness and lower evenness than UL forests by 5–6 months post‐mast but did not differ between them. Differences in community composition altered community‐weighted mean trait values across forest types, with higher root biomass allocation in NR relative to UL forest. Traits influenced mortality ~3 months post‐mast, with more acquisitive traits and relative aboveground investment favoured in AR forests relative to UL forests. Our findings of reduced seedling survival and diversity suggest long time lags in post‐logging recruitment, particularly for some taxa. Active restoration of logged forests recovers initial seedling production, but elevated mortality in AR forests lowers the efficacy of active restoration to enhance recruitment or diversity of seedling communities. This suggests current active restoration practices may fail to overcome barriers to regeneration in logged forests, which may drive long‐term changes in future forest plant communities.
... Active restoration was undertaken for a subset of the forest coupes logged in 1981, 1982, 1983, 1988, and 1989 . 1), by silvicultural intervention from 1992 to 2004 (12-24 years prior to census) as part of the Innoprise-FACE Foundation Rainforest Rehabilitation Project (INFAPRO), while other areas were left to regenerate naturally (Moura Costa, 1996, Face the Future, 2011. In actively restored areas, seedlings (~50 cm tall with 10 leaves and grown for 4-8 months in a nursery from locally collected seeds) of 52 species of dipterocarps, five nondipterocarp canopy species, and 16 non-dipterocarp native fruit tree species (Table S1), were planted every 3 m along parallel lines (2 m wide and cut 10 m apart) an average of nine years after logging (Moura Costa, 1996, Face the Future, 2011. ...
... 1), by silvicultural intervention from 1992 to 2004 (12-24 years prior to census) as part of the Innoprise-FACE Foundation Rainforest Rehabilitation Project (INFAPRO), while other areas were left to regenerate naturally (Moura Costa, 1996, Face the Future, 2011. In actively restored areas, seedlings (~50 cm tall with 10 leaves and grown for 4-8 months in a nursery from locally collected seeds) of 52 species of dipterocarps, five nondipterocarp canopy species, and 16 non-dipterocarp native fruit tree species (Table S1), were planted every 3 m along parallel lines (2 m wide and cut 10 m apart) an average of nine years after logging (Moura Costa, 1996, Face the Future, 2011. Enrichment plantings were primarily dipterocarps, which made up 90-95% of all planted seedlings (Face the Future, 2011). ...
... not those which were planted), were girdled to reduce competition for resources (Face the Future, 2011). After the initial line cutting and planting, weeding was carried out every three months for three years (Moura Costa, 1996, Face the Future, 2011). ...
Selective logging has affected large areas of tropical forests and there is increasing interest in how to manage selectively logged forests to enhance recovery. However, the impacts of logging and active restoration, by liberation cutting and enrichment planting, on tree community composition are poorly understood compared to trajectories of biomass recovery. Here, we assess the long-term impacts of selective logging and active restoration for biomass recovery on tree species diversity, community composition, and forest structure. We censused all stems ≥2 cm diameter at breast height (DBH) on 46 permanent plots in unlogged, primary forest in the Danum Valley Conservation Area (DVCA; 12 plots, totalling 0.6 ha) and in sites logged 23–35 years prior to the census in the Ulu Segama Forest Reserve adjacent to DVCA (34 plots, totalling 1.7 ha) in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Active restoration treatments, including enrichment planting and climber cutting, were implemented on 17 of the logged forest plots 12–24 years prior to the census. Total plot-level basal area and pole (5–10 cm DBH) stem density were lower in logged than unlogged forests, however no difference was found in stem density amongst saplings (2–5 cm DBH) or established trees (≥10 cm DBH). Neither basal area, nor plot-level stem density varied with time since logging at any size class, although sapling and pole stem densities were lower in actively restored than naturally regenerating logged forest. Sapling species diversity was lower in logged than unlogged forest, however there were no other significant effects of logging on tree species richness or diversity indices. Tree species composition, however, differed between logged and unlogged forests across all stem size classes (PERMANOVA), reflected by 23 significant indicator species that were only present in unlogged forest. PERMANOVA tests revealed no evidence that overall species composition changed with time since logging or with active restoration treatments at any size class. However, when naturally regenerating and actively restored communities were compared, two indicator species were identified in naturally regenerating forest and three in actively restored forests. Together our results suggest that selective logging has a lasting effect on tree community composition regardless of active restoration treatments and, even when species richness and diversity are stable, species composition remains distinct from unlogged forest for more than two decades post-harvest. Active restoration efforts should be targeted, monitored, and refined to try to ensure positive outcomes for multiple metrics of forest recovery.
... Several hundred seedlings are typically planted per hectare in areas where the density of desirable stems is low (e.g. Moura Costa, 1996;Wheeler et al., 2016). However, in practice competition with established and naturally recruiting seedlings may be intense, particularly in selectively logged forests (Ådjers et al., 1995). ...
... However, in practice competition with established and naturally recruiting seedlings may be intense, particularly in selectively logged forests (Ådjers et al., 1995). Additional management of competing vegetation may be required for several years (Moura Costa, 1996;Wheeler et al., 2016), leading to relatively modest levels of success (Sampaio et al., 2007) at substantial financial expense (Palma and Laurance, 2015). ...
... Despite the widespread use of thinning as a silvicultural technique (Zeide, 2001;Cameron, 2002;Porté and Bartelink, 2002) comparatively little research has been conducted to assess its impact on productivity, species composition and the responses of non-target taxa outside of species-poor temperate forests and plantations. Thinning of non-arboreal vegetation such as smothering lianas, grasses, bamboos and dense shrubs, has received more attention, and generally demonstrated increases in habitat complexity and quality (Moura Costa, 1996;Thomas et al., 1999;Carey, 2003;De la Montaña et al., 2006;Edwards et al., 2009Edwards et al., , 2012Ansell et al., 2011), and elevated carbon sequestration (Wheeler et al., 2016). However, few studies have been conducted within selectively logged tropical forests to assess the effect of removing dominant low value tree species. ...
... Plantations can be very important in sequestering carbon from the atmosphere (Hodgman and Munger, 2009;Kelty, 2006;Montagnini and Porras, 1998;Moura Costa, 1996). Both single and mixed species plantations have the potential to help forests maintain their contribution to carbon cycles (Hodgman and Munger, 2009;Siry et al., 2005). ...
... Mg C/ha after a 60-year rotation or an average of 100 Mg C/ha/yr during the same rotation period (Moura Costa, 1996). ...
... l incremento de la concentración de CO 2 en la atmósfera y su incidencia en el cambio climático, promovió el interés en la fijación biológica de carbono como un medio para reducir dicha concentración (Houghton, 1996;Krankina et al., 1996). Los bosques tropicales secundarios podrían resultar apropiados a ese fin debido a que combinan altas tasas de fijación de carbono con una gran superficie disponible (Moura Costa, 1996;Ortiz et al., 1998). La conversión agrícola del bosque ha permitido, desde los orígenes de la agricultura, la subsistencia de muchos pueblos, y aún hoy la población campesina del trópico depende del cultivo del suelo forestal para producir su alimento. ...
... Para la conversión de materia seca en carbono orgánico se utilizo un factor de 0,45 (IPCC, 2000). Utilizando este factor de conversión en la biomasa y mantillo se estimó el contenido de carbono total en cada uno de estos compartimentos (Moura Costa, 1996). ...
La acumulación neta de carbono atmosférico en la vegetación y suelo a través de la sucesión tiene relevancia para la mejora de las condiciones productivas y ambientales. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el contenido y tasas de almacenamiento del carbono en la biomasa aérea, mantillo y parte superior del suelo mineral, en diferentes etapas de la sucesión secundaria a partir de cultivos anuales abandonados. Para analizar los cambios de carbono en la biomasa total se utilizaron modelos logísticos de crecimiento. Para el carbono en el suelo y el mantillo se ajustaron modelos logarítmicos. La tasa de acumulación de carbono difirió entre compartimentos y resultó variable durante el tiempo sucesional. En el primer año post abandono se observó la máxima tasa media anual de fijación de carbono en el suelo y el mantillo. Para la biomasa total la máxima tasa media anual de incremento de carbono se alcanzó a los 19 años; este compartimiento presentó el almacenamiento más grande y una tasa mayor de acumulación que el mantillo y el suelo mineral juntos en bosques secundarios mayores a 12 años. A los 20 años la biomasa total del bosque secundario contuvo 145Mg·ha-1 de carbono, lo que equivale al 90% del carbono de la biomasa del bosque maduro, cuyo stock total de carbono es de 197Mg·ha-1. Se sugiere que si se prolonga el tiempo de permanencia de las capueras, estos sistemas podrían funcionar como sumideros de carbono, a la vez que se mejoraría la provisión de bienes y servicios ambientales para la población local y a nivel regional.
... Forests and tree-based plantations are the most e cient and long-lasting feasible strategies to mitigate climate change issues by an process of highest prospective rates of carbon acceptance and storage, as its associated with environmental and social bene ts (Brown et al. 1996). This is necessary to overcome these challenging situations sustainably (Costa 1996). In line with the present needs, the countries need forests and forest-based goods on a larger scale to meet the basic economic needs through the development of tree plantations in farmlands. ...
Afforestation and reforestation have a greater potential for appropriate absorbtion of carbon from environment that helps in mitigating and reducing the global warming nature of both the developing and developed countries. Hence, the present study for assessing the carbon sequestration potential of 7 trees ( Dalbergia latifolia , Albizia lebbeck , Dalbergia sissoo , Gmelina arborea , Swietenia macrophylla , Tectona grandis , and Terminalia bellirica ) have been evaluated in Forest College and Research Institute (FC&RI), Mettupalayam in the surroundings of the Jakanari Reserve Forest, Northern part of Coimbatore for its biomass of trees, biomass carbon, ecophysiological (Photosynthesis and Transpiration rate) attributes and carbon isotope discrimination potential of trees. The study revealed that Dalbergia sissoo and Tectona grandis have the highest potential for biomass and biomass carbon production and as well as these two species also performed well under the eco-physiological condition by having the highest potential of growing in water scarcity conditions through carbon isotope discrimination identification. Dalbergia latifolia and Swietenia macrophylla are not able to cope with the prevailing dry condition; hence these species can be used for moist land conditions. Confirmation of the present study reveals that the Dalbergia sissoo and Tectona grandis are the best suitable tree species recommended for maximum carbon sequestration potential.
... Woody biomass offers major advantages over biomass from pastures and agricultural crops as it has better energy properties and less carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions 8 . Trees play a vital role in mitigating the diverse effects of environmental degradation and increasing CO 2 concentration in the atmosphere, and also climate change 9 . Planting high-value agricultural crops is not feasible on degraded community and private lands due to soil moisture and fertility constraints. ...
We studied the growth performance of fast-growing trees, viz. Eucalyptus spp., Casuarina equisetifolia, Gmelina arborea and Melia dubia in high-density plantation in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India, with different spac-ings, viz. 1 × 1 m, 1.2 × 1.2 m and 1.5 × 1.5 m. The experiment was established in July 2019 and data were recorded for the first and second year. In the second year maximum height increment was found in T 1 (Eucalyptus 1 × 1 m; 3.42 m) followed by T 5 (Eucalyptus 1.2 × 1.2 m; 3.40 m) and minimum in T 2 (Casuarina 1 × 1 m; 1.39 m), whereas maximum girth increment was found in T 1 (Eucalyptus 1 × 1 m; 12.43 cm) followed by T 9 (Eucalyptus 1.5 × 1.5 m; 10.66 cm) and minimum in T 6 (Casuarina 1.2 × 1.2 m; 6.46 cm). Maximum biomass in the first year was found in T 6 (Casuarina 1.2 × 1.2 m; 15.51 t ha-1), followed by T 1 (Eucalyptus 1 × 1 m; 14.71 t ha-1) and minimum in T 12 (Melia 1.5 × 1.5 m; 0.66 t ha-1), whereas in the second year maximum biomass was found in T 1 (Eucalyptus 1 × 1 m; 202.72 t ha-1), followed by T 5 (Eucalyptus 1.2 × 1.2 m; 98.81 t ha-1) and minimum in T 12 (Melia 1.5 × 1.5 m; 17.34 t ha-1). Carbon stock and carbon sequestration were maximum in the first year in T 6 (Casuarina 1.2 × 1.2 m) followed by T 1 (Eucalyptus 1 × 1 m) and minimum in Melia (1.5 × 1.5 m), with values of 7.75, 7.35, 0.33 t ha-1 , and 28.42, 26.96, 1.21 t ha-1 respectively. Whereas in the second year maximum was found in T 1 (Eucalyptus 1 × 1 m) followed by T 5 (Eucalyptus 1.2 × 1.2 m) and minimum in T 12 (Melia 1.5 × 1.5 m), with values of 101.36, 49.41, 8.67 t ha-1 , and 371.59, 181.12 and 31.78 t ha-1 respectively. Maximum productivity was found in T 1 (Euca-lyptus 1 × 1 m; 188.01 t ha-1) followed by T 5 (Eucalyptus 1.2 × 1.2 m; 89.88 t ha-1) and minimum in T 12 (Melia 1.5 × 1.5 m; 16.68 t ha-1).
... The concentration of carbon in tropical forest biomass is between 46 and 52% (Higuchi et al. 2004), however, many authors consider that 50% of the value of plant biomass corresponds to the carbon value in it (Brown et al. 1989, Houghton et al. 2009). The long-lived plants accumulate carbon in the wood and in other tissues until their death and decay, at which time the stored carbon is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, carbon or methane monoxide or is incorporated into the soil as organic matter (Moura 1996). ...
Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a resiliência da biomassa florestal aérea, em quatro áreas experimentais na Amazônia oriental. Para todas as áreas após corte de impacto reduzido, ficou evidente que existe uma grande perda de biomassa em todas as classes diamétricas das árvores, bastante mais evidente nas classes com diâmetro acima de 50cm nos primeiros anos posteriores à extração. A floresta recuperou seu valor de biomassa devido ao crescimento das espécies que ali permaneceram. Após os tratamentos de silvicultura com desbaste de árvores não comerciais passados 9 anos de exploração, ocorre uma nova diminuição no valor da biomassa para todas as classes diamétricas. Após o incêndio na floresta do Tapajós, não houve perda significativa no valor da biomassa entre e dentro dos tratamentos.
... Wood contains four basic materials, such as cellulose, hemi cellulose, alkene with percentages 50%, 20% and 25% respectively and the rest are resin materials and oils (Moll and Moll, 1998). Brown (1997) explained that the amount of carbon is 50% of the biomass above ground as indicated by Costa (1996) This also explains that a single weight unit of carbon stock in the forest environmental system results from removing (12/44) = 3.67 weight unit of carbon dioxide (Richard, 1992). This large amount gives the right idea to use trees in removing carbon dioxide from the air, however, the equation works conversely when the tree is burnt or allowed to decay completely. ...
The effect of the density of the forest and age on the amount of carbonic stock of Pinus brutia Ten. ABSTRACT: This study was conducted on Pinus brutia Ten. in Zawita region northern Iraq, which located between latitude (36 o 43 '-36 o 54 ') and longitude (43 o 02 '-44 o 00 ') and altitude ranging (681-1014) m above the level sea. The search method of data collection depended on the ground inventory done in summer 2010, where all basic data of the study were collected, which represented the variable of tree and forest from 30 samples. The layered random stocktaking was used to this effect, and it was divided into two layers. Twenty samples taken form artificial plantation and ten samples from natural forests were distributed to the study region with dimensions (30x30). Then from each sample, the measures of diameter at the Breast Height (DBH) and the variables of the forest represented by the number of trees per unit area and average square diameter and prevailing average height of trees. By using the mathematical models, the size of the trunk and branches was estimated, and from the specific weight of Pinus brutia Ten. of about (0.4676) kg/m 3 , the weight of trunk and branches of the study sample was calculated, also the weight of wet leaves was calculated from the study site for different diametrical categories of samples, by using multiple regression data field for trunk, branches, leaves and forest variables, were calculated using the following equations:
... It promotes the search for suitable method to sequester the carbon into soil and plant biomass. Tree based land use practice could be one 2 among the viable alternative to store atmospheric CO due to its cost effectiveness, high potential rate of carbon uptake and associated environmental as well as social benefits (Costa 1996). ...
Biomass constitutes primary data needed for understanding a number of ecological processes like energy flow and water and nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems. Various tree components are economically utilized for fodder, firewood, timber, pulp and paper, plywood, medicines and other uses. Therefore, quantification of total biomass is important. Trees play a vital role in 2 mitigating the adverse effect of environmental degradation and increasing concentration of CO in the atmosphere and also in its consequence on climate change. We studied the biomass and carbon storage pattern in natural and plantation forests of sub-humid tropics in Barnawapara Wildlife Sanctuary. Maximum total biomass (aboveground + belowground) was recorded in closed natural forest i.e. 473.60 Mg ha (414.26 + 59.34) followed by open natural forest, 217.59 Mg ha (190.55 + 27.04) and teak plantation-1-1 134.99 Mg ha (112.73 + 22.26). Also total carbon recorded was maximum in closed natural forest, 208.22 Mg ha (187.08-1-1 +21.14) followed by open natural forest, 95.11 Mg ha (85.60 +9.59) and teak plantation, 56.06 Mg ha (50.11 +7.95)-1-1 respectively. The study shows that the natural forest has an edge over plantation forest in terms of biomass accumulation and carbon storage. Also the aboveground accumulation of biomass and carbon storage is higher than belowground in all type of forests.
... Our surveys of Kinabatangan, Tabin and Ulu Segama took place approximately 16-20 years post-harvest disturbance, and so these forests would have undergone substantial regrowth and recovery by this time. This is particularly true of Ulu Segama, where there has been intensive rehabilitation planting [29,30]. However, we also detected marbled cats in Malua, a particularly disturbed forest, less than one year post harvest. ...
The marbled cat Pardofelis marmorata is a poorly known wild cat that has a broad distribution across much of the Indomalayan ecorealm. This felid is thought to exist at low population densities throughout its range, yet no estimates of its abundance exist, hampering assessment of its conservation status. To investigate the distribution and abundance of marbled cats we conducted intensive, felid-focused camera trap surveys of eight forest areas and two oil palm plantations in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Study sites were broadly representative of the range of habitat types and the gradient of anthropogenic disturbance and fragmentation present in contemporary Sabah. We recorded marbled cats from all forest study areas apart from a small, relatively isolated forest patch, although photographic detection frequency varied greatly between areas. No marbled cats were recorded within the plantations, but a single individual was recorded walking along the forest/plantation boundary. We collected sufficient numbers of marbled cat photographic captures at three study areas to permit density estimation based on spatially explicit capture-recapture analyses. Estimates of population density from the primary, lowland Danum Valley Conservation Area and primary upland, Tawau Hills Park, were 19.57 (SD: 8.36) and 7.10 (SD: 1.90) individuals per 100 km2, respectively, and the selectively logged, lowland Tabin Wildlife Reserve yielded an estimated density of 10.45 (SD: 3.38) individuals per 100 km2. The low detection frequencies recorded in our other survey sites and from published studies elsewhere in its range, and the absence of previous density estimates for this felid suggest that our density estimates may be from the higher end of their abundance spectrum. We provide recommendations for future marbled cat survey approaches.
... In order to mitigate the problems, there is need for increasing the tree cover in different land uses. Tree based land use practice could be one among the best methods to store atmospheric carbon dioxide due to its cost effectiveness, high potential rates of carbon uptake and associated environmental as well as social benefits (Costa, 1996;Zan et al., 2001;Swamy et al., 2003). ...
A field experiment was conducted at Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Raipur, Chattisgarh, India to evaluate the Growth, biomass, carbon sequestration and N,P and K nutrient storage in nine year old stands of Ceiba pentandra (L) Gaertn. planted in 4 × 4m, 4 × 6m and 4 × 8 m tree spacing in sub humid tropics of Eastern India. Growth parameters varied significantly due to pruning regimes and tree spacing. Stand biomass ranged from 16.81 to 30.74 Mg ha-1 in4 × 4m to4 × 8m tree spacing of Ceiba stands. Total biomass, stem component contributed highest (45.3 to 47.7%) followed by root (22.8 - 22.9%), branch (16.75 -17.84%), pod (6.36 - 9.11%) and leaf (5.82 - 5.92%) components. The stand carbon ranged from 5586 to 9896 kg ha-1 with mean annual C storage of 620 to 1099.6 kg ha-1 yr1. Among tree components the stem wood accounted for maximum carbon sequester (51 to 51.6%) fallowed by roots (19 to 20 %), branches (14 to 15%) leaves (6.5 to 6.8%) and pods (4.8 to 5.1%). Tree spacing significantly influenced nutrient storage. It was ranged from 508 to 825.3 kg N ha-1, P from 48.6 to 79.2 kg ha-1 and K from 240.6 to 407.6 kg ha-1. Nutrient storage in Ceiba stands in different components in order of stem > leaf > root > branch > pod.
... Otra cantidad de carbono es el carbono fijado en bosques existentes que son conservados, porque los productos de las planta-ciones reemplazan productos que de otro modo fueron extraídos del bosque existente. Esa cantidad se puede contar siempre y cuando los bosques existentes verdaderamente estén amenazados y las plantaciones estén dirigidas a aliviar esa amenaza , Moura Costa, 1996Trexler & Haugen, 1995). La sustitución de combustibles fósiles, cemento y materiales de construcción altamente energéticos por productos de bosques tampoco entran en los cálculos. ...
... Carbon trading: Climate change induced by ever increasing concentration of Green House Gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere has been a blazing global issue. For setting aside forest with the purpose of atmospheric carbon mitigation, developing countries can receive payments from industrialized countries looking to offset their carbon emissions (Costa, 1996). Nepal could harness this opportunity primarily by controlling the deforestation and forest degradation. ...
Protected areas are cornerstones of virtually all national and international conservation strategies
used aside to maintain functioning natural ecosystems. They act as refuge for species and to maintain
ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. They
provide significant economic benefits to surrounding communities and contribute to spiritual, mental
and physical wellbeing. Harmonized existence of human race on earth hinges on sustained and
extended operations of PAs. One of the basic pre-requisites for sustained operations of PAs is to
have adequate and sustained financing. In these pursuits, a need to explore innovative sources of
financing as conventional sources of funding to supplement the prevalent inadequacy of PA financing
was imperative and the present study was one of the initiatives.
Literature review, group discussions, informal meetings and consultations, field visit and observations
were organized to collect data and information regarding income sources, expenditures, sustainable
financing, PA services, sustainable strategies, etc. to acquire innovative ideas on funding and financing
mechanism put up by Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, protected areas, donors
and stakeholders. Field level group discussions and visits were made in Shivpuri-Nagarjun, Chitwan,
Langtang and Bardia National Parks and Shukla-Phanta Wildlife Reserve.
Several national and international policies and practices clearly demonstrate that a comprehensive
milieu is essential for generating and mobilizing funds for sustainable management of natural
resources. There is consensus in the conservation community that the lack of adequate financing is
jeopardizing the attainments of the CBD and MDG goals, including the national targets and
priorities. Various financing mechanisms have been introduced in PAs of Nepal through attracting
funds (external supports, donations), generating funds (sharing revenue, charging service fees and
taxes) and introducing market based mechanisms (tourism fee, products sale, carbon finance, PES).
However, the coverage of these mechanisms is limited and lacking sustainability. As in other
countries of the world, government budget is the single largest source of PA financing in Nepal.
Additionally, there were 21 complementary sources of internal income for PAs and DNPWC. Entry
fee from the visiting tourists was the most amongst in revenue generation of PAs. The contribution
of revenue to the annual budget was about 50 percent. Average annual investment for PAs of Nepal
was about NRs 10,000.00 (US
157/Km2). On the basis of unit area, Chitwan NP, Parsa WR, Shivpuri-Nagarjun NP and Sagarmatha
NP were efficient in generating enough revenue per unit area i.e. more than NRs 25,000/Km2
whereas Rara, Khaptad, Makalu-Barun and Shey-Phoksundo National Parks were only able to generate
about NRs 1,000/Km2. poorly managed, urging substantial supports for sustainable financing.
The PAs particularly located in remote areas were inefficient in fund mobilization and victims of
under-financing. A range of innovative PA financing mechanisms: raising funds from new markets
(such as carbon offsets or other payments for ecosystem services), finding new donors (such as
large corporations, private philanthropists, other government agencies or tax revenue sharing),
sharing costs and benefits with local stakeholders and PAs, employing new financial tools (such as
business planning), improving wider policy and market conditions, and devolving funding and
management responsibilities (for example to NGOs, local communities, individuals or businesses)
were beneficial and strategically employed but still there was a considerable gap due to lack of
sustainable financing mechanism.
... As regards the first option, different strategies have been recommended, most of them focusing on forestry management (1,2). The potential of forests to serve as sinks for carbon is well recognized (3,4), however, the effectiveness of various ecosystems to sequester carbon differs widely with respect to the species involved, the ambient climate and the prevailing management practices (5). The feasibility of relying on ecosystems to sequester carbon will depend upon the inherent patterns of land use, which, in turn, are affected by demographic, economic and technological factors (1). ...
The aim of this research was to investigate the potential of the South Florida Cypress Wetlands as a carbon-accumulating system.
This ecosystem is part of the Big Cypress Natural Preserve, located in the south-west part of Florida (USA) between the Mangrove Swamps that border the Gulf of Mexico and the Everglades.
This investigation was carried out by constructing networks of carbon exchange between the living and nonliving components that comprise this ecosystem. By means of these networks potential for carbon accumulation has been assessed by identifying and quantifying pathways for the transfer of carbon, assessing the efficiency between trophic levels, and evaluating the importance of material cycling. These analyses are commonly referred to as network analysis.
Results obtained show that dependency on detritus by higher trophic levels is rather low and so is the trophic efficiency. Yet, less than 10% of the carbon that flows through the system is recycled and the magnitude of internal ascendency reaches only 40% of the total system ascendency.
All these results support the hypothesis that the South Florida Cypress Wetlands are predominately flow-through in nature and that carbon accumulation in this environment is noticeable.
... Most remaining forest is reserved as production forest ( Johns 1997) and has been selectively logged at least once ( Edwards et al. 2010a, b). Our study site is the Innoprise and Forest Absorbing CO 2 Emissions (FACE) Foundation Rainforest Rehabilitation Project (INFAPRO; Moura-Costa 1996), located in the 1 million ha Yayasan Sabah (YS) logging concession, Malaysian Borneo (see Edwards et al. 2009 for further details). This area was selectively logged in 1988-1989 following a modified uniform system, which seeks to transform uneven-aged and heterogeneous forest into a homogenous and even-aged forest that can then be re-logged when stands have sufficient residual trees of the right sizes. ...
The inclusion of carbon stock enhancements under the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) framework will likely drive a rapid increase in biosequestration projects that remove carbon from the atmosphere through rehabilitation of degraded primary rain forests. Such projects could also present an important opportunity to reverse losses of biodiversity from degraded rain forests, but concern has recently been expressed that management interventions to increase carbon stocks may conflict with biodiversity conservation. Focusing on a large-scale rain forest rehabilitation project in northern Borneo, we examine: (i) how intensive rehabilitation of selectively logged forests affected patterns of bird community composition and (ii) whether changes in vegetation structure explain observed shifts in avian guild structure and species composition. Bird composition differed between unlogged, naturally regenerating logged, and rehabilitated logged habitats, with the avifauna of rehabilitated forest more similar to that of naturally regenerating forest. Crucially, rehabilitation did not adversely affect either those species that declined after logging or those species that are IUCN Red Listed. Rehabilitation reduced the prevalence of vines and shrubs within regenerating forest, and across all habitats, the abundance and species richness of all birds and of obligate frugivores were positively related to vine prevalence. In contrast, the abundance and richness of frugivore–insectivore generalists and of salliers were negatively related to vines, suggesting that avifaunal responses to forest rehabilitation were attributable to liberation cutting of vines. Management intervention to increase carbon stocks had little adverse effect on avian biodiversity and we therefore argue that rain forest rehabilitation should play a strong role in future REDD+ agreements.
... The high pro®le of political commitments to limit emissions since the Kyoto conference of 1997 has given greater prominence also to the level of carbon tax required to meet emissions targets. Within forestry RIL is only one among a number of options to alter carbon balance favourably: afforestation (Sedjo and Solomon, 1989; Price, 1990 ); enrichment planting to aid rapid recovery of logged forests (Moura-Costa, 1996); fertilisation to increase growth rates (Hoen and Solberg, 1994 ); silvicultural modi®cations , such as extended rotation, reduced thinning and choice of species (Price and Willis, 1993). On all modes of pricing carbon, discounting and the rate at which it is done exert a powerful in¯uence, because of the long time-frame of the effects of mitigating options. ...
Reduced impact logging (RIL) is one means of reducing the carbon emissions held responsible for global warming. It may also reduce other adverse logging effects. A study of RIL’s effects in Sabah, Malaysia, found 44% reduction of area logged within a tract, 22% reduction in timber yield per logged hectare, and 18% increase in cost per m3 logged compared with conventional logging (CL). Estimated timber yield at the next harvest was 31% higher following RIL. Compared with unlogged forest, RIL damaged rattan, wildlife, soil and water quality values less than did CL. However, RIL’s environmental benefits per area of forest logged are considerably compromised by the greater logging area required for a given timber yield. Doing RIL in place of CL had a net cost per unit area at all rates of discount. Per m3 of timber logged, RIL was beneficial without discounting, but had a net cost at a 2% discount rate and higher. The overall cost of RIL’s superior carbon retention varied with both discount rate and level of analysis, from negative price to more than US$ 50 per megagram at a 10% discount rate. RIL appears most cost-effective on a per m3 logged basis at low discount rates. However, at commonly applied discount rates (4% and above) RIL’s carbon price exceeds most published estimates for carbon prices.
... Tree growing is also the only known practical way of removing large volume of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), from the atmosphere (Trexler and Haugen 1995). CO 2 is the most abundant and important greenhouse gas (GHG) under human control (Moura-Costa 1996;Houghton 1996) and it is expected to account for more than 50% of the radiative forcing of GHGs released from human activity over the next century (Houghton 1996;Houghton et al. 1990). ...
This study investigates which land use system would provide the most economic and environmental benefits to farmers of upland grassland areas in the Philippines. It analyses a number of different land use systems and focuses on the benefits that tree-based systems can bring. It also investigates the main reasons why farmers are reluctant to change from their current unsustainable cropping regimes. It finds that it would make economic and environmental sense for farmers to convert a large percentage of their farms over to tree planting. It also finds that, although this would help halt the current slide into low productivity and environmental ruin, many farmers are reluctant to make the move because of the economic risks involved. In light of this, the study suggest several policies to give farmers the assistance they need to make an environmentally-informed choice about which land use system to adopt.
... One of the most important areas of lowland, dry dipterocarp forest remaining is the 1 million ha Yayasan Sabah (YS) logging concession (Lambert & Collar 2002) in Sabah, northeastern Borneo. Within the YS concession is one of the oldest and largest rehabilitation programs in the tropics: the Innoprise and Forest Absorbing CO 2 Emissions (FACE) Foundation Rainforest Rehabilitation Project (INFAPRO: Moura-Costa 1996). This area was selectively logged in 1988–1989 following a modified uniform system (Whitmore 1984 ) in which commercial stems >0.6 m diameter were removed with tractor and high-lead cable extraction, resulting in a timber harvest of approximately 80 m 3 /ha. ...
The recent advent of carbon crediting has led to a rapid rise in biosequestration projects that seek to remove carbon from the atmosphere through afforestation and forest rehabilitation. Such projects also present an important potential opportunity to reverse biodiversity losses resulting from deforestation and forest degradation, but the biodiversity benefits of different forms of biosequestration have not been considered adequately. We captured birds in mist nets to examine the effects of rehabilitation of logged forest on birds in Sabah, Borneo, and to test the hypothesis that rehabilitation restores avian assemblages within regenerating forest to a condition closer to that seen in unlogged forest. Species richness and diversity were similar in unlogged and rehabilitated forest, but significantly lower in naturally regenerating forest. Rehabilitation resulted in a relatively rapid recovery of populations of insectivores within logged forest, especially those species that forage by sallying, but had a marked adverse effect on frugivores and possibly reduced the overall abundance of birds within regenerating forest. In view of these results, we advocate increased management for heterogeneity within rehabilitated forests, but we strongly urge an increased role for forest rehabilitation in the design and implementation of a biodiversity-friendly carbon-offsetting market.
Tree planting has a greater capacity to sequester carbon from the atmosphere, aiding both emerging and wealthy nations in reducing and mitigating the effects of global warming. In this view, to evaluate carbon sequestration potential of plantation trees, the present study was carried out at Forest College and Research Institute (FC&RI), Mettupalayam, in the surroundings of the Jakanari Reserve Forest, northern part of Coimbatore, western Tamil Nadu with 7 trees species, viz., Dalbergia latifolia, Albizia lebbeck, Dalbergia sissoo, Gmelina arborea, Swietenia macrophylla, Tectona grandis, and Terminalia bellirica. The study was taken up during 2022 with the following factors, namely, biomass of trees, biomass carbon, ecophysiological attributes, and carbon isotope discrimination potential of trees. The study revealed that D. sissoo and T. grandis have the highest potential of storing biomass and biomass carbon and performed well under the eco-physiological settings by showing good biometric growth under water scarce conditions as determined by carbon isotope analysis. On contrary, D. latifolia and S. macrophylla are not able to cope with the prevailing dry condition; hence, these species can be used under moist land conditions rather in dry areas. On confirmation, D. sissoo and T. grandis are the best suitable tree species recommended for maximum carbon sequestration potential as farm plantations.
The richer countries spend about US $ 165 billion yearly on overseas aid, mainly to keep human development going. These efforts are undermined by climate change, water-catchment damage, biodiversity loss, and desertification, and their interactions with social systems at all scales, which few aid designs or evaluations fully address. This must change if aid performance is to be improved. Constraints to be overcome include limited understanding of the very complex systems that aid investments affect, and of the ecology behind climate change adaptation and mitigation. Aid Performance and Climate Change targets these problems and others, by explaining how to use multiple points of view to describe each aid investment as a complex system in its own unique context. With examples throughout, it reviews cases, ideas, and options for mitigation using technology and ecology, and for adaptation by preserving resilience and diversity, while exploring related priorities, treaties, and opportunities. Combining an empirical, eye-witness approach with methodological conclusions, this book is an essential resource for those looking to improve aid design and evaluation, and will be a necessary tool in training the next generation of aid professionals to respond to the causes and consequences of climate change.
The Regional Workshop on Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory and Mitigation Strategies held 25-28 September 1995 in Seoul, Korea had the following objectives: (i) present preliminary results of inventory and mitigation assessment; (ii) discuss methodologies and data issues; (iii) facilitate exchange of knowledge among experts; and (iv) build consensus for efforts among Asian and Pacific countries. Seventy-two participants representing national governments, academic and research institutions, and nongovernmental organizations from 15 countries and international bodies attended the workshop. This paper summarizes workshop presentations and working group discussions on greenhouse gas inventories and the results of mitigation strategies in three areas: energy, forestry, and methane.
Concern about rising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases has prompted the search for methods for reducing greenhouse gas emissions or ways of sequestering carbon in plant biomass. For reasons of cost effectiveness, high potential rates of carbon uptake, and associated environmental and social benefits, much attention has focused on promoting forestry as a means of offsetting carbon emissions. During the last ten years, forestry-based carbon offsets have evolved from a theoretical idea towards being a market-based instrument for accomplishing global environmental objectives. This paper provides an overview of the evolution of the market and transaction mechanism for carbon offsets and greenhouse gas emission reduction projects. Although many of the concepts and ideas presented here are generic and applicable to any type of greenhouse gas mitigation option, the paper emphasises issues related to forestry-based carbon offsets.
Productive and environmental conditions in slash and burn agricultural systems are improved by net atmospheric carbon accumulation in the vegetation and soil through succession. Carbon content and accumulation rates in the aboveground biomass, fine litter and topsoil in abandoned annual crops, were evaluated in this study. Logistic growth models were used to analyze successional changes in carbon stock of aboveground biomass while logarithmic models were used for soil and fine litter Carbon accumulation rates differed among compartments as well as along successional time. The maximum mean annual carbon increment in soil and fine litter occurred the first post-abandonment year Maximum mean annual carbon increment in biomass Was reached at 19yr and it was the largest storage. Biomass carbon accumulation rate was greater than that of the pooled fine litter and. mineral soil in secondary forests older than 12yr Total carbon in aboveground biomass in 20yr old secondary forest was 145Mg.ha(-1), which represents about 90% of the estimated carbon in the mature forest (197Mg.ha(-1)). An enlarged time devoted to cultivation plots before their abandonment would make possible an increase in the age reached by secondary vegetation in the remaining farm area. Thus, an increase in biomass carbon stock Would be attained in the system as a whole. Moreover goods and environmental services provision would be increased for the local population and at regional level.
An experiment was conducted to study the biomass accumulation and carbon sequestration of Casuarina equisetifolia of high density plantation for 12 months, 24 months and 36 months after planting (end of the rotation) in farm forestry in the east coast district of Tamilnadu, India. The average height of the trees showed 13.398 m and 6.546 cm of Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) with a total volume of 0.0372 m3. At the tree plantation level, performed better in third year plantation for diameter, height, above ground biomass, below ground biomass and total biomass and carbon sequestration estimations. Regression model (DBH based model) was used to estimate biomass and carbon sequestration of this plantation. Total biomass was 20.129 kg/tree and predicted r2 values as 0.829 to 0.952 with an average total biomass carbon of 8.452 kg/tree and predicted r2 values as 0.802 to 0.945. In general, biomass allocation and sequester carbon in tissue types, the stem shared maximum amount followed by needle and branch & twig. Information on carbon allocation in Casuarina equisetifolia farm forestry plantations in this region is quite meager. It, therefore, appears that use of DBH as an independent variable is an easier and precise method for biomass and carbon estimation in the east coast district of Tamilnadu, India.
This study aimed to capture the underlying motives of smallholders for planting trees in their farms. Specifically, it aimed to identify the farm and household characteristics that might explain the underlying tree growing objectives of smallholder farmers, and draw policy implications for enhancing tree growing among farmers. The study was conducted in Claveria, northern Mindanao, Philippines. It made use of 192 farmer-respondents who practiced tree based farming systems with corn being the dominant crop. Empirical evidence from the principal component analysis indicated that smallholders' farm forestry is an investment with multi-objectives, primarily focusing on monetary and other economic objectives. The first component represents "employment, economic security and asset motive" of tree growing was related to labor income and selfemployment, increase income from timber sales, asset motives, security in old age, speculative motive, etc. The second component interpreted to represent "recreation and aesthetic objective" was characterized by non-timber use of tree growing such as outdoor recreation, solitude and meditation, aesthetic value, and improved healthy residential environment. The variables relating to the objectives of restoring farm fertility and productivity, erosion control measure, nature protection, and making the environment cooler represented the third component, as "environmental protection and restoration objective." Tree planting for monetary and economic objectives was significantly and positively influenced by farm distance from barangay center and inversely related to gender and education of household heads, household size, total annual cash income, and average farm distance from the nearest road. Similar variables were associated with recreation and aesthetic objectives of tree planting except on civil status. Environmental and restoration motive was negatively associated with farming experience of households. However, it was uniquely related to the age of household heads and knowledge level regarding tree-based systems. This finding has significant implications on agricultural technology adoption in general, and tree farming in particular.
The inclusion of carbon stock enhancements under the REDD+ framework is likely to drive a rapid increase in biosequestration projects that seek to remove carbon from the atmosphere through rehabilitation of degraded rainforests. Concern has recently been expressed, however, that management interventions to increase carbon stocks may conflict with biodiversity conservation. Focusing on a large-scale rainforest rehabilitation project in northern Borneo, we examine the broad impacts of selective logging and subsequent carbon enhancement across a wide range of invertebrate fauna by comparing the abundance of 28 higher-level taxa within two separate rainforest strata (leaf-litter and understorey) across unlogged, naturally-regenerating and rehabilitated forest. We additionally assess changes in functional composition by examining responses of different feeding guilds. Responses of individual taxa to forest management were idiosyncratic but logging resulted in more than a 20% increase in total invertebrate abundance, with fewer than 20% of taxa in either stratum having significantly lower abundance in logged forest. Rehabilitation resulted in a marked reduction in abundance, particularly among leaf-litter detritivores, but overall, there were much smaller differences between unlogged and rehabilitated forest than between unlogged and naturally regenerating forest in both total invertebrate abundance and the abundances of different feeding guilds. This applied to both strata with the exception of understorey herbivores, which were more abundant in rehabilitated forest than elsewhere. These results support previous data for birds suggesting that carbon stock enhancement in these forests has only limited adverse effects on biodiversity, but with some impacts on abundance within particular guilds.
Bangladesh has huge degraded forestlands which can be reforested by the CDM projects. To realize the potential of the forestry
sector in developing countries for full-scale emission mitigation, understanding carbon sequestration potential of different
species in different types of plantations are important. This chapter deals with carbon sequestrating potentials of the A/R
activities with the possible incorporation with the CDM in Bangladesh. The chapter finds that generally the forests of Bangladesh
can sequester 92 tC ha–1, on average and 190 tCha–1 in the reforested degraded hill forests in particular. This chapter confirms the potential contribution of the carbon sequestration
of the forests of Bangladesh, and positively argues the incorporation of forests with the CDM activities. The A/R CDM policy
makers in Bangladesh can get this chapter useful to them.
Concern over the “non-permanence” or reversibility of carbon sequestration projects has been prominent in discussions over how to develop guidelines for forest project investments under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol. Accordingly, a number of approaches have been proposed that aim to help ensure that parties do not receive credit for carbon that is lost before project obligations are fulfilled. These approaches include forest carbon insurance, land reserves, and issuance of expiring credits. The potential costs of each of these different approaches are evaluated using a range of assumptions about project length, risk and discount rate, and a comparison of costs is ventured based on the estimated reduction in value of these credits compared with uninsured, and permanent credits. Obstacles to participation in the different approaches are discussed related to problems of long-term commitments, project scale, rising replacement costs, and low credit value. It is concluded that a system of expiring credits, which could be coupled with insurance or reserves, could guarantee obligations that span time-scales longer than that of conventional insurance policies while maintaining incentives for long-term sequestration.
The forestry sector holds considerable potential to mitigate the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Intensive research efforts have been undertaken in the last few years to better investigate different mitigation strategies and to develop a methodology to compare and evaluate alternative management options in terms of their net carbon benefits. Nevertheless, the progress in implementing forest mitigation measures has been rather slow in the past.
After summarizing selected estimates of the potentials of different mitigation options, this paper focuses on the implementation of carbon mitigation measures. Experiences from various forestry projects are analysed in search of possible strategies that could help to make the implementation of forest sector mitigation options more successful. It is argued that forestry projects should be more people-oriented and that they need to be integrated into multi-sectoral land-use strategies. The concept of Joint Implementation could potentially stimulate carbon mitigation efforts, however strong political commitment is needed to realize ambitious global mitigation programmes.
The Framework Convention on Climate Change addressing the problem of global warming at the international level, was signed in 1992. A protocol to the convention, including emission limitation or reduction commitments, was recently adopted. Joint implementation (JI), in any of its various forms, constitutes one of the mechanisms for reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions. The basic rationale for JI is to achieve the greatest global environmental benefits for the least cost. JI can in principle be a useful instrument in implementing environmental agreements. In this article, the authors argue that JI raises several issues of concern in relation to the realization of different aspects of sustainable development. More specifically, in the forestry sector, JI often seems to conflict with local and global environmental priorities. Moreover, the basic premiss on which JI forestry projects are predicated, namely the carbon sequestration potential, is not borne out by available scientific date. In the long term, such projects have a very limited capacity for carbon sequestration considering that woody biomass eventually decays or burns.
This study aimed to quantify and analyze the productivity, profitability and sustainability of alternative land uses in the
degraded grasslands using a bioeconomic modeling approach. It was conducted in Claveria, Misamis Oriental in Mindanao, the
Philippines. Results of bioeconomic analysis showed that tree-based land use systems have significantly higher financial profitability
and environmental benefits. The latter were measured in terms of higher carbon sequestration, least soil erosion, and sustained
soil nutrients relative to current farmers’ practice of maize cropping. Despite these, survey results showed the extent of
tree farming remains low (<10 percent of land area). The risk analysis indicated that while timber-based systems earned the
highest net present value (NPV), they seemed to be the most risky options as reflected by the high coefficient of variations
of the NPV ranging from 164 percent to 205 percent. The study recommended measures to reduce price risk and the need to improve
risk management capability of farmers to promote expansion of smallholder tree farming. Provision of relevant and timely price
information and price risk insurance are such possibilities. It is also suggested that payments to farmers for environmental
services like carbon sequestration be explored to encourage expansion of tree-based land use systems.
Concern for global warming has focused attention on the role of tropical forests in the reduction of ambient CO2 levels and mitigation of climate change. Deforestation is a major land use change in the tropics, with forest resources undergoing degradation through the influence of logging and conversion to other uses. Land use change is a product of varied local and regional resource use policies. Management of forest resources is one such major temporal factor, influencing resource stability and the carbon pool. Under a given management policy, both the long period of forest growth, and the slow turnover and decay of the carbon pool, enhance the relevance of stand level management policies as cost-effective mechanisms mitigating climate change. Apart from regional level uncertainties like the nature of land use and the estimation of carbon storage in vegetation and soil, the carbon flux of tropical forests is greatly influenced by uncertainty in regenerative capacity of forests and in harvest and management policies. A case study from India is used to develop a transition matrix model of natural forest management, and to explore the economic implications of maintaining and expanding existing carbon sinks. The study further explores the significance of investments in additional carbon sinks in plantation forests, given continued uncertainty in natural forest management.
In this paper, we consider a three-stage game in the context of a competing exporters model to compare and contrast the effects of discriminatory and uniform (Most Favored Nation, MFN) tariffs on countries' choice over environmental standards for varying degrees of pollution spillovers. Because of the presence of punishment effects and stronger own and cross-tariff effects, we find that discrimination yields higher standards than MFN (and free trade) independently of the extent of pollution spillovers. When pollution is local and incentives to free ride on other countries' abatement efforts are weak, we show, however, that welfare is larger under MFN than under discrimination. In a dynamic setting, we consider the impact of symmetric and asymmetric treatments on the sustainability of an international environmental agreement (IEA) and obtain that multilateral cooperation is easier to sustain under discrimination than under MFN (or free trade).
The total carbon(C) and total nitrogen(N) content of suspended matter in a small undisturbed headwater drainage basin in the New Territories of Hong Kong has been monitored. Mean C and N contents were 12.85% and 0.99% respectively for 132 samples. Samples collected under stableflow conditions had mean C and N contents of 12.81% and 1.06% respectively. Stormflow samples had mean C and N values of 12.86% and 0.97% respectively, which were very similar to the levels observed under stableflow conditions. The mean C:N ratios of 12.47 and 13.39 for stableflow and stormflow also reveal little difference according to hydrologic conditions. When all the data is considered little difference is observed in C and N according to the season. However, in winter there is a significant difference in C and N content between stable and stormflow samples. When C and N are plotted against water level the scattergraphs suggested that as stage increases the percentage of C and N in the suspended matter declines. Scattergraphs of C and N against suspended sediment concentration reveal a negative association. Comparison has been made between fresh leaf C, N and C/N ratio for trees and shrubs and the suspended matter. Fresh leaves do not appear to contribute significantly to suspended matter. The C/N ratio of suspended matter would also seem to exclude woody material and algae as sources of suspended matter.
The potentially widespread damage that could stem from global warming has prompted the search for international policy solutions. The problem for policy makers is to initiate programs that not only will mitigate the global buildup of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, but also will facilttate cooperation and be perceived as equitable. To this end, tradeable emissions permits, or entitlements, are a promising policy instrument. Nations could be assigned emission allowances on the basis of present and future baseline levels, but would be free to trade these permits. Such a program would share the burden of abatement, protect the interests of developing nations, and encourage cooperation through technology transfer.
The book is a summary of major forest initiatives undertaken since the UNCED conference in 1992. It sets out the text of the agreement of Rio as related to forestry, namely, the Rio Declaration, the Forest Principles, the Framework Conventions on Climate Change and on Biodiversity and the subsequent Convention to Combat Desertification. The book then gives details of bilateral and multilateral international forest initiatives and lists the relevant international bodies such as the Forest Stewardship Council. -N.Adger