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College students coping strategies
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Publication:
Kariv, D. & Heiman, T (2005). Task-oriented versus emotion-oriented coping strategies:
The case of college students, College Students Journal, 39 (1), 72-89.
Task-Oriented Versus Emotion-Oriented Coping Strategies: The Case of
College Students
Dafna Kariv and Tali Heiman
Dafna Kariv, Ph.D.
School of Business Administration
The College of Management
Address: Yizhak Rabin Boulevard, Rishon LeZion, Israel
Tel: 972-3-9634281, 972-3-5498016
dafiran@nonstop.net.il
Tali Heiman, Ph.D.
Department of Education and Psychology
The Open University of Israel
Address: 16 Klausner St., Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, 61392, Israel.
Tel.: 972 - 3 - 6460705, Fax: 972 - 3 – 6465468
e-mail: talihe@openu.ac.il
College students coping strategies
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Abstract
The study examined the relationships between stress and coping strategies among 283
college students. Participants completed questionnaires relating to their stress perceptions,
actual academic loads and their coping strategies. The main objective was to explore the
effect of stress perceptions on coping behavior while accounting for objective loads and
demographic parameters. Multilevel analyses revealed several indications: first, students’
coping behavior could be predicted from their reported stress perceptions and their appraisals
of their academic-related stress levels; second, students employed mainly task- and emotion-
oriented coping strategies; and finally, students’ age was a significant factor in determining
their coping behavior. Our findings suggest that, in stressful environments, each of the
coping strategies functions independently, with the type of strategy adopted depending
largely on the specific profile of each student’s stress perceptions and demographic
characteristics.
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Task-Task-Oriented Versus Emotion-Oriented Coping Strategies: The Case of
College Students
This study examined the relationships between stress and coping strategies among
college students. Participants completed questionnaires relating to their stress perceptions,
actual academic loads and their coping strategies. The main objective was to explore the
effect of stress perceptions on coping behavior, while also accounting for objective loads and
demographic parameters.
Sources of Academic Stress and its Likely Impact on Students
College students perceive academic life as stressful and demanding (Wan, 1992; Hammer,
Grigsby & Woods, 1998) and report experiencing emotional and cognitive reactions to this
stress, especially due to external pressures and self-imposed expectations (Misra &
McKean, 2000). They report on numerous stressors during term-time, including academic
demands and social adjustment.
Stress-inducing academic demands include grade competition; lack of time and issues
relating to time or task management (Macan, Shahani, Dipboye & Phillips, 1990; Trueman.,
& Hartley, 1996); the need to adapt to new learning environments (van-Rooijens, 1986) in
terms of the increased complexity of the material to be learned and the greater time and
effort required to do so; and the need to constantly self-regulate and to develop better
thinking skills, including learning to use specific learning techniques (Fram & Bonvillian,
2001). Emotional stress, such as anxiety, students’ appraisal of the stressfulness of the role’s
demands and of their ability to cope with those demands (Wan, 1992), are also connected to
academic stress.
Another category that evokes stress is social adjustment, particularly adjusting to
university life (Saracoglu, Minden, & Wilchesky, 1989; Abouserie, 1994) and separating
from family and friends. Finally, other constraints include financial pressure (Miech &
Shanahan, 2000) and other technical difficulties.
Thus, academic stressors cover the whole area of learning and achieving in and
adjusting to a new environment in which a great deal of content must be assimilated in a
seemingly inadequate period of time. Since students endeavor to adapt themselves to
College students coping strategies
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academic life, positive adaptation and well-being factors are associated with fewer
experienced stress symptoms (Van-Rooijen, 1986; Tobin & Carson, 1994).
Coping Strategies
Coping strategies are assumed to have two primary functions: managing the problem
causing stress and governing emotions relating to those stressors (Folkman & Lazarus,
1980, 1986; Lazarus & Folkman 1984). Interpreting their results in terms of this
assumption, most studies confirm two major related findings. The first is that a situation is
evaluated as stressful, in part, whenever the individual perceives a lower ability to cope with
it. The second finding is that stressors perceived as controllable elicit more proactive coping
mechanisms (Karasek & Theorell, 1990), while those perceived as uncontrollable elicit
more avoidance strategies (Anshel & Kaissidis, 1997; Compas, Malcarne & Fondacaro.,
1988; Lazarus, 1981; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Roecker, Dubow & Donaldson, 1996).
Differences in the conceptualization of coping have led to a number of ways of
classifying coping strategies. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) offered a widely used definition
of coping, namely: constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific
external or internal demands. Subsequently, Higgins and Endler (1995) grouped coping
strategies into three main classes: task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented.
The task-oriented strategy is problem-focused. It involves taking direct action to alter
the situation itself to reduce the amount of stress it evokes. In the emotion-oriented strategy,
efforts are directed at altering emotional responses to stressors. It also includes attempts to
reframe the problem in such a way that it no longer evokes a negative emotional response
and elicits less stress (Mattlin, 1990). Finally, avoidance-oriented coping includes strategies
such as avoiding the situation, denying its existence, or losing hope (Lazarus & Folkman,
1984). It also includes the use of indirect efforts to adjust to stressors by distancing oneself,
evading the problem, or engaging in unrelated activities for the purpose of reducing feelings
of stress (Roth & Cohen, 1986).
The first two coping strategies involve pro-active efforts to alter the stressfulness of the
situation, with the use of emotion-oriented strategies being favored by people whose
personality disposition enables them to easily enter into and sustain a state of emotional
arousal in response to, or in anticipation of, emotionally-laden events (Melamed, 1994). By
contrast, avoidance strategies are characterized by the absence of attempts to alter the
situation. The two proactive strategies, namely the task-oriented and emotion-oriented
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approaches, are associated with better adjustment, as reflected in higher self-rated coping
effectiveness and less depression (Causey & Dubow, 1993; Compas et al., 1988; Moos,
1990; Reid, Dubow & Carey, 1995; Strutton & Lumpkin, 1993). Although avoidance-
oriented coping may initially be an appropriate reaction to stress, Billings and Moos (1981)
have shown that it is associated with poorer adjustment, and Endler and Parker (1999) have
suggested that, in the long run, task-oriented coping is the most efficacious strategy.
Effects of Academic Stress and Demographics on Coping
Although a large body of literature has gauged the effects of academic stressors on coping
strategies, little research has examined the importance of developing an integrative model,
incorporating the effects of the perceived and actual stressor parameters on coping
strategies.
With respect to the effect of academic stress on coping, the higher education literature
shows that students’ coping methods are diverse, reflecting personal influences on their
coping styles. Students generally report using proactive behavioral methods, such as
managing their time, solving specific problems and seeking information and help (Misra &
McKean, 2000; Britton, 1991; Lopez, Mauricio, Gormley, Simko & Berger, 2001; Collins,
Mowbray & Bybee, 1999). Mattlin et al, (1990) found that students also use cognitive
emotion-related behavior, such as positive reconceptualization of the stress-inducing events,
to cope with stress.
Permeating these results we find demographic differences in coping styles.styles.
Researchers have found that ethnic, cultural (Kim, Won, Liu, Liu, &,, Kitanishi, 1997) and
even socioeconomic (Cairns, 1989) characteristics influenced coping behaviors. As for
gender, Haarr and Morash (1999) found that significant differences come into play with
respect to avoidance-based strategies, with women reporting a significantly higher level of
use of avoidance than men. Other researchers found that males favor the use of task oriented
methods and physical coping resources, and are more likely to endeavor to solve problems,
while females are inclined to make more use of emotional and social coping resources
(Rawson, Palmer & Henderson, 1999). Undergraduate male students who use task-oriented
coping techniques report experiencing less distress (Higgins & Endler, 1995), while the use
of emotion-oriented coping strategies was a significantly positive predictor of distress in
both men and women.
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Age has also been found as a factor that mediates stress levels. Studies that focused on
perceived stress found that it decreases with age (Cohen & Williamson, 1988; Hamarat,
Thompson, Zabrucky, Steele, & Matheny, 2001).
To summarize, studies of stress and coping offer only a partial demonstration of the
coping strategies employed. In particular, the literature has viewed coping behaviors in
relation to either ‘actual’ stress or perceived stress, without endeavoring to determine from
which aspect the coping behaviors derive. To investigate this issue, an integrated model is
required.
Conceptual Model of Coping Strategies
The proposed multilevel structural model (Figure 1) simultaneously defines
multidimensional constructs of objective variables (academic load), subjective variables
(stress perceptions) and relevant demographics, and tests their direct and indirect effects on
coping strategies.
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Figure 1
Multidimensional model of objective Academic Loads, Stress Perceptions,
Demographic Characteristics and Coping Strategies
Stress Perceptions
Academic Stress
Demographic Characteristics
Gender
Age
Academic Load
Class hours (average weekly)
Study hours during semesters (average
weekly; in library, laboratory, at home
etc.)
Study hours during exam periods
(average weekly; in library, laboratory,
at home etc.)
Coping strategies
Task-oriented
Emotion-oriented
Avoidance
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In this formulation, perceived and objective stress parameters are proposed to explain coping
strategies. Accordingly, we formulated the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Academic stress perceptions are predicted by objective academic
load variables.
Hypothesis 2: Perceived academic stress, objective academic loads and demographic
characteristics are correlated with the types of coping strategies
adopted by students.
Hypothesis 3: Academic loads predict the use of task-oriented coping strategies,
academic stress perceptions predict the use of emotion-oriented coping
strategies and demographic characteristics predict the use of avoidance
coping strategies.
Method
Participants
The target population was students studying in Israeli academic institutions.
Questionnaires were distributed to students during the 2002 academic semesters. Except for
two negligible refusals, all students completed the questionnaires. Of the respondents, 153
(51.4 %) were female, 119 (43.8 %) were male and 11 (4%) did not identify their gender,
comparable to the Israeli student distribution 2000/1 (56.5% women and 43.5% male, Central
Bureau of Statistics 2002, No. 53, Table 8.33
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). In terms of their marital status, 179 (63.3%)
respondents were single, 98 (34.6%) were married and 5 (1.8%) were divorced. Almost a
quarter of respondents (68, being 24.1%) had children: 26 (9.2%) had one child, 22 (7.8%)
had two children and 20 (7.1%) had three or more children. Most respondents (173, being
61.1% of the sample) were childless while 42 (14.8%) did not answer the question.
Distribution by academic degree sought indicated that 156 (55.2 %) of the students were
studying for their first degree and 127 (44.8%) were studying for their second degree. The
average age of the respondents was 30.13 years (SD = 6.78), with a range of 41 years (from
20 to 61 years).
1
Title: Students in Universities, by Degree, Field of Study and Institutions.
College students coping strategies
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Procedure
We distributed the questionnaire to stratified samples of 283 students studying in
national universities and colleges in Israel, who participated in the study voluntarily. Class
lecturers and assistants distributed all questionnaires during class time. Academic institutions
were therefore selected by non-random convenience sampling. T-tests were performed for
gender and age distribution in the institutions. Results show no significant differences in
terms of gender (t = -0.55, f = 1.19, p > 0.05) or age (t = -3.26, f = 0.67 , p > 0.05). Therefore
we treated the students as one group.
Measures
This study comprised three parts: (1) the students’ subjective assessment of the stress
they experience i.e., perceived stress; (2) an investigation of the task- emotion- and
avoidance-related coping strategies they adopt; (3) an objective assessment of their actual
academic loads.
1. Perceived Stress
In accordance with Lazarus’s (1990) definition, perceived stress was defined as a condition
subjectively experienced by respondents who identify an imbalance between demands
addressed to them and the resources available to them to encounter these demands. It was
assessed in terms of the students’ subjective experiences of their academic stress. The
question was: "Would you please share with us your feelings of stress regarding your
academic loads: How much stress do you feel due to your academic studies?” Students
answered on a four-point Likert scale from not stressed at all (1) through very much stressed
(4).
2. Task- Emotion and Avoidance-Oriented Coping strategies
Coping strategies were measured using the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (Endler
& Parker, 1999). This is a 53 - item measure of coping style composed of three factors. (a)
Task-oriented coping – its subscales tap active and offensive coping styles, stressing
proactive responses to the stressors (e.g., “I focus on the problem and see how I can solve
it”). (b) Emotion-oriented coping – this scale represents coping styles directed at altering
negative emotional responses to stressors, such as negative thinking (e.g., “My efforts will
surely fail), lowered self confidence (e.g., “I cannot handle this problem”) or poor self image
(e.g., “I am useless”). (c) Avoidance – this represents withdrawal behaviors and the
College students coping strategies
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redirection of personal resources towards different paths, such as sports, leisure time, etc.
(e.g., “I buy something”). The scales for these three coping strategies range from 1 (seldom
used) to 5 (always used). Higher scores represent a higher usage frequency for the specific
coping strategy. Cronbach alpha coefficients obtained for the entire scale of coping strategies
were: for task orientation, α = 0.89; emotional orientation, α = 0.87; avoidance, α = 0.83,
indicating that the coping strategies questionnaire is a reliable measure of adult coping
orientations for a college population.
3. Objective Stress Variables: Academic Loads
Academic loads were objectively assessed on an average weekly basis in terms of: (1) class
hours; (2) study hours during semesters and (3) study hours during exam periodsperiods..
Study hours included time spent in the library, in laboratories and at home, to meet academic
demands.
Demographic variables
Data were collected with respect to each student’s age, gender and familial status. Since
most of the students in our sample were not parents, familial status was not subsequently
included in the model. This decision was supported by correlation calculations, which
showed that the degree of correlation between familial status, academic stress perceptions
and coping strategies was negligible.
Results
To investigate the first hypothesis, a regression analysis was performed on perceived
academic stress, in order to evaluate the effects of objective stress parameters on stress
perceptions. An ENTER method was used in each equation, with academic stress perceptions
entered as the dependent variable and variables relating to academic loads entered as
independent variables. The results showed that objective parameters related to academic
stress significantly affect academic stress perceptions (R2 = 0.075, F (3,283) = 5.97, p <
0.001). Specifically, class hours (B = 7.30, β = 0.14, t = 2.10, p < 0.04) and study hours
during semesters (B = 0.11, β = 0.20, t = 3.12, p < 0.00) positively affected academic stress
perceptions. The results supported the first hypothesis by showing that academic stress
perceptions can be predicted from objective academic loads.
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To investigate the second hypothesis a Pearson correlation analysis was performed. As
shown certain coping behaviors were significantly correlated with perceived academic stress,
so supporting our hypothesis. Specifically, the correlation of perceived academic stress with
task-oriented behaviors was significantly negatively (r = -0.16, p < 0.05), while with
emotion-oriented behaviors it was significantly positively (r = 0.20, p < 0.01).0.01).
Avoidance was also positively correlated with academic stress, however the correlation was
not significant. These results indicate that students experiencing academic stress utilize
emotion-oriented coping strategies while disfavoring task-oriented approaches.
These findings urged investigation of the third hypothesis, for which purpose
hierarchical regression analyses were performed. Separate analyses were conducted using
each of the three coping strategies as dependent variables and the three other factors (namely,
academic loads, stress perceptions and demographic characteristics) as independent
variables. We were interested in investigating whether academic loads predict the use of task
oriented coping strategies, academic stress perceptions predict the use of emotion oriented
coping strategies and demographic characteristics predict the use of avoidance coping
strategies. For this purpose, the independent variables were entered in three steps in an
ENTER procedure, in the following order: (1) demographic characteristics (2) academic load
variables and (3) academic stress perceptions. )
The results for all equations were significant, indicating that each of the coping
strategies was significantly predicted by the independent variables. It is notable that for both
task and emotion oriented strategies, academic stress perceptions significantly contributed
towards predicting coping behavior, notwithstanding that this variable was entered last. As
hypothesized, academic stress perceptions affected these two coping behaviors in opposing
ways. Thus, while academic stress perceptions significantly and positively predicted the use
of emotion-oriented strategies (B = 0.25, p < 0.00), theythey significantly and negatively
predicted the use of task-oriented coping strategies (B = -0.21, p < 0.00.
A deeper examination of the regression equations for the emotion-oriented strategy
reveals that the transition from step two (inclusion of academic loads, B = –7.47) to step
three (inclusion of academic stress perceptions, B = 0.25) is relatively sharp and positive,
indicating that stress perceptions make an important positive contribution to the prediction of
emotion-oriented strategies. This contribution is statistically significant (second step: R =
College students coping strategies
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0.32, R2 = 0.10; third step: R = 0.36, R2 = 0.13= 0.13). Furthermore, these results suggest that
the greater the level of academic stress experienced, the more students tend to manage it
through emotion-oriented coping strategies. A similar examination of the regression
equations with respect to the task oriented coping strategy shows the opposite result, in that
the sharp transition from step 2 to step 3 is negative. Thus, while objective load variables
shift students towards the adoption of task-related coping behaviors (B = 7.28; p = 0.05), the
subsequent inclusion of academic stress into the equations reverses the results (B = -0.21; p =
0.00). These findings suggest that, initially, students tend to use task-oriented strategies to
manage their objective academic loads. Having done so, they subsequently refrain from using
these strategies and focus on managing any remaining academic stress perceptions.
Other findings of interest discerned from the analyses relate to the demographic
characteristics. Age has been found to be a substantial variable appearing as a significant
predictor for most of the coping behaviors. The scores show that older students employ task-
oriented techniques in preference to any other coping strategy, while younger students also
employed emotion-oriented and avoidance strategies. We found gender to be a significant
variable only with respect to the avoidance coping strategy, with males adopting this coping
strategy more than females.
Discussion
We surveyed a varied sample of university and college students to examine three
hypotheses concerning the coping strategies employed by students in response to different
types of stress. We were particularly interested in elucidating the role of academic perceived
stress versus academic objective loads in shaping the coping strategy used.
As we hypothesized, both academic stress perceptions and academic loads had
significant and unique effects on students’ coping strategies. The experience of academic
stress was mainly associated with the use of emotion-oriented behaviors, while being
significantly negatively related to adoption of task-oriented strategies. This indicates that the
nature of the stress perception can also be significant in restraining the use of certain coping
behaviors. Moreover, objective and subjective stress experiences fulfilled opposite roles in
the prediction of coping behavior. In particular, the subjective perception of academic stress
acted as a restraining factor in students’ employment of task-orientated coping behaviors,
while objective academic loads supported the use of this coping strategy.
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The statistical coefficient scores suggest that most academic stress perceptions derive
from actual academic loads. We further find that both of these factors are addressed by
working students through proactive means. Academic load is addressed principally through a
task orientation and academic stress primarily through an emotion-oriented strategy. The
literature shows that proactive strategies are preferred in situations that are, or are perceived
to be, controllable (Karasek & Theorell, 1990) and that students generally utilize proactive
behavioral methods to manage academic stress (Misra & McKean, 2000; Britton & Tesser,
1991; Lopez et al, 2001; Collins et al, 1999). Interpreted in this light, our data suggest that
students perceive the academic component of their stress to be at least partly controllable.
Therefore, they initially address academic stress through task-oriented behaviors. As actual
academic loads reduce, but the perception of stress remains, task-oriented coping techniques
lose their relevance, and emotion-oriented behaviors predominate. This interpretation is also
partially supported by the work of Mandler (1993), who suggests that individuals’ reaction to
stress takes two forms. First, individuals ruminate about the stressful situation, their actions
proceeding automatically from the way they interpret it, in accordance with their customary,
learned behavioral patterns. Then, if this does not yield a solution to the problem (i.e., the
perception of stress remains), emotional and affective reactions arise. .
In agreement with Mattlin et al (1990), we find the utilization of emotion-oriented
strategies to be affected by academic loads. This may be explained by the adaptive functions
of emotions in managing stressful situations, [such as are generated by heavy academic
loads,] by preparing the individual for more effective thought and action, for example
(Mandler, 1993).
The data also show that women and men employ a wide array of similar strategies to
deal with stress. Gender effects did not appear even in examinations of the interactions
between stress perceptions, coping strategies and gender. Significant gender differences
come into play only with respect to the avoidance coping strategy, with men reporting a
significantly higher usage of avoidance as a coping tool. This finding is inconsistent with
much of the stress and coping literature, in which distinct gender-based coping behaviors are
well established for all coping strategies, and with women reporting a significantly higher
level of use of avoidance than men (Haarr & Morash, 1999).
Consistently with the literature (Cohen & Williamson, 1988; Hamarat et al, 2001),
older working students’ coping appears task-oriented and they do not utilize indirect coping
College students coping strategies
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techniques. By contrast, younger students generally choose to manage stress by either
emotion-oriented strategies or avoidance.
Overall, and in agreement with our hypotheses, we find that students’ academic stress
perceptions can be predicted from their objective academic load variables. Furthermore,
perceived academic stress, objective academic loads and demographic characteristics are
correlated with the types of coping strategy adopted by students, with academic loads
predicting the use of task oriented coping strategies, academic stress predicting the use of
emotion-oriented coping strategies, and age and gender (demographic characteristics)
predicting avoidance reactions. Thus, the data support our proposed model. The main
implication of the results is that students who face stressful situations choose to deal with
them through a “step-by-step” coping strategy. As such, they initially adopt a task-focused
approach to manage their actual loads to reduce stress associated with phenomena that they
consider controllable. They then utilize indirect emotion-oriented techniques to address
residual perceived stress.
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