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Seroprevalence of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis in organized dairy farms of India
Abstract
In this study, a systematic sero-surveillance of IBR was undertaken from 11 dairy farms located in 4 different regions of India. A total of 1000 cattle serum samples were tested for the presence of antibodies against IBR using Avidin Biotin ELISA. The results revealed that IBR antibodies were widely prevalent in all regions of the country ranging from 36.5% in Central region to 84.5% in Northern region with an overall prevalence of 61.6%. The prevalence of IBR antibodies was different between various age groups being 22.3%, 62.1%, 59.3%, 76.1% and 66.78 % in the age groups less than 1 year, 1-2 years, 2-3 years, 3-4 years and more than 4 years old respectively. Based upon the medical history of the herd, it was found that 83% abortion cases, 76% metritis cases, 83% repeat breeding cases and 65% retention of placenta cases were seropositive for IBR.
... BoAHV-1 is endemic in India, with seroprevalence reported in nearly all states [5,13,15,20]. Studies have demonstrated a higher rate of BoAHV-1 seropositivity in cows with reproductive disorders [10,14,22]. The virus has also been found in cases of respiratory diseases, keratoconjunctivitis, and abortions [9,12,14]. ...
... Studies have demonstrated a higher rate of BoAHV-1 seropositivity in cows with reproductive disorders [10,14,22]. The virus has also been found in cases of respiratory diseases, keratoconjunctivitis, and abortions [9,12,14]. However, research on BoAHV-1's prevalence in reproductive disorders using molecular methods is limited. ...
... In the current study, BoAHV-1 DNA was detected in 19.55% of RFM cases (Table 1). Literature suggests a high seroprevalence of BoAHV-1 in cows with RFM [14,22]. ...
Bovine alphaherpesvirus-1 (BoAHV-1) is an important viral pathogen that causes significant economic losses to the dairy industry. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of BoAHV-1 in cases of bovine reproductive disorder. Clinical samples were collected from various villages in Gujarat using specialized FTA® cards and were tested using real-time PCR assay targeting the gB gene of BoAHV-1. Out of 401 animals, 18.20% (95% CI: 14.74–22.28%) tested positive for BoAHV-1 DNA. The percentage positivity of BoAHV-1 was 20.37% in abortion cases and 19.55% in retention of fetal membrane cases, while only one out of nine metritis cases screened in the study was positive for BoAHV-1 DNA. A higher percentage positivity in buffaloes (22.14%) compared to cattle (16.30%) was recorded, but this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.169). The frequency of BoAHV-1 detection was higher among crossbreeds (16.76%) and exotics (19.61%) than among indigenous cattle (8.82%), although this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.400). There was also no significant difference in frequency distribution among animals of varying parity, ranging from 15.20 to 33.33% (p = 0.540). This study confirms the widespread circulation of BoAHV-1 and highlights the need for its control and prevention.
... To maintain herd health and minimise financial losses, screening, surveillance, and monitoring are crucial. Among the many three related ruminant herpes viruses, BoHV-1, BoHV-5 and BuHV 1) has been reported from India (Patil et al., 2017;Kumar et al., 2020;Yadav et al., 2024) [16,10,26] . Presently Real time PCR based on gB gC gD gI and gE are used for disease diagnosis from clinical cases (OIE, 2023) [12] . ...
... To maintain herd health and minimise financial losses, screening, surveillance, and monitoring are crucial. Among the many three related ruminant herpes viruses, BoHV-1, BoHV-5 and BuHV 1) has been reported from India (Patil et al., 2017;Kumar et al., 2020;Yadav et al., 2024) [16,10,26] . Presently Real time PCR based on gB gC gD gI and gE are used for disease diagnosis from clinical cases (OIE, 2023) [12] . ...
... According to the findings of this study, there is an urgent requirement for stringent monitoring and surveillance of IBR in the present day in order to protect animals from infection and prevent its future spread. Patil et al. (2017) [37] conducted a study to determine the seroprevalence of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis in organized dairy farms in India. As part of that investigation, a comprehensive sero-surveillance of IBR was carried out on 11 dairy farms that were situated in four distinct regions of India. ...
... According to the findings of this study, there is an urgent requirement for stringent monitoring and surveillance of IBR in the present day in order to protect animals from infection and prevent its future spread. Patil et al. (2017) [37] conducted a study to determine the seroprevalence of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis in organized dairy farms in India. As part of that investigation, a comprehensive sero-surveillance of IBR was carried out on 11 dairy farms that were situated in four distinct regions of India. ...
India's most valuable resource is its livestock population. Farmers that raise livestock are almost entirely reliant on animals for a variety of reasons. India is one of the countries that has the greatest population of livestock in the world. In a similar vein, India has been cited as the source of numerous reports of diseases affecting livestock over the course of many years. Farmers are required to have an understanding of the various diseases that can affect bovine and equine animals. This will allow them to be aware of the etiology of the diseases as well as the pattern of disease transmission, allowing them to make the necessary preparations to prevent and control the diseases. Many diseases, including bovine rotaviral diarrhoea, bovine mastitis, bovine brucellosis, bovine herpes viral infection, and equine piroplasmosis and equine herpes viral infection, among others, are regularly reported from India. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the bovine and equine illnesses that are widespread in India from an epidemiological standpoint and to do so in a concise manner.
... Further, higher genome identity among subtypes in the US8 gene could indeed contribute to amino acid identity and development of more sensitive immunoassays for sero-epidemiology. In India, numerous serological and molecular epidemiological studies conducted since 1976 have confirmed the endemic nature of BoAHV infection across almost all states and union territories (Patil et al., 2017;Rashmi et al., 2024). While testing and culling of infected animals have been implemented in bull mother farms, wid espread viru s control th rough vaccin ation and differentiation of vac cinated from infected animals remains limited. ...
Background: Bovine alphaherpesvirus type 1 (BoAHV-1) is a significant pathogen causing respiratory diseases and reproductive issues in cattle and buffaloes, resulting in substantial economic losses globally. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the genetic characteristics of BoAHV-1 isolates from India, focusing on glycoprotein genes US6 (gD) and US8(gE). Methods: Ten archival isolates that were stored at the ICAR-NIVEDI BSL-2 facility were chosen, revived on MDBK cell lines and subjected for molecular characterization through PCR amplification of partial US6 (gD) and US8 (gE) gene. Genome alignment and phylogenetic analysis were performed by GeneTool and Mega 11. Result: Phylogenetic analysis of both genes revealed two cluster formation, BoAHV-1.1, BoAHV-1.2 in one cluster and BoAHV-5, Bubaline alphaherpesvirus (BuAHV-1) in another cluster. All ten isolates displayed close relation to BoAH 1.1. Seven isolates from each phylogenetic analysis showed 100% genome identity to vaccine strains from USA- Bovishield Gold MLV, Pyramid IBR MLV, Switzerland Cooper strain, ATCC Los Angeles strain, previously reported BoAHV 1.1 strains of India and Egypt. Genome identity of BoAHV-1.1 against BoAHV-1.2 was 97.70 to 98.70% for gD gene and 99.0 to 99.70% for gE gene respectively. The analysis highlights the higher genome identity among BoAHV-1 subtypes in the gE gene, suggesting its potential for developing more sensitive immunoassays for seroepidemiology. The developed assay could also be exploited for detecting BoAHV-5 infections. The findings contribute to the knowledge base essential for development of companion ELISA for implementing Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals (DIVA) vaccination strategies.
... Singh et al. (2013) reported 11.1 per cent prevalence of BoHV-1 in nasal samples of bovine calves in Uttar Pradesh. Majumdar et al. (2015) and Patil et al. (2017) also reported the serological and virological evidence of BoHV-1 infection in bovines from different states of India. The BoHV-1 has a tendency to undergo latency in the ganglions and is difficult to detect because of the stoppage of shedding. ...
Respiratory diseases causing pneumonia are the 2nd leading cause of mortality in bovine calves and are primarily caused by viral pathogens. The present study was undertaken in cattle calves under twelve months of age for detecting four respiratory viruses, viz. bovine herpes virus-1 (BoHV-1), bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), and bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 (BPI3), using a commercially available multiscreen antigen ELISA kit. A total of 30 cattle calves necropsied at the Department of Veterinary Pathology, DGCN COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, from June 2021 to June 2022 were screened. The samples of lung tissues and nasal turbinates were collected and stored at –20°C until further processing. The collected tissue samples were homogenised and processed as per the standard protocol. Among the 30 necropsied samples, BoHV-1 and BRSV were detected in 17/30 (56.67%) samples, BPI3 was detected in 14/30 (46.67%) samples, and BVDV was detected in 8/30 (26.67%) samples. 5/30 (16.67%) samples were found positive for all four viruses. Moreover, three viruses were concurrently detected in 4/30 samples (13.33%), and two viruses were present in 10/30 samples (33.33%). Additionally, a single virus was detected in 4/30 samples (13.33%). In conclusion, the present investigation reveals the substantial presence of respiratory viruses in the respiratory tract of cattle calves. The result indicates a complex pattern of co-infections of different viruses, emphasising the need for effective surveillance and management strategies to address the diverse viral dynamics affecting bovine respiratory health.
... The symptoms of MCF sickness can range from an acute form in which death may occur within hours to a chronic form in which there will be high fever, heavy nasal and ocular discharge ( Fig. 1), bilateral corneal opacity, and muzzle necrosis (Headley et al., 2020;Shyamsundar et al., 2023a). Similar symptoms are also observed in infectious bovine rhinotracheitis in cows, which need to be ruled out (Patil et al., 2017). ...
... IBR is endemic in India and there is no systematic study on the seroprevalence of IBR in buffaloes though many have reported IBR antibody prevalence in cattle either restricted to districts/states/zones (Patil et al., 2012 and2017;Krishnamoorthy et al., 2015;Kathiriya et al., 2018). ...
Background: Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) is an infectious disease of bovines causing respiratory problem, abortions and reduced milk yield leading to huge economic losses. IBR is endemic in India. India ranks first in buffalo population. Reports on seroprevalence of IBR in cattle in India are available but not in buffaloes. The study was aimed at conducting a seroprevalence of IBR in Indian buffaloes. Methods: A total of 1000 buffalo serum samples collected randomly from top 10 milk producing states of India and were tested for IBR antibodies using Avidin-Biotin (AB) ELISA. Result: Cumulative seropositivity was found to be 43.30%. Punjab and Andhra Pradesh states showed highest (58%) and lowest (27%) seropositivity respectively and were part of north and south zone of the country. India has highest number of buffalo population. Presently, India do not vaccinate bovines against IBR and should take call on vaccination of dairy buffalo after having witnessed a high seroprevalence of IBR. This is the first report of such kind of number of buffalo samples tested for IBR antibodies.
... IBR is endemic in India and there is no systematic study on the seroprevalence of IBR in buffaloes though many have reported IBR antibody prevalence in cattle either restricted to districts/states/zones (Patil et al., 2012 and2017;Krishnamoorthy et al., 2015;Kathiriya et al., 2018). ...
Background: Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) is an infectious disease of bovines causing respiratory problem, abortions and reduced milk yield leading to huge economic losses. IBR is endemic in India. India ranks first in buffalo population. Reports on seroprevalence of IBR in cattle in India are available but not in buffaloes. The study was aimed at conducting a seroprevalence of IBR in Indian buffaloes. Methods: A total of 1000 buffalo serum samples collected randomly from top 10 milk producing states of India and were tested for IBR antibodies using Avidin-Biotin (AB) ELISA. Result: Cumulative seropositivity was found to be 43.30%. Punjab and Andhra Pradesh states showed highest (58%) and lowest (27%) seropositivity respectively and were part of north and south zone of the country. India has highest number of buffalo population. Presently, India do not vaccinate bovines against IBR and should take call on vaccination of dairy buffalo after having witnessed a high seroprevalence of IBR. This is the first report of such kind of number of buffalo samples tested for IBR antibodies.
... Further, 5 out of 26 samples with abortion history, 2 out of 24 samples with ROP history, and 11 out of 62 sam repeat breeding history were found positive for IBR with seropositivity percentages of 19.23%, 8.33%, and 17.74% respectively. Seropositivity for IBR was discovered in 83% of abortion cases, 83% of repeat breeding cases, and 65% of retention of placenta cases, according to Patil et al. (2017), which is corroborated by studies conducted by Nandi et al. (2009) and Bera et al. (2015). ...
The cross-sectional study from July 2018 to September 2018, was conducted to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors of Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) in cattle of Chitwan, Nawalpur and Rupandehi districts of Nepal. 92 serum samples from 55 cattle herds were collected purposively and screened by Indirect-ELISA to determine the presence of antibodies against IBR. Questionnaire interview was done to collect individual and herd-level data. Association between categorical variables and the outcome variable (seropositive) were assessed by bivariate analysis and multivariate logistic regression analysis in SPSS version 19.0. The seroprevalence of IBR was 18.48% (95% CI: 11.1-27.9), and district, breed and herd size were identified as potential risk factors for IBR seropositivity. Significantly higher risk for IBR was found in Chitwan (Percentage-Positive (PP) = 36.37%; Odd ratio (OR) = 5.211; p = 0.008) than in Nawalpur (PP = 9.38%; OR = 0.931) and Rupandehi (PP = 10.00%). PP of IBR was significantly higher in Jersey crosses (PP = 30.00%; OR = 2.893; p = 0.048) than Holstein Friesian crosses (PP = 12.90%). Similarly, herds with more than 10 cattle (PP = 33.33%; OR = 4.167; p = 0.042) were found significantly at higher odds for seropositivity than herds having less than 10 cattle (PP = 10.71%). IBR is moderately prevalent among cattle in Nepal; therefore, this research study urges to conduct further planned research on IBR in national level to protect dairy industries from possible economic losses.
... Clinically the disease manifests as conjunctivitis, red nose, abortions, and reduction in milk yield, Infectious Pustular Vulvovaginitis (IPV) /Infectious Balanoposthitis (IBP) (Raaperi et al. 2012). IBR is endemic in India and the seroprevalence of IBR in organized dairy farms was ranged between 36.50-84.5% (Patil et al. 2017). Singh and Yadav (2010) reported a seroprevalence of 13.2% in an unorganized cattle herd in Uttar Pradesh. ...
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) is caused by Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1), an infectious diseasecausing huge economic loss in dairy cattle. To keep dairy farming healthy and highly productive, there should be an IBR
surveillance programme in dairy cattle, hence a study on the seroprevalence of IBR was undertaken in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands where the density of livestock population was more. A total of 418 cattle serum samples during 2019-20
from 11 villages of two districts of Andaman and Nicobar Islands were screened for IBR antibodies using ICAR-NIVEDI
Avidin Biotin ELISA, of which 107 were found positive revealing 25.60% of seropositivity. HF crossbred and Jersey breed
showed seropositivity of 24.06% and 33.33% respectively. Cattle of 5-6 years of age showed high seropositivity of 27.65-
38.98%. Hence, it is recommended to test raw fresh semen/frozen semen straws, dairy animals regularly for IBR antigen/
antibodies to avoid the spread of infection.
... More often these serotypes cannot be differentiated by common serological tests and hence the studies describe them as IBR infected ones. Latent and subclinical infections are common in IBR (Ranganatha et al., 2013;Patil et al., 2017) which can be identified through the detection of antibodies against BoHV-1 in serum (Lemaire et al., 2000). Bovine herpesvirus-1 infection was first reported in India in 1976 (Mehrotra et al. 1976). ...
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) is an infectious disease caused by BoHV-1 and belongs to the Herpesviridae family. IBR is endemic in India including north eastern states of the country. Hence the study was undertaken to understand the seroprevalence of IBR in north eastern parts of the country. A total of 3125 cattle (Holstein Friesian crossbred) serum samples from 35 districts of five north eastern states (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Sikkim) of India were screened for infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) virus antibodies using Avidin biotin ELISA. A two-stage random sampling methodology was followed for the collection of samples. Results from the present study revealed that the overall seropositivity was reported around 29.50% while the highest and lowest seropositivity of 43.39% and 16.66% were reported in the states of Sikkim and Assam respectively, followed by Mizoram (42.16%), Manipur (29.86%) and Meghalaya (27.40%). Cattle of higher age groups showed the highest seropositivity compared to younger ones. A higher percent of IBR antibodies in cattle of NE states is a cause of concern and a detailed study on IBR prevalence comprising of a large number of the bovine population need to be undertaken.
... The world organization for animal health has placed BoHV-1 into category B for infectious diseases because of its worldwide prevalence and its significant impact on cattle industries (Muylkens et al. 2007). A sero prevalence study across different regions of India highlighted natural circulation of virus in the population (Patil et al. 2015). After causing an acute infection BoHV-1 remains in latent stage throughout the life in the animal. ...
Aptamers are ‘nucleic acid antibodies’ that bind to target molecules with high affinity and specificity. The process by which aptamers are selected is called Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX). A plethora of aptamers have been selected against various targets, such as proteins, cells, microorganisms, chemical compounds, etc. Technical progress in the aspects of high throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies, bioinformatics, microfluidics and nanodevices have widened the scope of aptamers to contribute significantly in human as well as veterinary medicine. We have searched the Pubmed database and Google Scholar with the search term ‘aptamer’, ‘SELEX’, ‘animal diseases’. The search results have been categorized into bacterial, viral and protozoal diseases of veterinary importance. Here we have systematically described the strategy used to design aptamers for each disease and also shed light on the future research scope in this area. This article presents a comprehensive and up-to-date review of SELEX-aptamer technology, its modifications, aptamers selected against various animal pathogens, their potential to be applied in the future for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
... The serologic and virologic evidence of BoHV-1 infection caused by respiratory viruses has been demonstrated previously (Majumdar et al., 2015;Patil et al., 2017). The present study revealed 1.8% occurrence of BoHV-1 antigen in sandwich ELISA. ...
Bovine Respiratory diseases are responsible for economic losses in livestock industry worldwide. The present study aiming to investigate the occurrence of respiratory viral antigens of Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1), Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) and Bovine parainfluenza 3 virus (BPI3V) in bovines and describe the distribution of respiratory viruses in unvaccinated animals in Punjab. A total of 55 nasal swab samples were collected from the cattle and buffaloes exhibiting the clinical signs of respiratory disease. All samples were tested for the detection of all four viral antigens by commercially available sandwich ELISA kit. BoHV-1 and BPI3V antigen were detected in 1 and 3 samples with the percentage of 1.8 and 5.4, respectively, whereas none of the sample was found positive for BRSV and BVDV antigen. The present study concluded the existence of BoHV-1 and BPI3V infection in respiratory tract and plays the important role in the respiratory viral infections of bovines. This study suggests the prevention measures should be taken to control the economic losses due to respiratory diseases in cattle and buffaloes.
... Pandita and Srivastava (1995) studied the efficacy of dot ELISA and plate ELISA with 239 bovine serum samples from Haryana against IBR antibody and 51.9% and 48.5% were positive by plate ELISA and dot ELISA respectively. S. S. Patil (2015) studied a total of 1000 cattle serum samples were tested for the presence of antibodies against IBR using Avidin Biotin ELISA. The results revealed that IBR antibodies were widely prevalent in all regions of the country ranging from 36.5% in Central region to 84.5% in Northern region with an overall prevalence of 61.6%. ...
... It is classified under the Varicellovirus genus of the Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily belonging to the Herpesviridae family Shirvani et al., 2012;Yazici et al., 2015;Yilmaz et al., 2016). Similar to other herpesviruses, BHV-1 leads to lifelong latent infections and intermittent shedding of the virus (Patil et al., 2017). ...
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and Bovine herpes virus type-1 (BHV-1) are economically important pathogens leading to critical health problems for widespread ruminant populations worldwide. This study was conducted in order to update the seroprevalence of both viruses in non-vaccinated ruminant breeding enterprises in the Black Sea Region of Turkey. Blood samples (n=1.025) were collected from 192 small-scale farms and were screened using a virus neutralization test. Overall percentages of BVDV and BHV-1 were 19.90 % and 13.56 %, respectively. All goat and cattle enterprises were seropositive for BVDV. Single and dual virus infections rates were 24.87 % and 5.26 % respectively. The Black Sea Region of Turkey has a great number of small-sized ruminant farms and the results confirmed that BVDV and BHV-1 viruses were still in circulation and a wide range of large and small ruminants were exposed to both viruses.
... From the first report of IBR in India [6], several authors have reported varying seroprevalence rates ranging from 40.00% to 60.46% in Indian cattle population [7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. All subtypes are antigenically similar and only established methods of genetic characterization are able to identify the prevalence of BoHV-1 types and subtypes [14]. ...
Aim: This study was conducted for the isolation and molecular characterization of bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) isolated from the nasal and vaginal swabs collected from naturally infected cattle showing clinical symptoms of the respiratory disease.
Materials and Methods: Isolation of BoHV-1 virus performed on clinical samples collected from 65 cattle from five states of India. The BoHV-1 isolates were further confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using primers specific for glycoprotein B (gB) genomic region. PCR amplification was performed using previously published gB gene-specific primer pairs. gB PCR amplicons obtained from all isolates were sequenced, and phylogenetic analysis was performed using software.
Results: A total of 12 samples were found positive in cell culture isolation. 11 isolates showed the visible cytopathic effect on Madin-Darby bovine kidney after 72 h. Partial sequence analysis of gB gene of all isolates revealed 99.0-100% homology between them. All isolates showed 99.2-99.8% homology with Cooper stain.
Conclusion: BoHV-1.1 is the predominant circulating subtype of BoHV in India, and all isolates have homology with Cooper stain.
In the past decade, substantial progress has been made towards the evaluation of various antigenic proteins from Bovine alphaherpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1) that can likely be targeted for designing of a suitable control strategy. Growing knowledge on the immunology of the host systems has been highly useful in the assessment of antigenic epitopes from the virus and its receptors on the host. BoHV-1 are enveloped double stranded DNA viruses studded with a dozen (gB, gC, gD, gE, gG, gI, gH, gK, gL, gM, UL49.5 and US9) of protein molecules on their surface where, ten are glycosylated and two are non-glycosylated. Each of these proteins are known to play a role in various functions such as cell attachment, entry, viral multiplication, cell to cell movement, packaging, egress of cell, retrograde and anterograde movement of virus. Knowledge about the properties and function of envelope proteins helps to explore the right protein for in-house vaccine or diagnostic test development. Overall, the review provides a comprehensive overview of the various aspects of Bovine alphaherpes infection including the epidemiology, envelope proteins involved in enforcement of infection, vaccines and methods of detection.
Efficiently managing liquid organic waste (LOW) is imperative for tackling the global challenges of waste accumulation, deteriorated environmental conditions, and rising healthcare costs. Within this context, the circular economy has emerged as a pivotal focus in scientific agendas worldwide, offering innovative solutions for LOW management with minimal environmental impact. A systematic review of 385 scientific communications was conducted employing the latest PRISMA methodology, with no time gap. Additionally, 46 reports, protocols, guidelines, country reports, and publications from international organizations such as the UN, World Bank, WHO, IEA, UNEP, EPA, EC, and EEA were referenced. The study seeks to resolve the ambiguity around LOW by defining LOW based on fundamental characteristics of high nutrient and moisture content, potential for sustainable agriculture, and management risk including pollution threat; and categorizing it into food waste, livestock, agro-industrial, and municipal waste. The study investigates different waste stream sources, their physiochemical features, appropriate processing technologies, end-products, and potential applications. The
research critically examines the design configurations, and optimal processing technologies such as biological, thermal, biochemical, hydrothermal, and electro-biochemical methods.
Majority of the commercial plants are biochemical plants using anaerobic digestion, evidencing greater potential for co-digestion. Unlike solid waste or wastewater management, the scope for biological and thermal processing techniques is limited with most of the plants still in lab scale. The study underscores the crucial need to transition to circular economy and resource efficiency for sustainability. The study demonstrates how LOW management aligns with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), addressing water pollution, health, and climate action. Proposing a strategic framework for managing LOW encompassing technology, policies, markets, and the economy, with stakeholders’ involvement considering social, economic, regulatory, and governance factors, the research discusses potential limitations in LOW disposal and advocates viable solutions for strategic liquid organic waste management. Integrated LOW management, policy coherence, comprehensive environmental laws, waste management regulation revisions, solution-oriented innovation, and nexus thinking will be required to move forward. In a rapidly changing environment, this information will assist policymakers and stakeholders in identifying research gaps and establishing effective liquid organic waste management strategies to promote sustainable development.
In this study, the possible effect of bovine herpes virus 1 (BHV-1) on abortions in selected dairy herds in the Mitidja plain of Algeria was investigated serologically. Serum samples obtained from 460 aborted cows, where frequent abortions occurred during the second and third trimester of gestation during the period July 2018 to July 2019, were analysed for the presence of specific antibodies for BHV-1 using the ELISA technique. The results revealed an individual seroprevalence of 43.7% (201/460) of the tested samples were positive for BHV-1 specific antibodies by ELISA, and a herd seroprevalence of 68.7% (110/160). According to our results, BHV-1 may be responsible for the abortions encountered in the tested cattle, which may indicate the presence of persistentlyand permanently infected animals in Algerian dairy cattle farms. In order to control bovine abortions caused by BHV-1, vaccination campaigns should be carried out before the cattle are released for breeding.
Background:
Information on the prevalence of infectious agents in dairy farms forms the basis for formulating a suitable control strategy; especially in endemic situations.
Aims:
A cross-sectional study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of six economically important bovine diseases, causing reproductive disorders including bovine abortion in organized dairy herds in India.
Methods:
A total of 1,075 animals (cattle and buffaloes) from 09 dairy farms were screened by ELISA tests.
Results:
Bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) was the most prevalent (56.5%) disease followed by infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) (45.4%). Prevalence of Q-fever (5.4%) and neosporosis (6.1%) were less on the farms. Although 16.3% of the samples turned positive for brucellosis, the contribution of calf-hood vaccination (B. abortus S19 vaccine) to the prevalence of antibodies cannot be ruled out. The overall prevalence of bovine anaplasmosis, known to cause sporadic abortions in dairy herds, was 34.1% in the 9 farms with a prevalence of less than 20% in 5 farms. Infection of multiple abortifacient (seroprevalence to more than two pathogens) was recorded in 56.8% of animals. A very strong association was observed between BVD and brucellosis (Odds ratio 14.2; P<0.001). Further, a positive association was also seen between seroprevalence of IBR and anaplasmosis, and neosporosis and Q fever (P<0.05).
Conclusion:
Viral diseases were found to be more common in the dairy herds than bacterial and protozoan diseases. Increased susceptibility of IBR seropositive cows to other bacterial and viral infections was observed.
Food processors generally apply different techniques to extend the shelf-life of food products.
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) uses different gases in specific combinations to
replace the air surrounding the product, which leads to minimizing the undesirable oxidation reactions and microbial spoilage permitting extending the shelf-life of the food product. The property of the Reducing Atmosphere Packaging (RAP) technique is the use of reducing gas such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and hydrogen with the other gases such as nitrogen, argon and carbon dioxide. The advantage of the presence of a reducing gas in the gas combination is the prevention of the oxidation reactions such as the formation of free radicals, the deterioration of vitamins such as C and E, the deterioration of pigments such as carotenoids and the formation of off-flavors such as the rancidity products. The prevention of the latter reactions would protect the freshness notes of the food products preserving its fresh color, taste and aroma as well as the protection of the nutritional quality. The researches conducted on several food products such as strawberry, apricot, grape, peppers and cheese in our Redox Center showed the ability and the advantages of RAP on the extension of shelf- life of these products.
Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1) mainly causes two forms of diseases in
cattle and buffalo that is Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) and
Infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IPV). These infections occur worldwide however, in India first time reported in 1976. Since than several studies have been conducted in different part of the country to know the seroprevalence. This review focused on updated information on the emergence and seroprevalence of BoHV-1 in India.
In this study, the seroprevalences of Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) and Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD)
infections were investigated in cattle in 9 provinces (Adiyaman, Batman, Diyarbakir, Gaziantep, Mardin, Kilis, Siirt, Sanliurfa
and Sirnak) from Southeast Anatolia Region of Turkey. For this purpose, serum samples collected from 718 cattle housed in
small private farms. The seropositivity rates for IBR and BVD were detected as 40.11% and 48.05% in sampling population,
respectively. Of the provinces, the lowest seropositivity rates for IBR (6.06%) and BVD (18.18%) were detected in Kilis. The
highest seropositivity rates for IBR (79.35%) and BVD (69.70%) were found in Diyarbakir and Sanliurfa, respectively. Results
of this study carry out that IBR and BVD infections are widely distributed in cattle housed in small private farms in provinces
of Southeast Anatolia Region of Turkey.
Keywords: IBR, BVD, Cattle, Seroprevalence.
Özet: Bu çalışmada Güneydoğu Anadolu bölgesinde bulunan 9 ilde (Adıyaman, Batman, Diyarbakır, Gaziantep, Mardin, Kilis, Siirt, Şanlıurfa ve Şırnak) sığırlarda Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) ve Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) enfeksiyonlarının seroprevalansları araştırıldı. Bu amaçla, söz konusu illerde küçük aile işletmelerinde bulunan sığırlardan toplam 718 adet kan serumu örneği alındı. Yapılan mikronötralizasyon testi sonucunda IBR ve BVD seropozitifliği sırasıyla %40.11 ve %48.05 oranında bulundu. İllere göre, IBR ve BVD enfeksiyonları için en düşük değerleri sırası ile %6.06 ve %18.18 olarak Kilis'te saptandı. IBR enfeksiyonu için en yüksek seropzitivite %79.35 ile Diyarbakır'da ve BVD enfeksiyonu için en yüksek seropzitivite ise %69.70 ile Şanlıurfa'da tespit edildi. Sonuç olarak Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesindeki illerde küçük aile işletmelerindeki sığırlarda IBR ve BVD enfeksiyonlarının yaygın olduğu belirlendi.
Summary: In this study, the seroprevalences of Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) and Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) infections were investigated in cattle in 9 provinces (Adiyaman, Batman, Diyarbakir, Gaziantep, Mardin, Kilis, Siirt, Sanliurfa and Sirnak) from Southeast Anatolia Region of Turkey. For this purpose, serum samples collected from 718 cattle housed in small private farms. The seropositivity rates for IBR and BVD were detected as 40.11% and 48.05% in sampling population, respectively. Of the provinces, the lowest seropositivity rates for IBR (6.06%) and BVD (18.18%) were detected in Kilis. The highest seropositivity rates for IBR (79.35%) and BVD (69.70%) were found in Diyarbakir and Sanliurfa, respectively. Results of this study carry out that IBR and BVD infections are widely distributed in cattle housed in small private farms in provinces of Southeast Anatolia Region of Turkey.
A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (bovine herpesvirus-1 [BHV-1]) in unvaccinated cattle in southern Veracruz, Mexico. The study was conducted from September 2007 to March 2009. A total of 968 serum samples from 83 herds were analyzed through ELISA test to determine the presence of antibodies against BHV-1. Descriptive statistics was used to calculate the specific seroprevalence with the SPSS software, and the Vassar Stats software was used to calculate the confidence intervals of the specific prevalence and to determine the risk factors. Overall seroprevalence was 64.5%. The dairy cattle showed the highest seroprevalence (72.4%) and the dual-purpose cattle the lowest (61.7%). The 7-year-old cattle showed the highest seroprevalence (91.9%) and the 1-year-old females (11.8%) the lowest. The cows with ³ 6 calvings showed the highest seroprevalence (82.4%) and the pubertal heifers the lowest (19.4%). Seroprevalence in bulls was 100%. In cows with or without history of abortions, seroprevalence was 76.5 and 72.1%, respectively. The risk factors associated with BHV-1 infection were the dual-purpose cattle, 6-year-old cattle, and all the reproductive stages, except pubertal heifers. In conclusion, BHV-1 infection is present in cattle in southern Veracruz, Mexico.
The present study was undertaken to isolate the Bovine Herpes virus-1(BHV-1) from cattle and buffaloes suffering from Infectious Bovine Rhinotrachitis (IBR) and confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and compare it with the standard isolate of BHV-1. A total of 40 nasal and conjunctival swabs were collected from cattle and buffalo from different districts of Karnataka. Isolation of BHV-1 was carried out in Madin Darby Bovine Kidney (MDBK) cell lines. Out of 40 samples collected, three virus strains were isolated from three samples with one each from Mandya, Hassan, and Bangalore district. The virus isolates were confirmed and characterized by PCR using set of designed primers targeting Glycoprotein C (gC) gene of BHV-1 followed by restriction endonuclease (RE) analysis and sequencing.
Present paper describes the dynamics of bovine herpes virus-1(BoHV-1) in breeding cattle under different housing, feeding and watering practices. Organized breeding farms A, B, C, D were selected for this study. In farm A, the animals were housed in large open shed with common grazing and drinking area. Farm B had individual pens with separate feeding facility but with common watering/drinking facility. Farm C had had individual pens, with separate feeding and drinking facility for each animal. Farm D possessed modern individual housing system with separate feeding, drinking facility, restricted personnel entry and better bio-security set up. The blood and semen samples / vaginal swabs were collected from 177 animals. Avidin- biotin ELISA recorded BoHV-1 antibodies in 56, 38.77, 21.05 and 17.5% animals in farm A, B, C and D respectively. A TaqMan probe real time PCR targeting the BoHV-1 gB gene was standardised and this assay detected BoHV-1 in 11, 3 and 3 animals in Farm A, B and C respectively. None of the samples collected from Farm D were positive for BoHV-1 by real time PCR. The study recorded higher seroprevalence as well as virus transmission in farms that had housing systems allowing closer animal to animal contacts. In view of the different modes adopted by BoHV-1 in transmission through susceptible populations, the study recommends better bio-secured housing systems that avoid closer animal to animal contacts, for production of BoHV-1 free semen and calves at breeding stations.
The study describes genetic grouping and molecular epidemiology of bovine herpes virus-1 (BoHV-1) through cloning of partial glycoprotein B gene of BoHV-1 isolates, with special reference to isolates recovered from cattle breeding stations. Samples were collected from 212 animals (91 bulls and 121 female cattle). Avidin-biotin ELISA employed on serum samples found 74 animals as seropositive for BoHV-1. On inoculation of 212 semen/swab samples to MDBK cell line for virus isolation, samples of 4 seropositive and 5 seronegative animals yielded cytopathic changes characteristic of BoHV-1. Partial gB gene of these isolates were cloned in pGEM T vector, nucleotide sequences were deduced and phylogenetic tree was constructed. Sequence analysis grouped 5 of these isolates under BoHV-1.1 cluster having highest sequence identities with previously described Indian, European and Brazilian isolates of BoHV-1.1. The other 4 isolates were clustered as BoHV-1.2 subtypes having 100% sequence identity with European strain of BoHV- 1.2. We found that, apparently healthy, seronegative animals can be sources of BoHV-1, attributable to the unique pathogenesis/ latency of BoHV-1. This finding necessitates mandatory culling of breeding animals which are positive either in antigen detection or by serology, especially in countries which do not practice vaccination but report high seroprevalance of BoHV-1.
Aim: The present study was undertaken to serologically detect Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) in the cattle population of Odisha, India using micro-Serum neutralization test (micro SNT) and Avidin-Biotin Enzyme linked immuno sorbent assay (AB ELISA) and finding out their comparative efficacy to serve as a suitable diagnostic tool in field condition.
Materials and Methods: The study was carried out using serum samples (n=180) collected randomly from cattle populations of nine districts of Odisha. Similarly vaginal swabs (n=26) from cattle having history of repeat breeding, abortion, vulvo-vaginitis and nasal swabs (n=8) from calves with respiratory symptoms and nasal discharge were collected aseptically, to ascertain the circulation of virus among the cattle population.
Results: Virus isolation by cell culture and subsequent confirmation by polymerase chain reaction confirmed four isolates. Screening of serum samples revealed 9.44% and 12.22% samples positive for IBR antibodies in micro SNT and AB ELISA respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of AB ELISA test was found to be 88.23% and 95.70% respectively taking micro SNT as gold standard and the kappa value between the two tests was 0.75.
Conclusion: Screening of serum samples revealed 9.44% and 12.22% samples positive for IBR antibodies in micro SNT and AB ELISA respectively, thus highlighting the circulation of virus among the livestock population of Odisha and that AB ELISA could be more efficiently applied for the sero-diagnosis of IBR virus infections at field conditions, with demand for more study on faster, efficient and large scale screening of the infected animals.
Respiratory and reproductive disorders in dairy animals due to various etiological agents have led to significant economic losses to dairy industry. These losses are due to abortions, metritis, retention of placenta, repeat breeding, death of animals, loss of production and trade restrictions etc. The objectives of this cross-sectional study were to detect the seroprevalence of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR, BHV-1) in dairy animals of western parts of Uttar Pradesh, India. Anti BHV-1 antibodies were measured using a commercial ELISA kit (SYANOVIR® IBR-Ab). Blood samples were collected from a total of 134 animals of different age, gender from 8 districts. Overall individual seroprevalence was 32.84%. The study revealed that BHV-1 is comparatively more widespread in cattle (46.51%) than buffalo (35.28%). Comparison of different sex groups of animals revealed that the higher numbers of infected animals were identified in male (48.00%) than female (29.35%). The seropositivity of IBR increased with age of animals. The highest prevalence of IBR (66.67%) was observed in animals aged more than 8 years. As vaccination against IBR is not practiced in the region and higher percent positivity (>20%) in all age group of animals indicated the natural circulation of BHV-1 virus in the population. Because of less awareness on the vaccination of animals against this virus, the disease may spread rapidly. The results of present study also indicate that strict monitoring and surveillance of IBR is need of today to protect the animals from infection and further spread.
Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) is known to cause several diseases worldwide. It is a double-stranded DNA virus consisting of 33 structural proteins out of which 13 are associated with the envelope. Based on genomic analysis and viral peptide patterns, BHV-1 virus can be divided into several subtypes like BHV-1.1, BHV-1.2, and BHV-1.3. However, all subtypes are antigenically similar. The symptoms of the related diseases are mainly non-life-threatening but have a rather wide host range that limits animal trade. The different modes of transmission as unique feature of this virus and the tendency to cause infection in the early age with latency development in trigeminal and sacral ganglion cause huge economic losses around the world. The virus also affects endangered bovine species like mithun (Bos frontalis) and yak (Poephagus grunniens). The disease can be diagnosed by using conventional procedures (like cell culture, immune-histopathology, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)) as well as highly sensitive modern techniques (like nested PCR and southern hybridization) with the virus neutralization test regarded as gold standard. With the currently available diagnostic tests it is not possible to identify animals which have a latent BHV-1 infection. Different types of modern and conventional vaccines are available for immunoprophylaxis. Inactivated vaccines are not as efficacious as modified live virus (MLV) vaccines. Marker vaccines allow the distinction between vaccinated and naturally infected animals. In this review the present status of BHV-1 around the world will be addressed besides the current knowledge with regard to its biology, epidemiology, diagnosis, and prophylaxis.
This study was carried out to investigate the prevalence of bovine brucellosis and infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR)
in organized dairy farms with history of abortion in India. ELISA and Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) were used to detect the
seropositive animals and the test results indicated that 22.18% and 13.78% animals were declared as sero-positive by ELISA
and RBPT, respectively. Milk Ring Test (MRT) was carried out only in one farm and 12.82% of the tested animals were turned
positive. Culture examination analysis of milk samples, two animals revealed the presence of organisms indistinguishable from
Brucella spp. The organism was confirmed as brucella by morphological characteristics and biochemical tests. An overall sero-prevalence
of antibodies against IBR was found to be 60.84%. None of the genital and nasal swab samples was found to be positive for
presence of bovine herpesvirus -1 (BHV-1) on repeated passage in Madin-Darby Bovine Kidney (MDBK) cell lines. Brucella and
IBR considered as the causal agent for abortions in these farms. The present study indicates the urgent need and the necessity
for control of these infectious diseases which cause heavy economic losses to the organized farms.
In this study, sera from 188 unvaccinated cattle from Middle Black Sea Region of Turkey were investigated. Serum samples were tested for antibodies against five viruses which cause respiratory diseases in cattle, including bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1), bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), parainfluenzavirus type 3 (PIV-3), bovine adenovirus type 1 (BAdV-1) and bovine adenovirus type 3 (BAdV-3) by using a conventional method, i.e. the serum neutralization (SN) test. The antibody seroprevalence found in cattle against 5 viruses (BHV-1, BVDV, PIV-3, BAdV-1 and BAdV-3) were found to be: 61.17%, 53.19%, 88.82%, 72.34% and 81.38%, respectively. .
Bovine herpes virus 1 (BHV-1) is primarily associated with clinical syndromes such as rhinotracheitis, pustular vulvovaginitis and balanoposthitis, abortion, infertility, conjunctivitis and encephalitis in bovine species. The main sources of infection are the nasal exudates and the respiratory droplets, genital secretions, semen, fetal fluids and tissues. The BHV-1 virus can become latent following a primary infection with a field isolate or vaccination with an attenuated strain. The viral genomic DNA has been demonstrated in the sensory ganglia of the trigeminal nerve in infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) and in sacral spinal ganglia in pustular vulvovaginitis and balanoposthitis cases. BHV-1 infections can be diagnosed by detection of virus or virus components and antibody by serological tests or by detection of genomic DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), nucleic acid hybridization and sequencing. Inactivated vaccines and modified live virus vaccines are used for prevention of BHV-1 infections in cattle; subunit vaccines and marker vaccines are under investigation.
The consequences of the vaccination of neonatal calves with the widely used live-attenuated temperature-sensitive (ts) bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1) were investigated. The ts strain established acute and latent infections in all vaccinated calves either with or without passive immunity. Four of seven calves vaccinated under passive immunity became clearly BHV-1 seronegative by different serological tests, as did uninfected control calves after the disappearance of maternal antibodies, and they remained so for long periods. A cell-mediated immune response was detected by a BHV-1 gamma interferon assay, but this test failed to detect the seronegative latent carriers (SNLCs). While they are not detected, SNLCs represent a threat for BHV-1-free herds or countries. This study demonstrates that SNLCs can be easily obtained by inoculation with a live-attenuated BHV-1 under passive immunity and that latent carrier animals without any antibody do exist. Consequently, this situation could represent a good model to experimentally produce SNLCs.
Bulk milk samples from 220 dairy herds were collected at 9 public milk collection centres in the northeastern and northern Thailand, and a subset of 11 herds was selected for individual testing. The samples were tested for presence of antibodies to BVDV and BHV-1 using an indirect ELISA. The results from the bulk milk testing demonstrated a moderate level of exposure to BVDV and BHV-1 (73% and 67%, respectively). However, the low proportion of herds with high BVDV antibody-levels (13%) and the low within-herd seroprevalence of BVDV and BHV-1 in the 11 herds (24% and 5%, respectively), particularly among the young stock (15% and 0%, respectively), demonstrated a low prevalence of active BVDV infection and a low rate of reactivation of latent BHV-1. The presence of a self-clearance process was also indicated by the results from the individual testing. Moreover, a surprisingly low prevalence of BVDV and BHV-1 antibody-positive herds at one of the milk centres was found. This centre was established 5–10 years before the others. Our impression is that this reflects the self-clearance process, where consecutive replacement of imported infected animals without further spread has resulted in a nearly total elimination of the infections.
Based on our experiences and on these results we are convinced that this process can continue if there is awareness of herd biosecurity. This is especially important in the context of a future intensification of the dairy production.
In order to estimate the mean of maternal antibody in calves against BHV-1 (Bovine Herpes virus type 1), this study was carried out in a population of calves from non-vaccinated dairy cattle at 2 livestock in Qazvin province. One hundred thirteen sera out of 512 were collected from 1-4 months unvaccinated calves. We used Blocking –Percentage of maternal antibodies against BHV-1, which obtained by Blocking ELISA assay in 1-4 months calves sera. The result of one way analysis of variance determined that there was a significant difference among blocking percentage of maternal antibodies against BHV-1 in 1-4 months (P<0.001). Comparing percentage of mean titer indicated a decreasing trend with respect to age i.e. from 84.4(a 95% CI: 78.1-90.6) in 1 month to 57.6(a 95% CI: 47.1-68.2) in 4 months, which was near to 55 as cut off point. Tukey's method showed a significant difference between the Blocking percent of mean titer between 1 and 4(P<0.001), 2 and 4 (P=0.034) months. Chi-square test for independency showed a significant association between age and seroactivity (P=0.005).
Bovine herpesvirus type-1 (BHV-1) is an important pathogen of cattle causing a variety of clinical signs, including the upper respiratory tract infection, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR). Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, a highly infectious disease of cattle and buffaloes, occurs throughout the world including India. The present study based on micro-serum neutralization test reports the sero-epidemiology of BHV-1 infection in cattle and buffaloes from different parts of India. Serum samples from cattle, bulls, buffalo bulls and yaks were screened for BHV-1 antibodies. A total of 1115 serum samples were screened, and a total of 437 (39.2%) serum samples were found positive and 678 (60.8%) serum samples were found negative. Overall 168 (38.0%) cattle, 17 (85.0%) buffalo, 212 (38.6%) bulls, 8 (13.5%) buffalo bulls and 32 (71.1%) yaks were found positive for BHV-1 antibodies. State wise, Assam had highest seropositivity of 71.1% for yaks, Madhya Pradesh had 68.9% for cattle and Meghalaya was negative for the presence of antibodies to BHV-1 in cattle.
The objectives of this cross-sectional study were to estimate the seroprevalence of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR, BHV-1) and bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in a population of non-vaccinated, double purpose, dairy and beef herds in the Pacific Region of Central Costa Rica. Blood samples were collected from a total of 496 animals from 35 herds. Sera were tested for antibodies against BHV-1(IBR) and BVDV types 1 and 2 using serum neutralization test. The average number of animals tested in each herd for each of the viruses was 14. Overall individual seroprevalence was 48%, 27%, and 19% for IBR, BVDV type 1, and BVDV type 2, respectively. Median within-herd seroprevalence for IBR, BVDV type 1 and type 2 were 43%, 27%, and 24%, respectively.
The authors describe a serological survey on the prevalence of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) among cattle and buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in three southern states of India. A local isolate of bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) from an outbreak of the respiratory form of IBR was used as a source of virus antigen in avidin-biotin enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The overall prevalence of antibodies to BHV-1 in cattle was 50.9%, and in buffalo was 52.5%. Among breeding bulls, 114/120 samples from Tamil Nadu (95%) and 41/99 samples from Karnataka (41.4%) were seropositive. The possible association of IBR with bovine abortions was recorded in 31/56 samples (55.4%) from aborted crossbred cows. However, virus isolation was not performed on these animals. The authors also highlight the economic importance of IBR to the rapidly developing livestock industry in India.
National institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics (NIVEDI)
Annual Report. (2013-2014). National institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics (NIVEDI), Hebbal,
Bengaluru.