Perspectives on the Fears of Death and Dying

Abstract

This brief ebook reviews some of the common fears human beings have regarding death and dying.

Full text

1
Perspectives on the Fears
of
Death & Dying
R. David San Filippo, Ph.D.

2
© R. David San Filippo, Ph.D.
Published by: Kimball Publishing – 2006
Orlando. Florida U.S.A.

3
Table of Contents
Introduction 4
The Nature of Fear 4
Dealing with Fear 6
Fears of Death & Dying 7
Conclusion 9
References 10

4
Introduction
This E-Book will examine some perspectives on fear, the fears of death, and constructs
used to overcome or deal with the fears of death. By examining the literature on fear in general,
a framework can be developed to understand how individuals become fearful. In the section,
“Fears of Death,” what people fear about death and why they fear it will be discussed.
The Nature of Fear
Schuster (1986) defines fear as "a way of alerting one that danger is present and that
something needs to be done to protect oneself" (p. 225). Fear is a human emotion that can affect
how individuals live their lives and face death. It is difficult to describe fear in precise, scientific
terms due to its subjective nature. Some theorists postulate that fear is a learned emotion; some,
that it is an interpretation of a physiological response. Others believe that fear is an innate
response for self-preservation. A person’s past encounters with threatening, fearful, or anxious
situations determine what she or he may perceive as a fearful or anxious event. Despite the
source of the emotion of fear, in order to reduce or be free of fear, individuals should learn how
to deal with their fears.
There are three main components to fear, which do not always correspond with each
other. These components of fear are described as "the subjective experience of apprehension,
associated psychophysiological changes, and attempts to avoid or escape from fearful situations"
(Rachman, 1990, p. 3). These three components of fear can affect how individuals perceive and
respond to fearful situations, how physical and psychological states change when one is

5
frightened, and how people may attempt to avoid or escape from a threatening situation. When
discussing fear, one should be aware of which components of fear are being described. This will
provide a clearer understanding of the individual's fear.
Psychological research by researchers such as Wolpe and Bandura has shown that fear
can be acquired through a conditioning process or by vicarious observations of fearful situations.
Conditioning theorists postulate that fear is a learned response. It occurs when there are "signals
(conditioned stimuli) that are premonitory of (i.e., have in the past been followed by) situations
of injury or pain (unconditional stimuli)" (Mowrer, 1939, p. 554). Fear can also be reduced by
using conditioning techniques. Positive conditioning, such as, systematic desensitization
techniques, can be used to reduce or extinguish some fears.
Vicariously acquired fears are believed to be developed by observing fear in others. For
example, if a child observes a significant adult being afraid of death, she or he may develop the
same fear. Bandura observed that not only could attitudes and behaviors be developed by
observing and copying other's responses, but that by copying other people's appropriate behavior,
fearful attitudes and behaviors could be changed. There are some theories that fear can be
learned through the absorption of threatening information. For example, the sharing of
information that could be interpreted as threatening can create a sense of fear in some
individuals, such as the rise in some peoples’ fears of flying following the terrorist attacks of
September 11, 2001. However, information that could be considered non-threatening to the
individuals can also be used to help them deal with fear. For example, information about the
pain of some terminal illnesses can lead to a fear of the process of dying. However, providing
information about the benefits of palliative medical care can help reduce this fear.
People respond differently to threatening situations. Individuals respond to a threat based

6
on how the threat is perceived and their learned response to the threat. According to Becker
(1973), "[One's] fears are fashioned out of the ways in which [one] . . . . perceives the world" (p.
18). What one person might consider threatening or fearful may not be considered the same by
another person. How one has learned to deal with fear will affect her or his response.
Dealing with Fear
People use various methods to reduce or extinguish their fears. Defense mechanisms
such as denial and illusion are cognitive defenses used by many to deal with unacceptable
psychological situations. According to Freudian theories, an illusion is the creation of an
acceptable concept that avoids the recognition of the unacceptable situation. The defenses of
illusion and denial are two common methods used by many people to deal with death.
The personal construct theory of George Kelly provides an analysis of how fears can
develop and be resolved. According to the personal construct theory, individuals develop certain
belief constructs to anticipate and deal with events that may occur in their lives. These
constructs help individuals interpret and respond to life's experiences. When an individual's
personal construct does not support the expected interpretation or response, the individual will
feel threatened and may become fearful. The resolution of this fear can be accomplished by
modifying existing personal constructs to encompass the newly acquired experiences, such as the
observation or knowledge of the value of palliative care, which may reduce a person’s fear of
death and dying.

7
Fears of Death & Dying
Many people fear death and/or dying. These fears can be summarized as fearing the pain
and loneliness of dying, the fear of non-existence, and the fear of the unknown after death. The
most common fear, in Western society, is that the process of dying will be painful, prolonged,
and will reduce the quality of life. Many also fear dying alone. Another fear is that of not
existing and no longer participating in life. Many people cannot conceive life without their
involvement. Humans also fear death because they view death as an annihilation of their person,
a radical personal transformation, a threat to the meaningfulness of life, and a threat to the
completion of life projects. Third, not knowing what happens after death has been linked both to
eternal questions of mortality and immortality and to the fear of the unknown by many human
beings.
Although advances in medical science and pharmacology have helped reduce the pain
associated with some illnesses and injuries, they also often compromise the individual’s ability to
communicate and be involved with others. The prolongation of life and the physical and
financial expenses associated with medical care can cause an individual to become dependent on
others for support, with an accompanying loss of self-esteem. Further, because of the use of
modern medical technology, many people are confined to hospital settings for their final days,
away from their known surroundings. This confinement often leads to social isolation that can
exacerbate someone’s fear of dying alone.
Most humans have difficulty conceptualizing their nonphysical existence. The prospect
of nonbeing can be fearful to many people. They cannot conceive of life without their
participation. Many humans also fear death due to its destruction of the living person’s

8
existence.
The finality of death may cause fear if an individual thinks that her or his life has not had
meaning, or that she or he has not completed a particular life task. When death is imminent, she
or he may feel that she or he has not accomplished enough to reflect a purpose and value for
having lived. Many people also view death as an obstacle to the completion of life projects, such
as parenting young children or completing a career goal. Not being able to complete a life goal
could be considered a sign of failure and add to their fear of death.
The transformation from life to death also can be frightening due to the unknown nature
of what happens after death. Shneidman (1973) writes,
To contemplate death-that meeting-point of life and nonlife. That absence of a
self, that absence of a future, that experience that is not experienceable-is it any
wonder that this epistemological never-never land makes death seem forbidding
and forbidden. (p. 62)
Religious beliefs and practices can be beneficial to help some individuals deal with their fears of
the unknown related to death. Religious beliefs and rituals can sometimes help reduce this fear
of the unknown. According to Duff (1995), “group celebrations of religious rituals lift people
and give them “a sense of continuity beyond the grave’” (p. D-7).
Fears of death can be affected by how someone perceives how others react to death.
Fears of death also can be affected by acquiring new knowledge, such as knowledge concerning
the advances in medical science that make dying less painful. For some people, the fear of death
causes anxiety and physical discomfort. Others accept the inevitability of death and are
comfortable with their mortality. Those who fear death often attempt to avoid, deny, or create
illusions to make the realities of death palatable.

9
Conclusion
Fear is a human emotion to a perceived threat to one’s sense of well-being. To approach
death unprepared can cause fear. To accept death one must be prepared. Philosophical,
religious, and psychological reasoning can prepare one for death. For one to become
comfortable with one’s own mortality and not fear their own death or the death of others, they
should engage in modifying her or his personal constructs regarding death and learn to accept
death as a normal part of our human existence.

10
REFERENCES
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York: Prentice Hall.
Becker, E. (1973). The denial of death. New York: Free Press.
Clark, D. M. (1986). A cognitive approach to panic. Behavior Research and Therapy, 24, 461-
470.
Duff, R. W. (1995, October 14). Religious ceremonies ease fear of death. The Orlando
Sentinel, p. D-7.
Foos-Graber, A. (1989). Deathing: An intelligent alternative for the final moments of life.
Bangor, ME: Nicolas-Hays
Frank, K. D. (1982). Dying children. In J. Haber, A. M. Leach, S. M. Schudy, & B. F.
Sideleau (Eds.), Comprehensive psychiatric nursing (pp. 1113-1133). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Frankl, V. E. (1968). Man's search for meaning. New York: Washington Square Press.
Freud, S. (1946). The ego and the mechanism of defense. New York: International University
Press.
Freud, S. (1957). A general selection from the works of Sigmund Freud. (J. Rickman, Ed.).
New York: Anchor Books.
Freud, S. (1959). Thoughts for the times on war and death. (J. Traviere,Trans.). In Collected
papers (Vol. 4). New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1915).
Freud, S. (1961). Thoughts for the times on war and death. In J. Strachey (Trans.), The
standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud – Vol. 14. London,
UK: Hogarth Press (Original work published 1915)
Galloway, P. (1991, May 8). Heavens, what's next? The Orlando Sentinel. pp. E-1,3.
Kalish, Richard A. (1981). Death, grief, and caring relationships. Berkeley, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Kastenbaum, R. (1986). Death, society, and human experience. Dublin, OH: Charles E.
Merrill.
Kastenbaum, R. (1992). The psychology of death-2nd edition. New York : Springer.
Kastenbaum, R. J., & Aisenberg, R. B. (1972). The psychology of death. New York: Springer.
Kelly, G. A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton.

11
Kimsey, L. R., Roberts, J. L., & Logan, D. L. (1972). Death, dying, and denial in the aged.
American Journal of Psychiatry, 129(2), 75-80.
Krieger, S. R., Epting, F. R., & Leitner, L. M. (1974). Personal constructs, threat and attitudes
toward death. Omega, 5 (4), 299-310.
Kübler-Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. New York: Collier Books.
Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: A introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Levine, S. (1982). Who dies? New York: Anchor Books.
Levine, S. (1984). Meetings at the edge. New York: Anchor Books.
Marshall, V. W. (1980). Last chapters-A sociology of aging and dying. San Francisco:
Brooks/Cole.
Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
(Original work published 1954).
Mauro, J. (1992, July/August). Bright lights, big mystery. Psychology Today, pp. 54-57, 80-
82.
May, R. (1983). The discovery of being-Writings in existential psychology. New York: W. W.
Norton.
Mowrer, O. H. (1939). Stimulus response theory of anxiety. Psychological Review, 46, 553-
565.
Neale, R. E. (1973). The art of dying. New York: Harper & Row.
Noyes, R., & Kletti, R. (1976a). Depersonalization in the face of life-threatening danger: An
interpretation. Omega, 8, (2), 103-114.
Noyes, R., & Kletti, R. (1976b). Depersonalization in the face of life-threatening danger: A
description. Psychiatry, 39, 119-27.
Nuland, S. B. (1993). How we die. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Nuland, S. B. (1997, June 30). From death to life. U. S. News & World Report, pp. 65-66.
Outerbridge, D. E., & Hersh, A. R. (1991). Easing the Passage. New York: HarperCollins.
Rachman, S. J. (1990). Fear and courage (2nd ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman.

12
Rogers, C. R. (1980). A way of being. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Shneidman, E. S. (1973). Deaths of man. New York: Quadrangle.
Taylor, S. E. (1983). Adjustment to threatening events-A theory of cognitive adaption.
American Psychologist, 38, 1161-1173.
Templer, D. I. (1976). Two factor theory of death anxiety: A note. Essence, 1, 91-93.
Thompson, S. C., & Janigian, A. S. (1988). Life schemes: A framework for understanding the
search for meaning. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7, 260-280.
Tomer, A. (1992). Death anxiety in adult life-Theoretical perspectives. Death Studies, 16, 475-
506.
Weisman, A. D. (1972). On dying and denying - A psychiatric study of terminality. New York:
Behavioral.
Wolpe, J. (1973). The practice of behavior therapy (2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon.
Wolpe, J., & Rowan, V. (1988). Panic disorder: A product of classical conditioning, Behavior
Research and Therapy, 26, 441-450.