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The influence of deforestation on slope (In-) stability
Abstract
Various studies over the last few decades state an influence of vegetation on slope stability. Statistical analyses of several rainfall induced mass movement events in the Alps occurring in recent years were inconclusive because of the complexity of competing parameters and processes in nature. However, several trends in some of the relevant parameters could be determined and are discussed in the paper. Limit equilibrium analyses were then carried out to quantify root cohesion and tree weight evaluating their influence on slope stability. Clear trends can be recognized which show that in most cases complete deforestation of sliding prone slopes does have a minor effect on slope stability, and that the degradation of roots leads to a decrease in the factor of safety within years and decades. Slightly inclined slopes may even show a decrease in the factor of safety when tree weight is removed from the slope (logging). Even if logging does improve slope stability in the first instance, in the long term, this leads to even bigger problems like fading away of the root cohesion, surface erosion, and soil degradation.
... A venerable and effective technique is the management of forests by coppicing (Dazio et al., 2018a), where instead of entirely removing mature trees, they are cut down in regular intervals and sprouts from the stumps rejuvenate the tree and, in case of certain tree species, the root system . This manages to significantly decrease the post-disturbance period of minimal protection (Masi et al., 2021;Sakals & Sidle, 2004;Schmidt et al., 2001;Steinacher et al., 2009). Throughout the world, different variations of silvopastoral land use are applied (Spiekermann, 2022). ...
... Root reinforcement specifically, is an important mechanism by which shallow landslides as large as 1000 m 2 can be stabilized (Schwarz, Preti, et al., 2010). The degree of protection is dependent on the slope angle, soil cohesion, friction angle and soil depth (Steinacher et al., 2009). ...
... Lateral root reinforcement is the reinforcement from roots on the edges of the potential slide that stick into the soil outside of the potential slide (Schwarz, Preti, et al., 2010). In contrast, the mechanical influence of vegetation weight on slope stability is often considered negligible (Steinacher et al., 2009). In current shallow landslide probability modelling, whether deterministic or probabilistic, root reinforcement is generally modelled in a simplified way, for example by including homogeneous root reinforcement (Montgomery et al., 2000). ...
... The influence of vegetation on slope stability has been studied by many researchers in forests (e.g. Hayati et al., 2018a;Lin et al., 2010;Naghdi et al., 2013;Steinacher et al., 2009), stream banks (e.g. Abernethy and Rutherfurd, 2000;Simon and Collison, 2002), and through hypothetical slopes (e.g. ...
... In previous studies, mechanical aspects (e.g. Kokutse et al., 2016;Lin et al., 2010;Steinacher et al., 2009), hydrological features (e.g. Hayati et al., 2018a), or both of them (e.g. ...
... The result demonstrates that the increase in Z r /D improves the safety factor exponentially (Fig. 14). This is consistent with the result of other researchers (Arnone et al., 2016;Chok et al., 2004;Feng, 2016;Mao et al., 2014;Steinacher et al., 2009). Thus, the trees with deeper roots (in similar condition) can be more effective in slope stability. ...
In this study, an integrated 2D numerical model is applied to investigate the mechanical effects of the vegetation and soil type on slope stability. The developed model can assess the mechanical aspects of vegetation in slope stabilization. For this purpose, a case study of the Kheyrud forest located in northern Iran is considered as a real case site. Different scenarios including; three soil types (fine grain with low-, medium-, and high-strength) and two vegetation types (Maple and Common-ash) are assessed in the stability analysis (based on safety factor). The results confirm that the considered vegetation can prevent shallow landslide occasions, but has a limited impact on deep landslide events. The ratio of root zone depth to the depth of slide is the most important parameter in the contribution of vegetation in the increasing of the slope stability. The simulation results show an improvement in the safety factor up to 25% when the mechanical aspects of vegetation are considered. This improvement leads to stability for slopes with 10% more gradient. The results also demonstrate the reinforcement effect of the roots (stability improvement up to 25%) and negative effect of the surcharge load (Reduction of stability up to 5% at a surcharge of 1.2 kPa) on the slope stability. The extent of these impacts varies by soil properties, tree characteristics, and slope geometry so that the overall result can vary. The sensitivity analysis demonstrated an increase in the soil cohesion grows the negative effect of tree weight. Also, it is observed that the increase of soil unit weight follows a decrease in the stabilization role of vegetation. The role of the soil's friction angle is insignificant. The findings can serve as a foundation for enhancing the scientific understanding of the relationship between the stabilization role of vegetation and soil, vegetation, and slope characteristics. Generally, in the stabilization of a slope by artificial planting forests, the native shrubs or trees with more reinforcing effects and low surcharge are more effective.
... L'exploitation des forêts de manière non raisonnée et sans sylviculture adaptée peut augmenter les risques naturels. Une coupe rase sur la totalité d'une parcelle peut supprimer dans un premier temps les obstacles potentiels à la propagation de blocs rocheux, et, dans un deuxième temps, peut favoriser la réactivation des glissements de terrain superficiels après la décomposition du système racinaire (Rice, 1977;Sidle, 1992;Schönenberger, 2001;Roering et al., 2003;Reinhold et al., 2009;Rickli et Graf, 2009). ...
... Concernant la stabilité des sols et des versants, Reinhold et al. (2009) estiment que la dégradation des racines conduit à une diminution du facteur de protection et à la réactivation des glissements de terrain, dans les quelques années à quelques décennies après la coupe. ...
Les forêts de montagne sont des ouvrages de protection naturels, qui en fonction des situations sont en mesure d'offrir une protection efficace vis-à-vis des risques naturels d'origine gravitaire : les chutes de pierres, les avalanches, les glissements de terrains, les laves torrentielles et l'érosion. Les interventions forestières, telles que les grands reboisements issus de la politique de Restauration des Terrains en Montagne (RTM) du XIXe siècle, ont démontré leur efficacité pour maîtriser l'érosion des versants en lien avec le phénomène de torrentialité. Depuis 2006, les nouveaux Guides des Sylvicultures de Montagne (GSM), français, suisse et italien, préconisent des nouvelles techniques sylvicoles pour la gestion et l'optimisation de la fonction de protection des peuplements forestiers de montagne. Ces préconisations concernent entre autre la réalisation d'ouvrages biologiques par l'utilisation des rémanents. Ces ouvrages ont pour vocation de limiter et le cas échéant de stopper la propagation de blocs rocheux, et de limiter le départ d'avalanches. Ils sont composés de grumes laissées au sol, parfois empilées les unes sur les autres, maintenues dans la pente par leur propres souches, d'autres souches ou des arbres encore sur pieds. Mais, si des directives techniques existent pour réaliser de tels ouvrages, aucune donnée scientifique n'était à ce jour disponible pour quantifier la pérennité de ces ouvrages.Ce travail de thèse s'inscrit dans la volonté de fournir ces connaissances scientifiques en se focalisant sur l'étude de la corrélation entre la durabilité des rémanents et leur dynamique de protection face aux chutes de blocs. L'objectif principal de cette thèse consiste à fournir des connaissances sur la cinématique de décomposition du bois et de proposer des modèles d'efficacité des rémanents en fonction du temps. A partir de mesures in situ, en laboratoire et d'une approche basée sur l'analyse de chronoséquences, nous avons étudié la cinématique de décomposition de trois espèces d'arbres présentes dans les Alpes (Pinus nigra, Picea Abies, Fagus sylvatica), et analysé les corrélations entre les variables physiques, chimiques et mécaniques qui ont été utilisées. Des premiers modèles prédictifs de l'évolution de l'efficacité des ouvrages pare-pierres en fonction du temps ont ainsi pu être construits.
... Vegetation in particular plays a major part in this (Kosmas et al. 1996;Kheir et al. 2008;Jiang et al. 2014;Pawlik et al. 2016b). Forest, a critical component of the terrestrial ecosystem that is regarded by geomorphologists and environmental engineers as critical to maintaining the morphology of the Earth's surface (Gupta et al. 1983;Steinacher et al. 2009), exerts a powerful influence on soil erosion, landslides, and mass wasting (O'Loughlin 2005;Marston 2010). Forest canopies function as an umbrella to protect rocks from being scoured by rain (Sternberg et al. 2011;André et al. 2014). ...
Carbonate weathering by rain is considered to play an important role in the karst landform evolution. Rock outcrops (or stone teeth) are frequently visible on the earth’s surface, especially in karst landscapes, but there is no consensus on how they appeared or increased in number. This study estimated the extent of rain-induced weathering dissolution of limestone using hydro-chemical data from a karst area enjoying a subtropical monsoon climate, and proposed a mechanism of soil sinking and rock outcrops emerging, based on the assumption that the dissolved subsoil limestone is the main cause of geomorphic reworking of the karst surface topography. By calculation, the weathering dissolution rate of subsoil limestone is greater than the residue formation rate by dissolution of exposed and subsoil limestone in both forested and cleared karst surfaces, and soil sink at a rate of 0.126 mm a−1 in forested and 0.111 mm a−1 in the cleared karst, implying relative growth of exposed limestone and the spontaneity of the karst process. Besides, smaller values of subsoil dissolution rate and soil sinking rate in the cleared than in the forested demonstrate that soil sinking and rock outcrops emergence are both slower without the cover of forests, while the opposite was true for dissolution of exposed limestone, implying that deforestation may not an absolute promoting factor to karst landscape. This soil sinking model provides a new explanation for the changes in the soil–rock position relationship, which is contrasting with the traditional karst soil loss model that generally attributes rock emergence to soil slope erosion or/and underground soil leaks.
... In particular, roots in the tension region of landslide such as the settlements areas in Isıklar case could prevent failure by reducing soil compressive forces downslope. Also, roots have a positive impact on stability regarding the hydrogeological conditions (Steinacher et al. 2009). So, the clearing of trees characterized by wider roots makes Field-1 and Field-2 more vulnerable to displacements. ...
The Isiklar paleo-landslide area was reactivated in 1952, and today the spatial dimension of scarps is significantly different across the area. However, the steep slopes hamper the application of detailed in-situ methods, and the limited surficial field observations could not explain the complexity of the area so far. This paper aims to determine the origins of different displacements on two adjacent fields (Field-1 and Field-2) separated by woodland in the paleo-landslide area. The fields were imaged and monitored by multiple geophysical methods including seismic refraction and electrical resistivity tomography, surface waves analysis, and microtremors. Unified soil classification of six disturbed samples was carried out to define texture and grain size distribution. Up-to-date geographic maps were generated by GNSS measurements. The main findings show that the favorable conditions for the variation of displacements are controlled by the dissimilarity of landslide materials in terms of geological setting, S-wave velocity, and layer thickness. Also, the slope values higher than 30% are distinctive in fields regarding the development of scarps. Conversely, the seasonal changes and ground-water conditions do not influence the variability in displacements. The results suggest that the neighboring areas have been evolving differently on the same main-rock and the border of deforested woodland for agricultural purposes plays a crucial role in this process. The combination of different geophysical methods allowed imaging the subsurface at different spatial resolutions with various physical properties. Additionally, the integration of geophysical outcomes with geological and geodetic findings made it possible to restrict the spectrum of causal factors.
... At the hillslope scale, the presence of vegetation generally increases soil thickness, lowering the frequency of landslide events [10]. Tree roots are regarded as a factor determining the stability of hillsides and riverbanks and can prevent the direct inflow of rainfall on the slope's surface, thus providing stability against surface layer loss and scouring [11] and delaying the process of erosion and massive waste [12][13][14]. Plant roots can enhance slope stability [15][16][17], and their effects are exerted through basal root reinforcement and lateral root reinforcement [18]. Different constraints for the efficiency of soil fixation capacity exist between basal root reinforcement and lateral root reinforcement: basal root reinforcement plays a role when roots cross the shear plane, and the root reinforcement results are controlled by large roots [19]. ...
Roots play a major role in reinforcing and stabilizing soil. The pullout mechanical characteristics of soil reinforcement and slope protection of the root systems of dominant shrub species (Pyracantha and Geranium) were estimated by in-situ pullout tests in a karst area, in which roots were pulled out from soil to reliably test the pulling force. The goals of this study were to discover the pullout mechanical properties of roots in karst areas and to try to analyse the impact of the root system on landslide control. The F–s curves were multipeak curves with a noticeable main peak and main double peaks. The curves showed a linear increasing trend at the initial stage of drawing and decreased rapidly after reaching the peak. The F–s curves of root systems inserted into rock cracks showed secondary fluctuations in the later stage of drawing, and rock cracks stimulated the tensile efficiency of the root system more effectively. Field in situ pullout results indicate that tree roots fail progressively rather than simultaneously. The maximum pulling force had a linear relationship with the increase in soil thickness and a disproportionate increasing trend with the increasing number of broken roots. The displacement of the maximum peak was different between the two tree species and was concentrated at 5–15 cm and 5–25 cm for Pyracantha and Geranium, respectively. The maximum pulling force of Geranium was 1.29 times that of Pyracantha, and the root system of Geranium had strong pullout resistance. We concluded that the peak distribution of the F–s curves was affected by broken roots and rock cracks, while soil thickness and the number of broken roots had positive effects on the maximum pulling force, all of which is helpful in understanding the effect of root pullout mechanical properties on landslides in karst areas.
... The top boundary of the slope was normally set as tractionfree. However, a surcharge load with a value of 600 Pa due to the presence of trees was applied on the top, which corresponded to the cases of plants of young forest and mature forest with a plantation density of 350 trees/ha [50]. In addition, a rainfall intensity of 10 mm/day (light rain) or 50 mm/day (heavy rain) was also considered for the cases that analyze the slope stability under rainfall conditions. ...
This study investigates the effectiveness of vegetation reinforcement on the stability of a slope with red-bed soft rock in a slope along the Xining-Chengdu railway, China. Four kinds of vegetation were considered to reinforce the soil and the slope. The rooted soil parameters were determined based on the laboratory tests. A numerical model was developed based on the actual geometry and soil layer distributions. The soils were modeled as elastic perfectly plastic materials and the vegetation reinforcement was represented as addition cohesion of a series of subsoil layers within a given depth. The effectiveness of vegetation on slope reinforcement under both dry and rainfall conditions was investigated regarding this case. The potential failure surface and corresponding factor of safety of the red-bed soft rock slope for those different conditions were analyzed and compared. It has been found that the addition of vegetation increased the safety of slope stability whether the slope is under a dry condition or a rainfall condition, while the increasing proportion of factor of safety due to vegetation reinforcement for this case is very limited. The results and findings in this study are still significant for the practitioner to evaluate the reasonability of vegetation reinforcement.
Shallow landslides pose a risk to infrastructure and residential areas. Therefore, we developed SlideforMAP, a probabilistic model that allows for a regional assessment of shallow-landslide probability while considering the effect of different scenarios of forest cover, forest management and rainfall intensity. SlideforMAP uses a probabilistic approach by distributing hypothetical landslides to uniformly randomized coordinates in a 2D space. The surface areas for these hypothetical landslides are derived from a distribution function calibrated on observed events. For each generated landslide, SlideforMAP calculates a factor of safety using the limit equilibrium approach. Relevant soil parameters are assigned to the generated landslides from log-normal distributions based on mean and standard deviation values representative of the study area. The computation of the degree of soil saturation is implemented using a stationary flow approach and the topographic wetness index. The root reinforcement is computed by root proximity and root strength derived from single-tree-detection data. The ratio of unstable landslides to the number of generated landslides, per raster cell, is calculated and used as an index for landslide probability. We performed a calibration of SlideforMAP for three test areas in Switzerland with a reliable landslide inventory by randomly generating 1000 combinations of model parameters and then maximizing the area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operation curve. The test areas are located in mountainous areas ranging from 0.5–7.5 km2 with mean slope gradients from 18–28∘. The density of inventoried historical landslides varies from 5–59 slides km-2. AUC values between 0.64 and 0.93 with the implementation of single-tree detection indicated a good model performance. A qualitative sensitivity analysis indicated that the most relevant parameters for accurate modelling of shallow-landslide probability are the soil thickness, soil cohesion and the precipitation intensity / transmissivity ratio. Furthermore, we show that the inclusion of single-tree detection improves overall model performance compared to assumptions of uniform vegetation. In conclusion, our study shows that the approach used in SlideforMAP can reproduce observed shallow-landslide occurrence at a catchment scale.
Landslides is a major problem in the frontal part of the Himalayan region due to topographic variations, fragile lithology, thick overburden material, seismic activity, steep slope angle, high rate of precipitation during monsoon and anthropogenic activities. These landslides not only cause major damage to the property and life lines, but also disturb the natural fabric of the ecosystem by uprooting number of trees. Vegetation has the capability to protect the loose overburden soil by expanding their roots network and protect the soil from further erosion. The Soldha Land slide is one such zone, which had moved down slope by 30–40 m on 23rd October 2013 night after a prolonged rainfall from 15th June to 15th September 2013 and caused loss of property and ecosystem. The study of slope material shows its composition as well-graded sand and less than 30% gravels which reflected the weak and weathered condition. Since bioengineering technique is found to be very useful method in ameliorating slope stability and maintain ecological balance, therefore, the grain size and chemical analysis have been performed to understand its water holding capacity and type of nutrients and micronutrient present in the soil. The chemical parameters like pH, organic carbon, and macronutrients such as Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), and micronutrient Cu, Fe, Zn, and Mn present in soil have been determined from 55 samples to suggest the type of plant to be planted for reducing the further landslide risk in the region.
Natural disaster recovery is a critical issue in rural Japan, yet repairing infrastructure, stabilising landscapes, and aiding those displaced is exceedingly expensive. Restoration of disaster affected landscapes mainly focuses on infrastructure repair, with less attention to socio-ecological activities pre- and post-disaster. The absence of integrated socio-ecological perspectives to disaster restoration creates missed opportunities for approaches more sensitive to local needs and resources. Coupled human and natural systems (CHANS) frameworks attempt to bridge social and natural sciences with the effect that interactions between human and natural systems can emerge that might not be apparent by studying them separately. However, application of CHANS frameworks in the context of natural disaster recovery in rural Japan is limited, and more consideration of the challenges is needed. The aim of this paper is to describe the design of a CHANS project and summarize lessons learned in applying this complex framework. The CHANS project comprised four graduate student projects investigating different topics related to landslide recovery and future disaster vulnerability after the Northern Kyushu Heavy Rainfall in July 2012 event in rural Japan. For lessons learned, we suggest CHANS projects to be designed as a nested hierarchy of research questions, aims, objectives, and hypotheses to enable deeper synthesis at a higher level. Despite limitations in the design of our CHANS project, triangulation of data enabled us to conclude meaningful findings. When faced with limited resources, it is impossible to design a complex study accounting for all relevant factors, but a CHANS approach can enable integrated socio-ecological insights and foster innovative solutions for improving resource management and cost-effectiveness of disaster recovery plans.
Recent studies on severe disasters caused by landslides in Middle Europe indicate that there is no difference between forest vegetation and other types of vegetation in slope stabilization.
During documentation and analysis of landslides in several communities of the Bregenzerwald in Vorarlberg (western Austria) members of the Department of Natural Hazards and Alpine Timberline of BFW came to quite different results.
Numerous shallow landslides with volumes between 20 to 5000 m³ had been released as a consequence of extreme precipitation (maximum values about 240 mm per 24 hours) from 22nd to 23rd August 2005. Though quality of vegetation cover could not be analyzed in detail field observations indicate that disposition for slope failure was significantly influenced by slope morphology, soil texture and way and intensity of site management. The majority of the slides - 128 sites (71%) out of 181 - occurred in open land (meadows, grassland, swards and marsh areas). Only 42 slides (23%) out of 181 were released on slopes under forest cover. Sliding activity under woody vegetation was strongly related to forest condition. Often mass movements were observed in gaps, in and under grassland in forests, in areas which have formerly been agriculturally used and now suffer from an uncontrolled succession to new vegetation forms and in forests with loose structure. Abandonment of formerly intensively used agricultural land showed to be an eminent factor of landslide release, too.
Shallow slides directly below the forest edge were observed frequently and confirm results of former investigations in the region. Root systems of the adjacent grassland is less dense, weaker and concentrated near the soil surface. So reinforcement of upper soil in grassland is significantly weaker than under optimally structured forest cover.
Cohesion contributed by plant root systems is an important factor in determining the stability of steep, vegetated slopes subject to shallow landslides. The effects of vegetation removal on root cohesion can be simulated by two functional relationships: (i) root deterioration as described by an exponential decay function and (ii) regrowth of newly planted or invading vegetation as described by a sigmoid relationship. The rates of these simultaneous functions determine the temporal changes in net rooting strength. The general root strength model developed in this paper is adapted to specific silvicultural systems such as clearcutting, partial cutting, shelterwood cutting, and thinning. The models simulate the long-term effects of vegetation management on root cohesion by overlaying the impacts of a prior vegetation removal on a more recent removal. Examples presented for specific silvicultural systems indicate that vegetation and site conditions that promote rapid root strength deterioration and slow regrowth may depress net rooting strength over several management rotations. Progressively shorter clearcut or partial cut rotations can cause a steady temporal decline in root strength. Longer intervals between initial and final shelterwood cuttings promote greater rooting strength than short intervals.
Tree roots provide important soil reinforcement that improves the stability of hillslopes. After trees are cut and roots begin to decay, the frequency of slope failures can increase. To more fully understand the mechanics of how tree roots reinforce soil, fine sandy soil containing pine roots was placed in a large shear box in horizontal layers and sheared across a vertical plane. The shapes of the deformed roots in the sheared soil were explained satisfactorily by an equation that had been developed to model the deformed shape of artificial reinforcement elements, such as wood dowels, parachute cord, Bungy cord, and aluminum rods. Root deformation in sheared soil is influenced by the diameter and concentration of roots. A model is proposed that uses root strain to estimate the shear stress of soil reinforced by roots. The shear resistance measured from the shear tests compared quite well with the model simulation.
Shallow landslides triggered off by heavy rainfall are recurrent phenomena on steep slopes. It is widely recognised that vegetation, particularly forest, can stabilize steep slopes. However, there is considerable argument about to what extent trees reduce hydro-geomorphic hazards. This article discusses the effects of forest on shallow landslides on the basis of detailed landslide inventories. A total of six study areas were investigated after different rainfall events in Switzerland. Within the boundary of these areas, all shallow landslides that occurred during the specific rainfall events were mapped and related to the site characteristics of the source area, such as its geomorphology and vegetation. Only minor differences in dimensions were found between landslides in forest areas and those in open land. On the other hand, the field studies showed that landslide densities were lower in forested terrain than in open land. Furthermore, landslides mapped in forests occurred on steeper slopes than slides mapped in open land. The application of these results for predicting landslide occurrence is discussed.
In 2002, several heavy rainfall events triggered off hundreds of shallow landslides and caused vast damage in Switzerland. The events provided an opportunity to improve knowledge on the causes of shallow landslides and their run out distances. A research project was set up with the aim to document the landslide processes and to provide basics for hazard mitigation and assessment. The research was performed within the damaged areas of «Napf» (16.7.02) and «Appenzell» (31.8.02). For both regions a study area was defined and, totally, 131 landslides were analysed in the field. Following a standardised protocol, geomorphological, geological and geotechnical parameters were assessed for every landslide as well as aspects of soil and vegetation. This article shows selected results of the case studies.
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