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Tropical Ecology 51(2): 183-197, 2010 ISSN 0564-3295
© International Society for Tropical Ecology
www.tropecol.com
Soil physical variability in relation to soil erodibility under different
land uses in foothills of Siwaliks in N-W India
R.D. GUPTA1 , SANJAY ARORA2*, G.D. GUPTA3 & N.M. SUMBERIA2
1SKUAST, Jammu; 2SKUAST-J, Chatha, Jammu;
3Soil Survey Land Use Planning, Faculty of Agriculture, Jammu (J&K), India
Abstract: Physical properties of some soils from foothills of Siwaliks of Jammu, Jammu
and Kashmir State were studied. Clay content was the highest in soils of forest profiles,
followed by those under cultivated unmanaged and well-managed profiles, and least in soils of
barren land profiles. Soils of barren lands showed the highest values of bulk density (1.47 to
1.60 g cm-3), followed by cultivated unmanaged (1.46 to 1.58 g cm-3), cultivated well-managed
lands (1.34 to 1.54 g cm-3), and least in those of forest lands (1.32 to 1.52 g cm-3). The values of
particle density decreased in the order: barren lands (2.57 to 2.68 g cm-3) > cultivated
unmanaged (2.52 to 2.67 g cm-3) > cultivated well-managed (2.44 to 2.62 g cm-3) > forest lands
(2.38 to 2.62 g cm-3). Soils of forest lands had generally higher values of pore space (41.4 to 47.2
%) followed by cultivated well-managed lands (41.4 to 45.1 %), barren (40.1 to 43.4 %) and
unmanaged cultivated lands (40.0 to 43.2 %). Water holding capacity (%) ranged from 21.9 to
32.2, 30.5 to 40.5, 35.4 to 47.5 and 35.3 to 47.3 in soils of barren, cultivated unmanaged,
cultivated well managed and forest lands, respectively. Soils of forest lands showed highest
values of moisture equivalent (23.4 %) and lowest in those of barren lands (15.7 %), while there
was not much difference in the moisture equivalent values of soils belonging to cultivated
unmanaged (21.5 %) and cultivated well-managed (22.9 %) lands. Erosion and dispersion ratio
were positively and significantly correlated with particle and bulk density. Water holding
capacity and moisture equivalents were positively related to organic carbon content, and
negatively related to erosion and dispersion ratio.
Resumen: Se estudiaron las propiedades físicas de algunos suelos de las estribaciones de
los Siwaliks de Jammu, estado de Jammu y Kashmir. El contenido de arcilla alcanzó su máximo
en los suelos de los perfiles forestales, seguidos por los de perfiles cultivados no manejados y
bien manejados, y tuvo su mínimo en los suelos de los perfiles en tierras estériles. Los suelos de
las tierras estériles mostraron los mayores valores de densidad aparente (1.47 a 1.60 g cm-3),
seguidos por las tierras cultivadas sin manejo (1.46 a 1.58 g cm-3), las cultivadas bien manejadas
(1.34 a 1.54 g cm-3), y finalmente por las de tierras forestales (1.32 a 1.52 g cm-3). Los valores de
la densidad de partículas decrecieron en este orden: tierras estériles (2.57 a 2.68 g cm-3) >
cultivadas sin manejo (2.52 a 2.67 g cm-3) > cultivadas bien manejadas (2.44 a 2.62 g cm-3) >
tierras forestales (2.38 a 2.62 g cm-3). Los suelos de las tierras forestales tuvieron en general
valores más altos de espacio de poros (41.4 a 47.2 %), seguidos por las tierras de cultivo bien
manejadas (41.4 a 45.1 %), las estériles (40.1 a 43.4 %) y cultivadas sin manejo (40.0 a 43.2 %).
La capacidad de retención de agua (%) fluctuó entre 21.9 y 32.2, 30.5 y 40.5, 35.4 y 47.5, y 35.3 y
47.3 en suelos de tierras estériles, cultivadas sin manejo, cultivadas bien manejadas y tierras
forestales, respectivamente. Los suelos de las tierras forestales tuvieron los valores más altos de
equivalentes de humedad (23.4 %) y las tierras estériles los más bajos (15.7 %), a la vez que no
hubo mucha diferencia en los valores de los equivalentes de humedad de los suelos de tierras de
cultivado sin manejo (21.5 %) y bien manejadas (22.9 %). La erosión y el cociente de dispersión
estuvieron positiva y significativamente correlacionados con la densidad aparente y la de
* Corresponding Author; e-mail: aroraspau@yahoo.co.in
184 SOIL ERODIBILITY
partículas. La capacidad de retención de agua y los equivalentes de humedad estuvieron
relacionados positivamente con el contenido de carbono orgánico, y relacionados negativamente
con la erosión y el cociente de dispersión.
Resumo: As propriedades físicas de alguns solos do sopé das colinas de Siwaliks de Jammu,
do Estado de Jammu e Caxemira foram estudadas. O teor em argila foi a mais elevada nos
perfis dos solos das florestas, seguida por aqueles sob cultivo, não manejados e perfis naqueles
bem geridos, menor em perfis de solos incultos. Os solos de terras incultas mostraram os valores
mais altos da densidade bruta (1,47 a 1,60 g cm-3), seguidos pelas terras cultivadas não geridas
(1,46 a 1,58 g cm-3), terras cultivadas bem geridas (1,34 a 1,54 cm-3), e a mais baixa naquelas
terras florestais (1,32 a 1,52 g cm-3). Os valores de densidade das partículas decresceram na
seguinte ordem: terras incultas (2,57 a 2,68 g cm-3) > cultivada não gerida (2.52 to 2.67 g cm-3) >
cultivada bem gerida (2.44 to 2.62 g cm-3) > terras florestais (2.38 to 2.62 g cm-3). Os solos das
terras florestais apresentam, geralmente, os maiores valores de espaços de poros (41,4 a 47,2 %),
seguidos pelas terras cultivadas bem geridas (41,4 a 45,1 %), incultos (40,1 a 43,4 %) e solos
cultivados não geridos (40,0 a 43,2 %). A capacidade de retenção de água (%) variou entre 21,9 a
32,2, 30,5 a 40,5, 35,4 a 47,5 e 35,3 a 47,3 em solos incultos, cultivados não geridos, cultivados
bem geridos e terras florestadas, respectivamente. Os solos das terras florestadas mostraram os
valores mais elevados do equivalente de humidade (23,4 %) e mais baixos nas terras incultas
(15,7 %), enquanto não se verificava muita diferença nos valores do equivalente de humidade
nos solos cultivados não geridos (21,5 %) e cultivados bem geridos (22,9 %). A erosão e o ratio de
dispersão apresentaram-se positiva e significativamente correlacionados com a densidade bruta
e das partículas. A capacidade de retenção da água e os equivalentes de humidade estavam
positivamente correlacionados com o teor do carbono orgânico e negativamente relacionados com
a erosão e o ratio de dispersão
Key words: Barren lands, cultivated lands, erosion, foothill soil, forest, physical
properties.
Introduction
Soil erosion by water is a serious problem that
has an adverse effect on the soil productivity. It
has been reported that during the last 40 years,
33 % of the total arable land of the world is lost by
erosion and it continues to be lost at a rate of 10
million ha yr-1 (Pimental et al. 1995). In India, the
problem of soil erosion is quite serious and about
18.5 % of the total worlds’ soil erosion occurs here,
with about 5334 million tonnes of soil lost annually
(Dhruvanarayana & Ram Babu 1983).
The foothills of Siwaliks, covering an area of
2.14 × 106 ha, is a sub-montaneous region of North-
western Himalayas that suffers from soil erosion
due to uneven topography, high soil erodibility and
erosivity of rains (Arora et al. 2006). In Jammu
region the foothills encompass a narrow belt of 10
to 30 km that stretches from Akhnoor in the west
to Kathua in the east, with an area of nearly 811
km2, found mainly in two districts Jammu and
Kathua of the Jammu & Kashmir state.
About 211 villages exist in the region with
population of about 250,000. The agriculture in the
region is totally dependent on rains and the type
and amount of rainfall is such that if the vege-
tation is disturbed, large-scale erosion could ensue.
A landscape dissected by innumerable seasonal
streams provides a spectacular picture of accele-
rated erosion in the area (Arora & Hadda 2008).
The seriousness of the erosion problem is under-
scored by the fact that in highly denuded Siwaliks,
4-6 cm top-soil layer often disappears during a
single monsoon. Due to great variation in steep-
ness of this slope ranging from slightly gentle (1 to
2 %) to steep slope (> 10 %) in drought prone
foothill belt of Jammu, erosion is the major
problem of soil husbandry. Even in lands with a
slope of 2 to 3 per cent in clay loam soil in the
region, there is loss of upto 106.5 tonnes ha-1 year-1
GUPTA et al. 185
(Gupta 2005). In all districts of Jammu region, the
damage to soil because of water erosion is consi-
derable, especially in the tracts lying under outer
or Siwalik Himalayas, most of which occurs during
south-west monsoon season. The soils of the region
are highly erodible because of their coarse texture,
low organic matter content, intensive and erratic
distribution of rainfall (Arora 2006).
The agricultural productivity levels of the region
are very low and unstable due to the vicissitudes of
monsoon rainfall, which is erratic, unpredictable
and highly variable over the years. Soil erosion
leading to high runoff, sizeable loss of soil and
nutrient is primarily responsible for low producti-
vity and poor economic status of the farmers in the
area. Runoff in the region varies from 35-45 % of
the total precipitation and soil loss varies from 25-
225 tonnes ha-1yr-1, respectively (Sur & Ghuman
1994).
The magnitude of soil erosion and land degra-
dation depends largely on various inherent soil
properties (Singh & Prakash 2000). A thorough
understanding of soil physical parameters is essen-
tial for assessment of soil erosion and productivity
for planning effective soil and water conservation
programmes in the area. As the direct measur-
ement of soil erodibility is costly and time consu-
ming (Singh & Khera 2007), efforts are made to
predict it from various soil properties. Very little
information is available on the relationship of soil
erosion index/erodibility with various soil charac-
teristics for this region. Hence, the present study
was conducted in this erosion-prone, fragile
ecosystem to evaluate the soil physical properties
of eroded and non-eroded soils from barren, agri-
cultural and forest ecosystems in relation to soil
erosion.
Materials and methods
General description of the study area
The Jammu district is in the Jammu region of
Jammu and Kashmir State, located between
32° 38′ and 32° 48′ N latitude, 74° 48′ and 74° 55′ E
longitude, is bounded by Reasi and Udhampur dis-
tricts on its north and north-east, by Ramnagar
and Basholi counties in the east and south-east, by
Pakistan in the south-west and by Nowshera on
the north-west (Fig. 1).
The Jammu district has been divided into
three zones, viz., (i) the outer plains or south-west
alluvium; (ii) the outer plains or north-west allu-
vium; and (iii) submontane foothills of Siwalik.
About 56 % of the area has a flat or smooth topo-
graphy and the remaining area is a hilly terrain
(Rashid & Arora 2007). The area is drained by the
river Chenab and its tributaries, viz., the Jammu
Tawi and the Poonch Tawi as well as the Manawar
Tawi.
The hills of Jammu district are small hillocks,
which constitute part of Jammu hills. Jammu hills
are bounded by the two main Himalayan rivers,
the Ravi and the Jhelum, to the east and west,
respectively- the pre-independence boundaries
of the Kashmir State (Bhatia 2000). They form a
Fig. 1. Location map of the study area.
186 SOIL ERODIBILITY
system of low foothills with an average height of
900 - 1500 m. In popular parlance, these hillocks
are called Siwalik ranges.
All the Siwaliks are composed of shale clay
stone and coarse conglomerates. The base of the
Siwaliks is composed of alternating beds of hard
yellowish green sandstones to red colored shales.
These beds regularly alternate with a distinct
pattern. There are distinct ripples marks on the
top of the beds indicating the presence of slow
steady rivers responsible for their formation.
These so-called Siwalik rocks are seen on a road-
side on the National Highway between Nandani
and Jhajar Kotli. Their red color indicates the
warm type of climate and presence of ripples
marks show the calmness of the water in which
they were deposited. This alternating shale sand-
stone sequence is succeeded by a thick sandstone
deposit of characteristics white and maroon color.
The sandstones contain a lot of cementing material
which resulted in hard lenticular layers within the
sandstones. Thus, geologically, the study area is
composed of thickly bedded sandstones alternated
with shales, clay beds, conglomerates and boulders
(Gupta et al. 1990).
According to the USDA Soil Taxonomy Classi-
fication System, the soils belong to the orders
Entisols, Inceptisols (Gupta & Verma 1992) as well
as Alfisols (Gupta 1994). On the great group level,
these soils have been classified into Ustifluvents,
Ustorthents, Eutrochrepts, Haplu-stalfs, Paleu-
stalfs, Udifluvents, and Paleudalfs.
The climate of the foothill region of Jammu
Siwaliks is very cold in winter and hot in summer,
with annual rainfall of about 1000 mm. The mean
maximum and minimum temperature are 39.9 and
23.4 °C in summer and 26.2 and 6.5 °C in winter.
May to June and October to November are the
driest months.
The area has diverse natural vegetation
consisting of scrub-forests, chir pine forests, and
moist and dry deciduous trees.
The cropping pattern of the Jammu Siwaliks is
characterized by the predominance of grain crops.
A large area is under cereals such as maize (Zea
mays), bajra/pearl millet (Pennisetum sp.), Sor-
ghum bicolor, wheat (Triticum aestivum) and rice
(Oryza sativa), which is grown as rainfed crop.
Common pulses grown are black gram (Vigna
mungo) and green gram (V. radiata). Oilseed crops
like sesame (Sesamum indicum) and mustard
(Brassica juncea) are also grown.
Collection of soil samples and methods
of analysis
Based on reconnaissance soil survey, 64 soil
samples from eight micro-watersheds of Jammu
Siwaliks were collected, representing eroded and
non-eroded areas. Surface (0 - 22.5 cm depth) and
subsurface (22.5 - 45 cm depth) samples were ob-
tained. Brief site characteristics of the sampled
locations have been given elsewhere (Gupta et al.
2007). In addition, 13 profiles were exposed, 4
representing eroded barren lands (1 - 4), 3 repre-
senting eroded cultivated unmanaged lands (5 - 7),
3 representing non-eroded cultivated well managed
lands (8 - 10) and 3 representing non-eroded forest
lands (11 - 13) to study their physical properties
and determine erodibility indices.
Soil samples were air-dried and passed through
a 2 mm mesh sieve before determining physical
properties. Particle size distribution was estimated
by the International pipette method as described
by Jackson (1973). Bulk density and particle den-
sity were determined as per the method of Blake
(1965a,b). The Brigg's & McLane centrifuge method
was followed to determine the moisture equivalent
(Piper 1966). Water holding capacity of soil was
determined by the Keen-Raczkowski Box Method
(Keen & Raczkowski 1921).
Soil pH was measured with a glass electrode in
a 1:2.5 (w/v) soil-water mixture as described by
Richards (1954). Organic carbon content was dete-
rmined by the wet digestion method (Walkley and
Black 1934). Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of
the soils was estimated using neutral normal
sodium acetate according to the procedure descri-
bed by Jackson (1973).
The erosion index was computed from the
relationship described by Sahi et al. (1977), i.e.,
Erosion index = Dispersion ratio/ (% clay/0.5
water holding capacity)
Dispersion ratio (%) was calculated from the
following relationship described by Middleton
(1930):
Dispersion ratio (DR) = Water dispersible (%
silt + % clay)/ total (% silt + % clay) x 100
And, Erosion ratio (%) = DR/ % colloidal/ %
moisture equivalent
Water dispersible (% silt + % clay content) was
determined by dispersing 50 g soil in 1000 ml
distilled water in measuring cylinder (34.1 cm high
and 6.2 cm diameter) without adding dispersing
agent, shaking end-over-end 20 times, and pipetting
out 20 ml of soil suspension from 10 cm depth.
GUPTA et al. 187
The simple correlation coefficients between
relevant soil parameters and erosion indices and
multiple regression analysis were worked out as
per the statistical methods outlined by Gomez and
Gomez (1984).
Results and discussions
Soil pH, organic carbon content cation
exchange capacity and exchangeable bases have
been detailed elsewhere (Gupta et al. 2007). Briefly,
all the soils have neutral to alkaline reaction, with
a pH range of 7.1 to 8.4, except some soils of
cultivated well-managed and forest lands, which
were slightly acidic pH (6.4 to 6.7). Electrical
conductivity values were generally higher in
surface than sub-surface soils and organic carbon
contents (%) in soils of barren, cultivated un-
managed, cultivated well-managed and forest lands
ranged from 0.11 to 0.52, 0.18 to 0.50, 0.27 to 1.29
and 0.35 to 1.20, respectively. The mechanical
components of various surface and subsurface
soils, as well as those of profiles, with respect to
clay silt, fine sand and coarse sand content are
shown in Tables 1 and 2.
The texture of soils of barren and cultivated
unmanaged lands varied from loamy sand to loam,
cultivated well managed soils varied from sandy
loam to loam, and forest soils from sandy loam to
clay loam. On the whole, the soils of various
profiles were predominantly loam to loamy in tex-
ture. The great variability in texture in surface
and subsurface horizons of different profiles could
be attributed to the translocation of clay in profiles
5 to 7 and 11 to 12.
Variation in mechanical components like clay,
silt, fine sand and coarse sand was seen not only
among various profiles, but also within the same
profile (Table 2). The average contents of clay, silt,
fine sand and coarse sand (%) in soils of barren
land profiles were 9.2, 20.1, 54.7 and 15.2, respec-
tively, and in those of cultivated unmanaged profiles
14.0, 22.4, 47.8 and 15.5, respectively. In soils of
cultivated well managed profiles, the percentage
clay, silt, fine sand and coarse sand were 18.3,
23.7, 49.1 and 8.4, respectively, and in those of
forest lands 21.2, 25.7, 43.3, 9.4, respectively. Clay
content was the highest in soils of forest profiles,
followed by those under cultivated unmanaged and
cultivated well managed profiles, and least in the
soils of barren land profiles. Furthermore soils of
barren land profiles had higher sand content than
those of cultivated unmanaged, cultivated well
managed and forest profiles. This could be ascribed
to different levels of erosion of the soils depending
upon the slope and management practices as
observed by Singh & Prakash (1985) in alluvial
soils of hilly region of Uttar Pradesh, North India.
These findings are further supported by a positive
and significant relationship observed between the
erodibility indices and sand content, and a
significant, negative correlation between erodi-
bility and clay fraction (Tables 3 and 4). Soil
texture determines the ease with which agents of
erosion or destruction can detach a soil, and coarse
textured soils are more easily detached than
medium or fine textured soils (Wischmeier &
Mannering 1969).
Bulk density : There was large variation in the
values of bulk density irrespective of soil depth,
ranging from 1.31 to 1.60 Mg m-3 in surface (0 -
22.5 cm) and subsurface (22.5 - 45 cm) soils. Bulk
density was generally higher in surface than
subsurface soils (Table 1). The mean values of bulk
density in surface and subsurface soils of barren,
cultivated unmanaged, cultivated well managed
and forest lands were 1.53, 1.50, 1.43 and 1.40 g
cm-3, respectively (Table 1). The slightly higher
values of bulk density for soils of barren and
cultivated managed soils may be attributed to: (i)
low clay and high sand content; (ii) low amount of
organic carbon; (iii) richness/dominance of parent
material (sandstones) in sand fraction and (iv)
highly erodible nature of the soils. The negative,
significant correlation observed between bulk
density and organic carbon content further streng-
thens these results (Table 5). Sharma & Qahar
(1989) have also reported a negative correlation
between bulk density with organic carbon and
clay content in eroded forest soils of outer Hima-
layas.
The soil samples collected throughout the soil
profiles showed a large variation in bulk density
values. The mean values of bulk density in soil
profiles of barren, cultivated unmanaged and culti-
vated well managed lands were 1.53, 1.50, 1.43
and 1.38 g cm-3, respectively (Table 2). This
indicates that soils of barren land had higher
values of bulk density than those of other land
groups, which can be accounted for by the coarser
texture and low organic matter content of the
soils.
The bulk density of soils in all profiles increased
with depth (Table 2) which could be ascribed to the
greater compaction that might have occurred in the
lower horizons of the profiles with time.
188 SOIL ERODIBILITY
GUPTA et al. 189
190 SOIL ERODIBILITY
GUPTA et al. 191
192 SOIL ERODIBILITY
GUPTA et al. 193
Table 3. Correlation coefficient (r) values of surface soil properties with erodibility indices.
Soil property Erosion ratio Dispersion ratio Erosion index
Organic carbon – 0.525** – 0.743** – 0.498**
Clay content – 0.643** – 0.660** – 0.677**
Sand content + 0.383 + 0.498** + 0.400*
Silt content – 0.108 – 0.181 – 0.028
Cation exchange capacity – 0.584** – 0.625** – 0.598**
*Significant at 5 % level; **Significant at 1 % level.
Table 4. Correlation coefficient (r) values of sub-surface soil properties with erodibility indices.
Soil property Erosion ratio Dispersion ratio Erosion index
Organic carbon – 0.625** – 0.740** – 0.482**
Clay content – 0.718** – 0.735** – 0.655**
Sand content + 0.562** + 0.583** + 0.653**
Silt content – 0.252 – 0.267 – 0.253
Cation exchange capacity – 0.649** – 0.694** – 0.543**
*Significant at 5 % level; **Significant at 1 % level.
Table 5. Correlation coefficient (r) values of studied physical properties with erodibility indices, organic carbon
and mechanical components.
Soil property Erosion
ratio
Dispersion
ratio
Erosion
Index
Organic
carbon
(%)
Clay
(%)
Sand
(%)
Silt
(%)
Surface soils
Water holding capacity
– 0.633** – 0.774** – 0.61+1** + 0.655** + 0.779** – 0.596** + 0.219
Moisture equivalent – 0.408** – 0.408** – 0.514** + 0.360* + 0.860** – 0.596** + 0.219
Bulk density + 0.663** + 0.792** + 0.638** – 0.884** – 0.747** + 0.589** – 0.236
Particle density + 0.605** + 0.741** + 0.595** – 0.725** – 0.746** + 0.618** – 0.265
Pore space – 0.489** – 0.578** – 0.455** + 0.761** + 0.485** – 0.156 + 0.110
Subsurface soils
Water holding capacity
– 0.633** – 0.711** – 0.489** + 0.665** + 0.878** – 0.537** + 0.290
Moisture equivalent – 0.594** – 0.623** – 0.521** + 0.449** + 0.854** – 0.600** + 0.172
Bulk density + 0.641** + 0.742** + 0.622** – 0. 807** – 0.743** + 0.753** + 0.498**
Particle density + 0.536** + 0.573** + 0.496** – 0.633** – 0.757** + 0.824** – 0.594**
Pore space – 0.554** – 0.702** – 0.533** + 0.732** + 0.520** – 0.453** + 0.217
*Significant at 5 % level (30 df); **Significant at 1 % level (30 df).
194 SOIL ERODIBILITY
Particle density : Like bulk density, a great
deal of variability was observed in the magnitude
of particle density in both surface (0 - 22.5 cm) and
subsurface (22.5 - 45 cm) soil and profile samples.
On the basis of average values from the data given
in Tables 1 and 2, the soils of barren lands showed
the highest values of particle density, Particle
density decreased in the order: barren lands >
cultivated unmanaged > cultivated well managed
> forest lands. The particle density in all the
profile samples increased with depth, which may
be due to lower soil organic carbon concentrations
in lower layers and higher amount of heavier
coarse sand fractions. A negative significant corre-
lation of particle density with organic carbon and
clay content indicates that with the decrease of
organic carbon contents and less finer fraction of
soil, the value of particle density would increase.
Blanco-Canqui et al. (2006) also reported that the
variation in composition of soil solids such as an
increase in soil organic carbon concentration can
significantly lower the soil particle density values
since the organic fraction is an important component
of soil solids. Significant positive relationship of
particle density with sand percentage and erodi-
bility was also observed (Table 5). While positive
significant correlation of this physical soil property
with sand and erodibility refers to increased value
of particle density with increase in sand content
and erodibility. These findings are in line with
earlier reports (Sharma & Qahar 1989) that
reported a positive relationship between particle
density and sand content.
Pore space : The percentage of pore space in
soils of barren, cultivated/unmanaged, cultivated/
well managed and forest lands ranged from 40.1 to
43.2, 40.4 to 43.1, 42.3 to 45.1 and 42.7 to 47.2,
with average values of 41.5, 41.8, 43.3 and 43.8,
respectively (Tables 1 and 2). The soils of well
managed and forest lands had slightly higher
values of pore space as compared to those of barren
and unmanaged cultivated lands. A similar trend
was observed for various profile samples, which
had average values of pore space viz., 41.4, 42.3,
43.8 and 44.2 per cent in soils of barren, cultivated
unmanaged, cultivated well managed and forest
lands, respectively. Higher values of porosity in
forest soils could be explained by: (i) more organic
matter content; (ii) a high amount of fine fractions,
which has a higher surface area and (iii) low
erosion potential. Similar findings have been
reported by others (Singh & Prakash 1985; Sharma
& Qahar 1989) indicating that soils rich in organic
carbon and clay content had high total porosity
which resulted into rapid permeability.
Water holding capacity : Water holding capacity
percentage ranged from 21.9 to 32.2, 30.5 to 40.5,
35.4 to 47.5 and 35.3 to 47.3 in soils of barren,
cultivated/unmanaged, cultivated/well managed and
forest lands, respectively (Table 1). Their average
values were 25.6, 32.9, 40.2 and 47.7 per cent, for
barren, cultivated/unmanaged, cultivated/well ma-
naged and forest lands, respectively. Like pore
space, per cent the water holding capacity was
generally higher in soils of forest lands and those
of cultivated and well managed. Akin to surface
and subsurface soils from different land groups
(Table 1), soils of various profiles also showed
large variation in their water holding capacities
(Table 2). The mean values of water holding capa-
city in soil profiles of barren, cultivated/unman-
aged, cultivated/well managed and forest lands
were 26.7, 34.2, 40.6 and 41.6 per cent, respecti-
vely. These average values show that water
holding capacity was highest in case of soils under
forest lands that can be ascribed to presence of
higher organic matter and clay fractions, followed
by soils of cultivated/well managed, and lowest in
case of barren land soils. This is supported by a
positive significant correlation of water holding
capacity with organic carbon and clay fractions for
these soils (Table 5). Like total porosity values, the
values of water holding capacity also decreased
with soil depth. This could be explained by the
occurrence of high amount of organic carbon and
clay in the surface than sub-surface soils, which
help to form aggregates and help retain water.
Moisture equivalent : Values of moisture
equivalent ranged from 9.0 to 22.9 per cent in
surface and subsurface soils of barren lands, 15.1
to 25.2 per cent in those of cultivated/unmanaged.
Values for the soils of cultivated/well managed and
forest lands were in the range of 17.6 to 26.3 and
18.1 to 30.6 per cent, respectively (Table 1). Ave-
rage values were 15.7, 21.5, 22.9 and 23.4 per cent
for the soils of barren, cultivated/unmanaged, cul-
tivated/well managed and forest lands, respecti-
vely. These results indicate that the soils of forest
land have the highest values of moisture equi-
valent, with the lowest in soils of barren lands. By
contrast, there was not much difference in the
moisture equivalent values of soils belonging to
barren and cultivated unmanaged lands.
GUPTA et al. 195
Soils from the various profiles also varied
widely in the magnitudes of moisture equivalent
(Table 2). The average moisture equivalent for soil
profiles from barren, cultivated unmanaged,
cultivated well managed and forest lands was 16.6,
21.2, 22.0 and 22.3 per cent, respectively. This
reflected higher values in soil profiles of forest
lands and cultivated/well managed lands than
those of cultivated/unmanaged and barren lands.
The high organic carbon and clay contents present
in soils of forest and cultivated/well managed
likely explain higher values of moisture equivalent
in these soils. This is supported a positive signifi-
cant correlation of moisture equivalent with organic
carbon and clay fractions (Table 5).
Soil erodibility versus soil properties : The
results on various soil erodibility indices/factors in
relation to surface soil physical properties were
evaluated using simple correlation and linear
multiple regression analysis. The erosion ratio,
dispersion ratio and erosion index were negatively
and significantly correlated with clay content,
organic carbon content and CEC for the surface as
well as sub-surface soils. The multiple regression
analysis (Table 6) revealed that soil physical
properties (bulk density, water holding capacity,
moisture equivalent, silt and sand content) jointly
explained 58 % of the variation in erosion index (EI),
while clay content alone explained 46 % variation.
Multiple regression analysis also showed that
particle density, pore space and textural compo-
nents explained 75 % of the variability in disper-
sion ratio, and the inclusion of bulk density, water
holding capacity and moisture equivalent 80 % of the
variability was explained. However, 58 % varia-
bility in erosion ratio was governed by soil proper-
ties such as water holding capacity, moisture equi-
valent, silt and sand content (Table 6).
Soil physical properties management for crop
productivity
(i) The present study shows that cultivated
soils are mostly coarse textured. The use of organic
manures is an important and feasible way of
improving their structure. Application of manures
will decrease the proportion of bigger pores and
increase in those of smaller diameter. This will
reduce the hydraulic conductivity and increase
water retention. Application of pond sediments or
clay soil from other places or localities may also be
beneficial in this respect.
(ii) Soil texture affects the plant growth by
affecting soil water and the soluble nutrient
supply. Water infiltration is more rapid in very
coarse textured soils, and plants suffer due to lack
of an appropriate water holding capacity in such
soils. Since water holding capacity in cultivated
soils was found to be very low, it is important to
increase its value, which can be accomplished by
application of organic manures.
(iii) Application of organic manures will also
assist in improving the soil physical properties like
bulk density and porosity. These two physical
properties, along with other physical parameters
such as soil aggregation, texture and hydraulic
conductivity, influence plant growth indirectly
through their effects on primary soil physical
properties, including soil water, soil air (oxygen),
soil temperature and soil mechanical impedance
(Sharma & Verma 2006).
Wherever it possible, green manuring should
be practised. For example, growing Dhaincha
(Sesbania aculeata) and Sunhemp (Crotalaria
juncea) has been found to add about 300 and 28400
kg of green matter ha–1 when are ploughed into the
soils after 60 to 75 days of sowing under Jammu
soil conditions (Gupta & Sharma 2004). Dhaincha
as green manure is rich in nitrogen (0.5 %) and
also contains phosphorus, potassium and calcium
to the extent of 0.14, 0.61 and 0.4 % on dry weight
basis, respectively. Thus, the use of green manure
will not only improve soil physical properties but
also prove beneficial in building up soil fertility.
Control of soil erosion
As the soils of the present study are very much
eroded, three types of approaches, viz., agronomic,
engineering and biological practices, need to be
followed. Agronomic and biological practices are
cheaper and more feasible for the farmers of the
region, which, therefore, should be a priority. Sel-
ection of the right kind of crops, strip cropping, use
of manures and soil mulching are some of the
agronomic practices which need to be undertaken.
Re-vegetation i.e., planting of forest trees, fruit
plants and grasses (depending upon the slope and
land capability classes), elimination or control of
biotic pressure, and gully plugging for reclaiming
gully beds and ravines, are the main biological
practices recommended. The details of implemen-
tation of both of these types of practices have been
described elsewhere (Gupta 2002).
196 SOIL ERODIBILITY
Table 6. Regression analysis of erodibility indices in relation to soil properties.
Dependent
variable
Regression equation R2
DR Y = 1008.48 + 122.87 PD – 3.07 PS – 11.28 Clay – 11.75 Silt – 10.49 Csand – 11.83
Fsand
0.75
Y = 1181.74 + 109.28 PD – 2.72 PS + 0.97 ME – 13.74 Clay – 13.33 Silt – 12.38 Csand
– 13.42 Fsand
0.77
Y = 1055.32 + 85.82 PD – 1.99 PS – 0.33 WHC + 1.48 ME – 12.59 Clay – 11.74 Silt –
10.89 Csand – 11.74 Fsand
0.79
Y = 1207.43 + 193.73 BD + 197.50 PD – 6.75 PS – 0.34 WHC + 1.45 ME – 12.05 Clay
– 11.25 Silt – 10.33 Csand – 11.24 Fsand
0.80
ER Y = – 841.85 – 2.40 WHC + 7.57 ME + 10.13 Silt + 10.95 Csand + 9.42 Fsand 0.58
Y = – 890.67 + 193.94 BD – 1.85 WHC + 5.73 ME + 7.67 Silt + 9.17 Csand + 6.72
Fsand
0.59
Y = – 1318.17 + 348.03 BD + 6.05 PS – 1.75 WHC + 5.55 ME + 7.04 Silt + 9.04 Csand
+ 5.94 Fsand
0.59
Y = – 2357.27 + 1329.74 BD – 574.36 PD + 30.38 PS – 1.73 WHC + 5.73 ME + 7.39
Silt + 8.98 Csand + 6.29 Fsand
0.60
EI Y = 130.97 – 5.07 Clay 0.46
Y = – 375.40 + 5.51 Silt + 6.84 Csand + 4.51 Fsand 0.49
Y = – 274.84 – 1.23 WHC + 4.52 Silt + 6.61 Csand + 3.87 Fsand 0.53
Y = – 591.18 – 1.62 WHC + 4.28 ME + 7.51 Silt + 8.54 Csand + 6.81 Fsand 0.57
Y = – 621.81 + 121.65 BD – 1.27 WHC + 3.13 ME + 5.96 Silt + 7.42 Csand + 5.12
Fsand
0.58
Y = – 971.77 + 247.79 BD + 4.95 PS – 1.19 WHC + 2.98 ME + 5.45 Silt + 7.31 Csand +
4.48 Fsand
0.59
DR: dispersion ratio; ER: erosion ratio; EI: erosion index; BD: bulk density; PD: particle density; PS: pore space;
WHC: water holding capacity; ME: moisture equivalent; Csand: coarse sand; Fsand: fine sand.
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