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Fear of negative evaluation, self-esteem and choking under pressure: Effects on sport performance in adolescents
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to examine the fear of negative evaluation and self-esteem as moderators of choking in sport. One hundred high school students (56% were females) completed the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation (BFNE) and the Self-Esteem Scale (SES) prior to completing a badminton set in low-pressure and high-pressure conditions. Data based on a series of ANOVAs supported the hypothesis that fear of negative evaluation acts as a moderator of the choking effect under psychological pressure. Participants with high fear of negative evaluation showed a significant drop on sport performance from low- to high-pressure phases. In general, high-self-esteem was associated to high levels of performance. The present study extends the choking literature, including the constructs of fear of negative evaluation and self-esteem as possible relevant variables implicated in the field of sport performance. © 2014: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia Murcia (España).
... The unadaptive effects of perfectionism in the form of anxiety reactions [35] or lack of emotional control [36] raise, according to the literature, the need to promote balance and work in relation to the self-esteem of young athletes in training processes. This balance involves the socializing agents (family and coach) who are relevant in the development and maintenance of functional perfectionist tendencies; thus, it is necessary to promote and facilitate appropriate response resources in unadaptive sports situations that generate conflicts at the individual level (beliefs or disordered behaviors) and/or social levels [37,38]. ...
Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality trait characterized by effort and rigidity in setting high personal standards, accompanied by an excessive tendency toward critical assessments, which plays an important role in cognitive, behavioral, and emotional functioning. During adolescence, personality is built on a fundamental pillar—self-esteem—which plays an important role in sports practice when it comes to achieving the best possible performance. Anger has an emotional component that, interpreted in an unadaptive way, interferes with sports performance. The aim of this study is to assess differences according to self-esteem and perfectionism indicators and anger expression and management in young athletes. The sample included 229 male athletes to the quarries of professional sports with ages between 13 and 17 years. They were administered the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory for Children and Adolescents, the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, and a socio-demographic questionnaire. Predictive analysis showed that low personal standards and high levels of organization (indicators of adaptive perfectionism) acted as predictors of state anger, while those showing high personal standards predicted high anger management in athletes with high self-esteem. High personal standards predicted lower indicators of trait anger in athletes with low self-esteem. The results revealed the influence of high self-esteem as a protective factor in the predictive relationship among anger traits and personal standards. The study describes the relationship of these variables in the belongings of young male footballers (under high sport pressure), showing the need to take care of the athletes’ self-esteem in sport environments through prevention programs that include psychological and social resources training systems.
The aim of the present study was to examine dispositional anxiety sensitivity and positive and negative affectivity as moderators of choking in sport. One hundred high school students (66% were females) completed the Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index (CASI) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children and Adolescents (PANASN) prior to completing a badminton set in low-pressure and high-pressure conditions. A series of ANOVAs supported the hypothesis that anxiety sensitivity, but not positive or negative affectivity, acts as a moderator of the choking effect under psychological pressure; participants with high anxiety sensitivity showed a dramatic drop on sport performance during the high-pressured condition. The present study extends the choking literature including the anxiety sensitivity as a new relevant variable in this field of sport and physical activity psychology.
En esta investigación hemos estudiado la estructura factorial de la sensibilidad a la ansiedad en una muestra de niños normales de 9-11 años de edad (N = 151). Los participantes completaron la versión española del Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index (CASI; Silverman, Fleisig, Rabian y Peterson, 1991). Se investigó la fiabilidad de los ítems de la CASI y su estructura factorial (análisis factoriales exploratorios y confirmatorios). Los resultados revelaron que la sensibilidad a la ansiedad, evaluada mediante la CASI, consistía fundamentalmente en una estructura multidimensional de dos (somático y mental) o tres (somático, mental y control/social) factores primarios correlacionados. Los datos también apoyaban una estructura jerárquica con un factor de segundo orden y dos o tres factores primarios. Estos resultados proporcionan apoyo empírico a la validez estructural de la versión española de la CASI.
The aim of the present study was to examine dispositional anxiety sensitivity and positive and negative affectivity as moderators of choking in sport. One hundred high school students (66% were females) completed the Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index (CASI) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children and Adolescents (PANASN) prior to completing a badminton set in low-pressure and high-pressure conditions. A series of ANOVAs supported the hypothesis that anxiety sensitivity, but not positive or negative affectivity, acts as a moderator of the choking effect under psychological pressure; participants with high anxiety sensitivity showed a dramatic drop on sport performance during the high-pressured condition. The present study extends the choking literature including the anxiety sensitivity as a new relevant variable in this field of sport and physical activity psychology.
Psychometric properties of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index. The present study was conducted to examine the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI; Peterson y Reiss,l 992; Sandin et al., 2004). The anxiety sensitivity is considered as a strong risk factor for anxiety pathology. A sample of 726 university students (ranging in age from 18 to 34 years) completed a psychometric assessment package that included the ASI and measures of fears, anxiety, depression and related constructs. It was analyzed at the level of the total scale and at the level of the ASI subscales (Physical Concerns, Cognitive Concems, and Social Concerns). Normative ASI data are provided and suggest that females scored higher than males on ASI scores except on the social concerns subscale. The ASI is shown to have sound psychometric properties for both reliability and validity.
Se presenta el concepto de «evitación interoceptiva» (El) como un nuevo tipo de evi-tación, diferente de la evitación «exteroceptiva» o agorafóbica (EA). La El es una for-ma de evitación de actividades, sustancias o situaciones que producen de forma natu-ral sensaciones somáticas similares a los síntomas de pánico o hiperventilación. En contraste, las situaciones o actividades asociadas a la EA consisten más bien en estí-mulos condicionados preparados filogenéticamente. Por tanto, la naturaleza de ambas formas de evitación no parece ser la misma, y la El no consiste meramente en un for-ma más sutil de la clásica EA. Otros aspectos tratados en el artículo incluyen la eva-luación psicométrica, y las implicaciones psicopatológicas y clínicas de la El respec-to al trastorno de pánico y la agorafobia. Finalmente, se hacen algunas sugerencias para la investigación futura de este constructo.
Palabras clave: Evitación interoceptiva, evitación exteroceptiva, agorafobia, pánico, sen-sibilidad a la ansiedad, interpretaciones catastrofistas de las sensaciones somáticas.
Interoceptiva avoidance: A new construct in the field of the anxiety disorders.
We approach the «interoceptive avoidance» (IA) as a new type of avoidance, different from «exteroceptive» or agoraphobic avoidance (AA). lA is an avoidance of activities, substances or situations that naturally produces somatic sensations similar to hyper-ventilation or panic symptoms. In contrast with lA, situations associated to AA are best understood as biologically preparad stimuli (potentially phobic conditioned stimuli). Accordingly, the nature of both forms of avoidance not appetirs to be the same, and lA is not merely a subtle form of the classical AA. Other issues we consider are psychome-tric assessment, and psychopathological and clinical implications of lA regarding panic disorder and agoraphobia. Finally, some directions for futura research are suggested.
En el presente artículo presentamos los resultados de una investigación sobre la ansie-dad social con una muestra de niños y adolescentes no clínicos (rango de edad entre 7 y 16 años). En la investigación estudiamos la estructura factorial de la versión espa-ñola de la Anxiety Scale for Children-Revised (SASC-R; La Greca y Stone, 1993). Los resultados confirman una estructura tridimensional de la SASC-R (miedo a la evalua-ción negativa de los iguales, evitación/distress social sobre situaciones generalizadas, y evitación/distress social relativa a situaciones con nuevos compañeros). El análisis factorial de la escala SASC (versión inicial de la escala) dio como resultado dos facto-res (i.e., miedo a la evaluación negativa de los iguales, y evitación/distress social). Los resultados apoyan los datos referidos en Estados Unidos y porporcionan evidencia transcultural sobre la estructura de la ansiedad social infantojuvenil. Se comentan algu-nos aspectos relacionados con la utilidad de esta escala. Palabras clave: SASC-R, SASC, ansiedad social, estructura factorial, niños, adolescen-tes. Factor structure ofthe Social Anxiety Scale for Children-Revised The present article reports the findings of an investigation on social anxiety with a non-clinical sample of children and adolescents (ranging in age from 7 to 16 years). The study examined the factor structure of the Spanish Anxiety Scale for Children-Revi-sed (SASC-R; La Greca y Stone, 1993). Results supported a three-factor structure ofthe SASC-R (i.e., fear of negative evaluation from peers, generalized social avoidance and distress, and social avoidance and diestress specific to new peers). Factor analysis of the SASC (the former versión of the scale) yielded two factors (i.e., fear of negative eva-luation from peers, and social avoidance and distress). Findings support previous U.S. data and provide cross-cultural evidence for the structure of social anxiety in children and adolescents. Some potential utility of the questionnaire is addressed.
En este trabajo se presenta un estudio de caso de una atleta con un trastorno de evitación interoceptiva. Dicho trastorno se caracterizaba por una respuesta de miedo condicionado a estímulos somáticos que se manifestaba durante la prueba de 1500 metros. En el programa de intervención psicológica se utilizaron técnicas de control de la activación, exposición real y otras estrategias de afrontamiento de naturaleza cognitiva -adecuación del pensamiento y autoinstrucciones. Aunque en casos como éste, la intervención del psicólogo deportivo se hace necesaria, hasta el momento, los trastornos psicológicos de los deportistas han tenido escasa presencia en la literatura científica. Por este motivo, este trabajo puede tener un doble interés: describir el procedimiento de intervención utilizado; y observar las posibilidades de generalización a otros casos análogos, en los que las propias características de las actividades de entrenamiento o de competición actúan como desencadenantes del problema, bien por condicionamiento a estímulos extemos, bien por condicionamiento a estímulos internos.
Objectives: The purpose of the present study was to examine the mediational role of self-confidence and anxiety in the relationship between self-esteem and claimed self-handicapping in an achievement context. Design: To test this mediational role, the three-step procedure advocated by Baron and Kenny (1986) was used. Method: After hearing and reading about specific conditions of performing that were intended to favor invoking excuses for future poor performance, 68 competitive basketball players completed measures of self-esteem, anxiety (cognitive and somatic), self-confidence, and claimed self-handicapping. Then, they warmed-up and carried out a basketball task. Results: Self-esteem negatively predicted cognitive anxiety and positively predicted self-confidence. In turn, self-confidence negatively predicted claimed self-handicapping and mediated the relationship between self-esteem and claimed self-handicapping. Cognitive and somatic anxieties did not mediate the relationship between self-esteem and claimed self-handicapping. Together, these results suggest that individuals with low self-esteem use more claimed self-handicaps because they have lower self-confidence. Conclusion: These findings shed light on the psychological processes that lead people with low self-esteem to use strategies of claimed self-handicaps.
"Choking under pressure" is a maladaptive response to performance pressure whereby choking models have been identified, yet, theory-matched interventions have not empirically tested. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether a prep-erformance routine (PPR) could reduce choking effects, based on the distraction model of choking. Three "choking-susceptible", experienced participants were pur-posively sampled, from 88 participants, to complete ten-pin bowling deliveries in a single-case A 1 -B 1 -A 2 -B 2 design (A phases = "low-pressure"; B phases = "high-pres-sure"), with an interview following the single-case design. Participants experienced "choking" in the B 1 phase, which the interviews indicated was partially due to an increase in self-awareness (S-A). During the B 2 phase, improved accuracy occurred when using the personalized PPR and, qualitatively, positive psychological outcomes included reduced S-A and decreased conscious processing. Using the personalized PPR produced adaptive and relevant, task-focused attention.
Objective: Conceptual models and predictors of choking under pressure (i.e., choking) have been proposed, but the role of fear of negative evaluation remains largely unknown. The purpose of the current study was to determine the degree to which fear of negative evaluation (FNE) may predispose athletes to choking. Design and method: 138 Experienced basketball players participated in a pre-selection stage, which involved completing a set of questionnaires that included the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation-II (BFNE-II) questionnaire. Based on the scores from the BFNE-II, 34 athletes, categorized as either low- or high-FNE, were selected to perform basketball shots from five different areas of the court under low- and high-pressure phases. Shooting performance was evaluated based on the total number of successful shots out of 50 attempts. Results: Results indicated that the high-FNE athletes displayed a significant increase in anxiety and a significant decrease in performance from low- to high-pressure phases. The low-FNE group exhibited only minimal changes in anxiety throughout the study and was able to maintain performance under pressure. Further mediation analysis investigating significant difference in performance between FNE groups within the high-pressure phase indicated that that cognitive anxiety was a partial mediator between FNE group and performance, but somatic anxiety was not. Conclusions: Findings extend the existing choking literature by providing empirical support for the role of FNE in the context of the self-presentation model of choking.
Choking under pressure is a pejorative colloquial term (Clark, Tofler, & Lardon, 2005) used to describe a sub-optimal sporting performance under stressful conditions. In order to prevent its occurrence and enable performers to achieve their potential under pressure, a full understanding of the phenomenon is necessary. By reviewing critically the contemporary research, the aim of the paper is to examine the suggested mechanisms and potential moderators of choking in sport, and consider the interventions designed to alleviate it. In addition, the conceptual and methodological concerns that exist within the choking literature will be presented, and directions for future research that address such concerns will be recommended.
Resumen: La Escala de Miedo a la Evaluación Negativa versión breve (BFNE) fue creada por Leary (1983) a partir de la Escala de Miedo a la Evaluación Negativa (FNE) (Watson y Friend, 1969). El BFNE está formado por 12 ítems con un formato de respuesta tipo Likert de 5 puntos y mide el grado en el que una persona teme ser evaluado negativamente por los demás. Esta escala fue apli-cada a una muestra de 122 participantes diagnosticados de fobia social según criterios DSM-IV-TR (2000). En esta muestra, el BFNE obtuvo una estructura bifactorial y la naturaleza de estos facto-res fue similar a los factores posteriormente informados por Rodebaugh et al. (2004) y Weeks et al. (2005). El BFNE también mostró una consistencia interna alta para ambas subescalas. En cuanto a la validez concurrente obtuvo una correlación significativa con medidas de fobia social, ansiedad rasgo y depresión. Además, el BFNE fue capaz de discriminar entre los diferentes subtipos de fobia social (Heimberg et al., 1993). Abstract: The Brief version of the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (BFNE) was built by Leary (1983a) from the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNE) (Watson y Friend, 1969). The BFNE consists of 12 items scored on a five-point Likert scale and it assesses the degree to which people fear being evaluated negatively by others. This scale was applied to a sample of 122 participants with a diagnosis of social phobia (DSM-IV, 2000). In this sample the BFNE exhibited a 2-factor structure and the nature of the factors was similar to the factors reported by Rodebaugh et al. (2004) and Weeks et al. (2005). The BFNE showed a high internal consistency for both subescales. With regard to concurrent validity the scale obtained a significant correlation with social phobia, trait anxiety and depression measures. Moreover, the BFNE was able to differentiate among social pho-bia subtypes (Heimberg et al., 1983).
Grounded in the 2x2 achievement goal framework (Elliot & McGregor, 2001), a model was tested examining the hypothesized relationships between approach and avoidance (mastery and performance) goals, challenge and threat appraisals of sport competition, and positive and negative indices of well-being (i.e., self-esteem, positive, and negative affect). A further aim was to determine the degree to which the cognitive appraisals mediated the relationship between the four achievement goals and the indicators of athletes' welfare. Finally, measurement and structural invariance was tested with respect to gender in the hypothesized model. An alternative model was also estimated specifying self-esteem as an antecedent of the four goals and cognitive appraisals. Four hundred and twenty-four team sport participants (Mage=24.25) responded to a multisection questionnaire. Structural equation modeling analyses provided support for the hypothesized model only. Challenge and threat appraisals partially mediated the relationships observed between mastery-based goals and the well-being indicators. Lastly, the hypothesized model was found to be invariant across gender.
Actualmente se considera que la sensibilidad a la ansiedad constituye un factor de riesgo importante para desarrollar trastornos de ansiedad. En el presente estudio se analizan las propiedades psicométricas de la versión española del Índice de Sensibilidad a la Ansiedad (ASI, Anxiety Sensitivity Index; Peterson y Reiss,1992; Sandín et al., 2004). Se aplicó la ASI junto a otras pruebas de ansiedad, depresión y variables relacionadas a una muestra de 726 estudiantes universitarios (18-34 años). El análisis de la ASI se efectuó tanto a nivel de escala total como a nivel de las tres subescalas (somática, cognitiva y social). En el estudio se proporcionan datos normativos sobre la ASI, los cuales indican que las mujeres puntuaban más elevado que los varones, excepto en la subescala social. En general, la escala posee buenas propiedades psicométricas, tanto respecto a la fiabilidad como a la validez.
This article examines the association between evaluative and knowledge components of the self. Four studies tested the hypothesis that the self-concepts of low-self-esteem (LSE) people are characterized by less clarity or certainty than those of high-self-esteem (HSE) people. LSE Ss exhibited less extremity and self-reported confidence when rating themselves on bipolar trait adjectives (Study 1), less temporal stability in their trait ratings over a 2-month interval (Study 2), less congruence between their self-concepts and their subsequent perceptions of situation-specific behavior and memory for prior behavior (Study 3), and less internal consistency, lower self-rated confidence, and longer reaction times when making me/not me responses to pairs of opposite traits (Study 4). Alternative accounts of the results and the implications of self-concept clarity for understanding the pervasive impact of self-esteem on behavior are discussed.
Reports the specification of a construct of social anxiety, the subsequent development of 2 scales, and validational studies. The Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNE) and the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (SAD) were given to 358 undergraduates. 3 experiments and other correlational data are presented. People high in SAD tended to avoid social interactions, preferred to work alone, reported that they talked less, were more worried and less confident about social relationships, but were more likely to appear for appointments. Those high in FNE tended to become nervous in evaluative situations, and worked hard either to avoid disapproval or gain approval. Certain convergent and discriminant relationships had been part of the construct of social anxiety, and the correlational data support these differentiations. (17 ref.)
Choking under pressure is defined as performance decrements under circumstances that increase the importance of good or improved performance. A model for choking on coordination and skill tasks is proposed, holding that the pressure increases the conscious attention to the performer's own process of performance and that this increased conscious attention disrupts the automatic or overlearned nature of the execution. Six experiments provided data consistent with this model. Three studies showed that increased attention to one's own process of performance resulted in performance decrements. Three other studies showed similar decrements produced by situational manipulations of pressure (i.e., implicit competition, a cash incentive, and audience-induced pressure). Individuals low in dispositional self-consciousness were shown to be more susceptible to choking under pressure than those high in it.
Experiments 1-2 examined generic knowledge and episodic memories of putting in novice and expert golfers. Impoverished episodic recollection of specific putts among experts indicated that skilled putting is encoded in a procedural form that supports performance without the need for step-by-step attentional control. According to explicit monitoring theories of choking, such proceduralization makes putting vulnerable to decrements under pressure. Experiments 3-4 examined choking and the ability of training conditions to ameliorate it in putting and a nonproceduralized alphabet arithmetic skill analogous to mental arithmetic. Choking occurred in putting but not alphabet arithmetic. In putting, choking was unchanged by dual-task training but eliminated by self-consciousness training. These findings support explicit monitoring theories of choking and the popular but infrequently tested belief that attending to proceduralized skills hurts performance.
This exploratory investigation examined the value of using Lazarus' (1991; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) stress model, (i.e., primary appraisal, secondary appraisal, and perceived coping) to identify the antecedents of cognitive and somatic state anxiety for endurance athletes. This study also assessed whether endurance athletes with qualitatively similar levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety demonstrate differential antecedent profiles. Participants were 175 triathletes, 70 distance runners, and 70 cyclists who completed stress-related questionnaires 1-2 days prior to competition and the CSAI-2 approximately one hour before competing. Results revealed that all three components of Lazarus' stress model predicted both cognitive and somatic state anxiety better than did individual model components. Moreover, perceived threat accounted for a greater percentage of variance in cognitive and somatic anxiety than did perceived control or coping resources. Cluster analyses revealed distinct antecedent profiles for high, moderate, low, and "repressed" anxious endurance athletes, suggesting that multiple antecedent profiles may exist for highly anxious athletes in endurance sports.
Objectives: As choking in sport has only been examined to date through athletes performing individual sports and/or closed skills, this study uses a qualitative methodology to provide a unique insight into choking within the team sport setting. Design and methods: Through individual semi-structured interviews, the experiences of eight athletes who choked under pressure regularly whilst playing a team sport were examined in detail. Results: The participants perceived their choking episodes were associated with a range of antecedents, mechanisms, moderators and consequences. Many of which were similar to those found within individual sports/closed skills; although differences were noted. This study supports the suggestion by Hill, Hanton, Matthews, and Fleming (2010a) that choking in sport may be caused by distraction, debilitative anxiety and low perceived control, and that its consequence is a significant drop in performance. Conclusions: The study extends the choking literature and offers information for practitioners working with teams.
Examines the effects of self-presentational processes on aspects of sport and exercise: the motivation to engage in physical activity, people's choices of physical activities and the contexts in which they engage in these activities, the quality of athletic performance, and people's emotional reactions to engaging in sport and exercise. The author asserts that people are understandably concerned with what others think of them, and this concern can affect their behavior in sport and exercise settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although the Fear of Negative Evaluation (FNE) Scale has widespread applicability to many areas of research in personality and social psychology, its utility is sometimes limited by its length. This article presents a brief, 12-item version of the FNE that correlates very highly (f96) with the original scale and that demonstrates psychometric properties that are nearly identical to those of the full-length scale.
This research highlights the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement in the pre-university students. Additionally, it aimed to identify whether there are differences in academic achievement between boys and girls. The objectives of this study were achieved by using the Coopersmith questionnaire and the students’ grade in their current and previous semesters. The random sampling was used for collecting the data and as a consequence 50 male and 50 female were chosen randomly. The questionnaires were distributed amongst 100 students in Qaemshahr schools. The results demonstrated that there was significant (p<0.01) positive relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement. Moreover, there was significant difference in academic achievement between boys and girls. However, no significant difference was found in self-esteem between males and females. The results suggest that high self-esteem is important factor and strengthen the prediction of academic achievement in students.
Competition and its influence upon the adolescent is the primary concern of many recreational agencies. In the past ten years, many youth agencies have de-emphasized competition in their programs because of its negative influence upon self-esteem. There is a need to examine the relationship between competition and self-esteem so that recreational programs can be better designed to utilize competition as a positive factor. A study was undertaken to examine self-esteem in relation to competition in a basketball program. It was found that the coach's assessments of ability and intention of participation are important factors in positive self-esteem development. The social aspects of peer interaction and parent influence also contribute to positive self-esteem. These are minor elements, however, in comparison to the impact of the coach. There needs to be intensive training for coaches on how to develop positive self-esteem and how to deal with the range of participation styles.
The aim of this work was to test Eysenck's incubation theory of fear/anxiety in human Pavlovian B conditioning of heart rate (HR) responses. The conditioned stimuli (CSs) were phobia-relevant slides (snakes and spiders) and the unconditioned stimuli (UCSs) were aversive noises. The subjects were presented with two levels of noise intensity during acquisition and three levels of nonreinforced CS presentation (CS-only) in a delay differential (CS+/CS-) conditioning paradigm (2 x 3 x 2). Consistent with the incubation theory, conditioned HR acceleratory responses were sustained (resistance to extinction) for high-noise intensity and short-presentations of CS-only subjects. During the extinction phase, HR acceleratory responses quickly extinguished in low-noise intensity groups after the first presentations of CS-only. These findings were interpreted as support for the incubation theory of phobic fear.
Sports psychologists have for some time put forward the inverted-U-hypothesis as a useful working model of the relationship between arousal and performance. Although some emphasis in the sports psychology literature has been placed on the limitations of the hypothesis, generally the notion of an optimal level of arousal has been well received. A few authors have been less tolerant of the arguments put forward in the inverted-U-hypothesis and the restrictions of its theoretical stance. Sports psychologists have been slow to suggest or adopt diverse theoretical perspectives and consequently little real progress has been made. The danger is that this approach has become widely accepted almost without question. This review paper attempts to sum up the current position and, based on recent work, recommend alternative interpretations of arousal effects in sport.
Eysenck's incubation theory of fear or anxiety was examined in a human Pavlovian conditioning experiment with skin-conductance responses as the dependent variable. The conditioned stimuli (CSs) were fear-relevant slides (snakes and spiders) and the unconditioned stimuli (UCSs) were aversive tones. Different groups of subjects were presented two tone intensities during the acquisition phase and three durations of nonreinforced CS (extinction phase) in a delay differential conditioning paradigm. Resistance to extinction of conditioned skin-conductance responses (conditioned fear responses) exhibited was largest for high intensity of tone and short presentations of the nonreinforced CS (CS+presented alone). The result tends to support Eysenck's incubation theory of anxiety.
This paper provides a critical overview of developments and issues in competitive anxiety research. The discussion is divided into sections dealing with general arousal-based approaches, general anxiety-based approaches and, finally, multi-dimensional anxiety-based approaches. The major emphasis is on multidimensional anxiety-based approaches, in which a number of factors and issues surrounding the competitive anxiety response are addressed, including: conceptual and measurement developments; antecedents of competitive anxiety; temporal patterning of the response; and frequency of competition-related cognitive intrusions. Research which has examined the relationship between multidimensional anxiety and performance is considered in detail, including debilitative and facilitative competitive anxiety states and catastrophe models. A control model of debilitative and facilitative competitive anxiety is proposed. Finally, recommendations for future research are suggested.
Until recently, the traditional Inverted-U hypothesis had been the primary model used by sport psychologists to describe the arousal-performance relationship. However, many sport psychology researchers have challenged this relationship, and the current trend is a shift toward a more "multidimensional" view of arousal-anxiety and its effects on performance. In the current study, 104 college-age participants performed a simple response time task while riding a bicycle ergometer. Participants were randomly assigned to one of eight arousal groups (between 20 and 90% of heart rate reserve) and were told they were competing for a cash prize. Prior to the task, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS) were administered to assess the influence of cognitive and somatic anxiety. As hypothesized, regression analysis revealed a significant quadratic trend for arousal and reaction time. This accounted for 13.2% of the variance, F change (1, 101) = 15.10, p < .001, in performance beyond that accounted for by the nonsignificant linear trend. As predicted by the Inverted-U hypothesis, optimal performance on the simple task was seen at 60 and 70% of maximum arousal. Furthermore, for the simple task used in this study, only somatic anxiety as measured by the SAS accounted for significant variance in performance beyond that accounted for by arousal alone. These findings support predictions of the Inverted-U hypothesis and raise doubts about the utility theories that rely on differentiation of cognitive and somatic anxiety to predict performance on simple tasks that are not cognitively loaded.
Self-esteem and academic performance relationship amongst the second year undergraduate students of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur Campus
- Y. Rosli
- H. Othman
- I. Ishak
- S. H. Lubis
- N. Z. M. Saat
- B. Omar