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A nutrition and conditioning intervention for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: )bservations and suggestions
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
Abstract
Bodybuilding is full of myths and practices that are contrary to the scientific literature, which can lead to health problems. Adopting a scientifically designed approach is very important, as it may help bodybuilders to achieve better results while preserving their health. However, I have some criticism regarding some practices adopted in the referred article as ad libitum ingestion of sugar-free cordial and flavored tea and the performance of the exercise in fasted state, as it seems to bring no benefit and have some potential problems. Some suggestion are made in order to preserve FFM, like changing training split and exercise selection; increasing carbohydrate ingestion and decreasing protein intake; changing the resistance training stimuli and reducing the volume of aerobic exercises and increase its intensity.
... Bodybuilding is an extreme sport practice in which participants train to build substantial muscle volume while maintaining muscle definition (2,4), but it is also a life style for athletes who want develop a physique with ideal proportions (5). Although bodybuilding may be an alternative response to disordered body image in men (6, 7), certain fitness activities, including bodybuilding, have been deemed risk factors for the development of body dissatisfaction (8), obsessive mental disorders like muscle dysmorphia (11,12) and eating disorders (9,10). ...
... Drive for muscularity was the term coined by McCreary and Sasse (2000) (11) to describe an individual's motivation to become more muscular. Several studies (12) have shown that in the bodybuilding context, DM is associated with significant dietary restraint, with both sugar ingestion and caloric intake are greatly reduced and protein intake is greatly increased (2,13). This eating plan can sometimes lead to binge eating behaviors (14) and generally heighten the risk of developing an eating disorder (15,16). ...
... The trans-contextual model of autonomous motivation in education: Conceptual and empirical issues and meta-analysis. Review of educational research, 86(2),360-407. doi:10.3102/0034654315585005 ...
Bien que la recherche de prise de masse musculaire soit reliée à de nombreux comportements déviants tels que les troubles du comportement alimentaire (TCA), les types de motivation et les variables sociocognitives sous-jacentes restent à ce jour peu identifiés. Cette thèse a pour objectif principal d’appliquer le modèle trans-contextuel de la motivation (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2009), intègrant la théorie de l’auto-détermination (Deci & Ryan, 2000) et la théorie du comportement planifié (Ajzen & Madden, 1986), pour rendre compte de la séquence motivationnelle sous-tendant les comportements de prise de masse musculaire des bodybuilders masculins, et les comportements alimentaires des sportifs pratiquant des disciplines sportives à risque telles que le bodybuilding et la course à pied. Cinq études composent ce travail doctoral. L’étude 1 est une revue de la littérature anglophone relative à la recherche de prise de masse musculaire et à la dysmorphie musculaire chez les bodybuilders. L’étude 2 a pour objet de développer et valider un questionnaire mesurant la recherche de prise de masse musculaire chez les sportifs masculins francophones, intitulé le DMS-FR. Les études 3 et 4 appliquent le modèle trans-contextuel de la motivation au contexte des comportements de prise de masse musculaire chez les bodybuilders masculins, et au contexte des comportements alimentaires de sportifs masculins pratiquant le bodybuilding ou la course à pied. L’étude 5 explore de manière qualitative d’autres facteurs psychosociaux susceptibles d’expliquer la dynamique de développement des TCA en fonction du niveau d’engagement compétitif des bodybuilders. Les principaux résultats montrent que différents types de motivation pour le sport (autodéterminée et contrôlée) sont reliés positivement aux comportements de prise de masse musculaire chez les bodybuilders masculins, et aux comportements alimentaires des bodybuilders et des coureurs masculins, de manière directe, et par le biais des variables de la théorie du comportement planifié. Cette thèse supporte l’importance d’appréhender les mécanismes psychosociaux explicatifs des déviances alimentaires chez les bodybuilders masculins dans la perspective de pouvoir développer des outils de prévention.
... Athletes practicing bodybuilding display drive for muscularity behaviors (DM) and are at risk of developing deviant behaviors that can impair health [1], a notable example being the development of eating disorders [2]. Although several psychological factors have been shown to be related to DM, few studies have been based on recent socio-cognitive theories. ...
... Bodybuilding is an extreme sport practice in which participants train to build substantial muscle volume while maintaining muscle definition [2,4], but it is also a life style for athletes who want to develop a physique with ideal proportions [5]. Although, bodybuilding may be an alternative response to disordered body image in men [6,7], certain fitness activities, including bodybuilding, have been deemed risk factors for the development of body dissatisfaction [8], obsessive mental disorders like muscle dysmorphia [9,10] and eating disorders [11,12]. ...
... Drive for muscularity was the term coined by McCreary and Sasse (2000) [9] to describe an individual's motivation to become more muscular. Several studies [10] have shown that in the bodybuilding context, DM is associated with significant dietary restraint, with both sugar ingestion and caloric intake are greatly reduced and protein intake is greatly increased [2,13]. This eating plan can sometimes lead to binge eating behaviors [14] and generally heighten the risk of developing an eating disorder [15,16]. ...
Background:
The drive for muscularity behaviors are very common in male athletes, especially in male bodybuilders. Studies have related drive for muscularity behaviors to body dissatisfaction, eating disorders and muscle dysmorphia.
Methods:
This study applied the trans-contextual model of motivation to the drive for muscularity behaviors of male bodybuilders at risk of developing muscle dysmorphia. The relationships between self-determination theory constructs and drive for muscularity behaviors, via the theory of planned behavior variables (i.e., attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and intention) were examined. A total of 175 Swiss male bodybuilders (Mage = 27.34; SDage = 7.53) completed measures on motivation for sport, theory of planned behavior variables, and drive for muscularity behaviors. They practiced bodybuilding from three to 24 h per week (Mhours per week = 6.59; SDhours per week = 3.45) and had done so for 7.19 years on average (SDnumber of years = 6.91). Using bootstrapped maximum likelihood estimation with the AMOS 7.0 program, a series of confirmatory factor analyses was performed on each subscale and a series of path analyses was performed to determine the final model.
Results:
The fit indices of the final model were satisfactory: χ2 (11) = 13.81; p = .244; TLI = .98; CFI = .99; RMSEA = .04. The model explained 29% of the variance of drive for muscularity behaviors. The final path analysis supported the motivational sequence, with autonomous motivation for sport showing a positive, significant and indirect association with the drive for muscularity behaviors via perceived behavioral control and intention to gain muscle mass, and controlled motivation for sport showing a positive association with the drive for muscularity behaviors both directly and via attitude and intention to gain muscle mass.
Conclusions:
It was concluded that the trans-contextual model of motivation applies only partially to the drive for muscularity behaviors in male bodybuilders.
Perspective:
The motivational mechanisms explaining the development of drive for muscularity behaviors might be better understood through complementary analyses of motivational profiles. Such investigations would guide the design of programs to lower the risks associated with these behaviors.
... During this period, high doses of anabolic androgen steroids (AAS) are used in association with stimulant-based substances [2][3][4]. However, most recommendations in this regard are not based on scientific evidence, and could lead to adverse health effects [5]. ...
... This study aimed to describe the practices adopted by four amateur bodybuilders during contest preparation, and their biochemical profile and body composition. In line with the findings of previous studies [1][2][3][4][5], the pre-contest involved high doses of AAS, use of stimulants, severe caloric restriction, and high volume resistance training and aerobic exercise. However, as previously noted, most recommendations in this regard are not supported by scientific evidence, and may lead to certain metabolic alterations and increase the risk of adverse health effects [2,3,5]. ...
... In line with the findings of previous studies [1][2][3][4][5], the pre-contest involved high doses of AAS, use of stimulants, severe caloric restriction, and high volume resistance training and aerobic exercise. However, as previously noted, most recommendations in this regard are not supported by scientific evidence, and may lead to certain metabolic alterations and increase the risk of adverse health effects [2,3,5]. ...
The paper aims to analyze body composition and biochemical profile alterations in amateur
bodybuilders during the cutting phase of a contest preparation, and to discuss them in light of
scientific evidence. For the purpose of this study, bodybuilders and coaches provided details of
drug administration, supplement use and training schedule. The four participants were two men
competing in different Men’s Physique categories, one woman in the Wellness category, and one
woman competing in the Bikini category. Participants were evaluated for anthropometry and
body composition before and after the cutting phase. There was an evident decrease in body
fat for most of the participants during the cutting phase without evident loss of fat-free mass.
In general, participants performed high volume resistance training combined with aerobic training.
Regarding drug administration, participants used high doses of anabolic androgen steroids (AAS),
combined with clenbuterol, thyroid hormone, and ephedrine. Blood analysis revealed alterations
in lipid profiles, with increased total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and reduced
high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. There were marked alterations in markers of liver (aspartate
aminotransferase) and cardiac (MB isoenzyme creatine kinase) damage. Our analysis suggests
that the strategies adopted by bodybuilders during the pre-contest phase (high use of AAS and
stimulant-based substances) may result in an increased risk of heart disease and liver dysfunction.
... In bodybuilding, the intense strength training program is often related to a strict nutrition regime that generally involves reducing both sugar ingestion and calorie intake, which facilitates the loss of body fat and increased musculature saliency (Gentil 2015;Helms, Aragon, and Fitschen 2014). Bodybuilders eat large amounts of proteins (Helms, Aragon, and Fitschen 2014;Monteiro, Pimentel, and Sousa 2012) because studies have highlighted the benefits of high-protein diets for weight loss (e.g., Gentil 2015). ...
... In bodybuilding, the intense strength training program is often related to a strict nutrition regime that generally involves reducing both sugar ingestion and calorie intake, which facilitates the loss of body fat and increased musculature saliency (Gentil 2015;Helms, Aragon, and Fitschen 2014). Bodybuilders eat large amounts of proteins (Helms, Aragon, and Fitschen 2014;Monteiro, Pimentel, and Sousa 2012) because studies have highlighted the benefits of high-protein diets for weight loss (e.g., Gentil 2015). Bodybuilders use also supplementation, such as powder proteins, containing "important nutrients for building and maintaining all types of body parts including muscles, bones, hair, and nails" (Omar, Othman, and Ismail 2016). ...
... Powder proteins are very popular supplements among bodybuilders to aid in muscle development (Bianco et al. 2011;Omar, Othman, and Ismail 2016), and coaches are the main source of information on intake supplementation (Bianco et al. 2011). Alimentation and supplementation vary during the year among sport competitors (e.g., Gentil 2015). Moreover, strict dietary and supplementation practices appear even during the pre-contest season in various sports, notably in bodybuilding (Helms, Aragon, and Fitschen 2014). ...
This study investigated eating and deviant behaviors in bodybuilders according to their competitive engagement. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 16 bodybuilders of different skill levels. Results revealed that dietary strategies and deviations (e.g., disordered eating, doping use, addictive training) developed with competitive commitment. Bodybuilders who intend to engage in competition are in a critical period for the development of deviant behaviors, in relation with increasing drive for muscularity and performance, and coaching pressure. These findings extend the existing literature on deviant behaviors in bodybuilding by providing better insight in the dynamics of development of disordered eating and associated behaviors.
... Contrary to our conclusion, athletes are often instructed to reduce volume during phases of CR (Gentil 2015;Chaouachi et al. 2009;Meckel et al. 2008). This practice is typically justified by the claim of higher recovery demands under conditions of low-energy availability and often referenced with the study of Bickel and colleagues (2011), who demonstrated that young, intermediate-experienced athletes can preserve lean mass during eucaloric conditions when training with approximately one-third of their original volume. ...
Many sports employ caloric restriction (CR) to reduce athletes' body mass. During these phases, resistance training (RT) volume is often reduced to accommodate recovery demands. Since RT volume is a well-known anabolic stimulus, this review investigates whether a higher training volume helps to spare lean mass during CR. A total of 15 studies met inclusion criteria. The extracted data allowed calculation of total tonnage lifted (repetitions × sets × intensity load) or weekly sets per muscle group for only 4 of the 15 studies, with RT volume being highly dependent on the examined muscle group as well as weekly training frequency per muscle group. Studies involving high RT volume programs (≥ 10 weekly sets per muscle group) revealed low-to-no (mostly female) lean mass loss. Additionally, studies increasing RT volume during CR over time appeared to demonstrate no-to-low lean mass loss when compared to studies reducing RT volume. Since data regarding RT variables applied were incomplete in most of the included studies, evidence is insufficient to conclude that a higher RT volume is better suited to spare lean mass during CR, although data seem to favor higher volumes in female athletes during CR. Moreover, the data appear to suggest that increasing RT volume during CR over time might be more effective in ameliorating CR-induced atrophy in both male and female resistance-trained athletes when compared to studies reducing RT volume. The effects of CR on lean mass sparing seem to be mediated by training experience, pre-diet volume, and energy deficit, with, on average, women tending to spare more lean mass than men. Potential explanatory mechanisms for enhanced lean mass sparing include a preserved endocrine milieu as well as heightened anabolic signaling.
... Aside from losing body fat, a main aim of competition preparation is preventing the loss of LBM associated with energy deficits and low energy availability (EA) [14][15][16]. For example, one amateur (AMA) bodybuilder whose body mass losses during competition preparation consisted of over 40% LBM [17,18], whereas in non-drug tested bodybuilding, such losses may be mitigated by anabolic steroids [19][20][21][22]. Thus, strategies to preserve LBM are a priority in "natural", or drug free bodybuilding. ...
Background:
To prepare for competition, bodybuilders employ strategies based around: energy restriction, resistance training, cardiovascular exercise, isometric "posing", and supplementation. Cohorts of professional (PRO) natural bodybuilders offer insights into how these strategies are implemented by elite competitors, and are undocumented in the scientific literature.
Methods:
Forty-seven competitors (33 male (8 PRO, 25 amateur (AMA), 14 female (5 PRO, 9 AMA) participated in the study. All PROs were eligible to compete with the Drug Free Athletes Coalition (DFAC), and all AMAs were recruited from the British Natural Bodybuilding Federation (BNBF). Competitors in these organisations are subject to a polygraph and are drug tested in accordance with the World Anti-Doping Agency. We report the results of a cross-sectional study of drug free bodybuilders competing at BNBF qualifying events, and the DFAC and World Natural Bodybuilding Federation finals. Participants completed a 34-item questionnaire assessing dietary intake at three time points (start, middle and end) of competition preparation. Participants recorded their food intake over a 24-h period in grams and/or portions. Dietary intakes of PRO and AMA competitors were then compared. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to test if nutrient intake changed over time, and for associations with division.
Results:
Male PROs reported significantly (p < 0.05) more bodybuilding experience than AMAs (PRO: 12.3 +/- 9.2, AMA: 2.4 +/- 1.4 yrs). Male PROs lost less body mass per week (PRO: 0.5 +/- 0.1, AMA: 0.7 +/- 0.2%, p < 0.05), and reported more weeks dieting (PRO: 28.1 +/- 8.1, AMA: 21.0 +/- 9.4 wks, P = 0.06). Significant differences (p < 0.05) of carbohydrate and energy were also recorded, as well as a difference (p = 0.03) in the estimated energy deficit (EED), between male PRO (2.0 +/- 5.5 kcal) and AMA (- 3.4 +/- 5.5 kcal) competitors.
Conclusions:
Longer diets and slower weight loss utilized by PROs likely contributed towards a lower EED compared to the AMAs. Slower weight loss may constitute an effective strategy for maintaining energy availability and muscle mass during an energy deficit. These findings require corroboration, but will interest bodybuilders and coaches.
... However, the interaction between the addition of SJ exercise and the use of AAS has not been tested, which leaves the topic open for speculation. If the use of SJ exercises would not be necessary, even for AAS users, many people might benefit by reducing their training volumes, as previously suggested (de Souza et al., 2018;Gentil, 2015;Gentil, Lira, et al., 2017;Viana et al., 2017). However, if SJ exercises bring additional benefits, its use might be justified when the objective is to obtain maximal increases in muscle size . ...
We, the Editor‐in‐Chief and Publishers of the European Journal of Sport Science, retract the following article:
Matheus Barbalho, Victor Coswig, Rodolfo Raiol, James Fisher, James Steele, Antonino Bianco, Paulo Gentil, ‘Single joint exercises do not provide benefits in performance and anthropometric changes in recreational bodybuilders’, European Journal of Sport Science, 20:1, 72‐79, DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1611932
Two authors of the original article (James Fisher, and James Steele) raised questions regarding the data integrity and requested that it be retracted. Following data concerns raised in the published White Paper below, an external statistical review was undertaken.
Vigotsky, A. D., Nuckols, G. L., Fisher, J., Heathers, J., Krieger, J., Schoenfeld, B. J., Giessing, J., Steele, J. (2020, July 18). Improbable data patterns in the work of Barbalho et al. https://doi.org/10.31236/osf.io/sg3wm
The White Paper includes two authors who are also co‐authors of the above paper by Barbalho et al., published in the European Journal of Sport Science (James Fisher, and James Steele). We informed all of the authors, as well as the first author's institution, about these concerns, and invited them to respond. Having considered the evaluation report from the external review, as well as author and institutional responses, we find the data and findings in the article to be unreliable and invalid.
All authors have been informed of our decision to retract this article. The authors James Fisher, James Steele, and Antonino Bianco wish to record their agreement with the decision to retract to be noted within this retraction statement.
We have been informed in our decision‐making by our policy on publishing ethics and integrity and the guidance of COPE guidelines on retractions .
The retracted article will remain online to maintain the scholarly record, but it will be digitally watermarked on each page as ‘Retracted’.
... To obtain their performance objective, bodybuilders consume a hypercaloric diet during off-seasons to increase their muscle mass to the maximum possible and, in the competitive season, reduce their body fat the maximum amount possible to obtain the highest definition before competition [8]. To prepare for competition, bodybuilders perform aggressive dietary protocols [9] which may lead to a loss of bone mineral density, depression, a deficit of micronutrients, an obsession for food or even a decrease of the libido [10,11]. Furthermore, given that energy restriction prior to a competition has a negative effect on anabolic hormones, it can result in a reduction of the serum concentrations of hormones such as testosterone, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and insulin [12]. ...
The use of doping agents has these days become a public health problem, as it also affects young and non-competitive amateurs in different sports. To prepare for competition, bodybuilders perform aggressive dietary protocols, so, bodybuilders frequently consume nutritional supplements (NS) and banned substances in large dosages. Thus, the aim of this study is to analyze the prevalence of banned substances consumption and NS intake in competitive level bodybuilders. A total of 48 bodybuilders (44 males and 4 females) completed a validated online questionnaire on NS consumption. The quantitative data was presented as a mean (M) ± standard deviation (SD), as well as having minimum and maximum values. The categorical variables were expressed using frequencies and percentages. 83.3% of the participants declared that they had consumed or would consume banned substances, the most consumed being anabolic steroids (72.9%). One hundred percent of those sampled use NS. Whey protein (96%), branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) (94%), creatine (85%) and vitamin complexes (83%) were the most consumed, however, there is a low consumption of certain NS which could also increase athletic performance.
... While higher carbohydrate diets utilised by other bodybuilding case studies resulted in smaller LBM loss, 21% and 32% [3,4]. Multiple factors could have contribute to the LBM loss seen in Robinson et al. [5], however recent critiques have suggested more prudent dietary strategies should be employed for natural bodybuilding [7,39]. Interestingly, the two female athletes involved in the Petzzaro et al. [7] and Rohrig et al. [8] case reports increased LBM and reduced fat mass in despite following a similar dietary approach to Robinson et al. [5]. ...
Background
Competitive bodybuilders employ a combination of resistance training, cardiovascular exercise, calorie reduction, supplementation regimes and peaking strategies in order to lose fat mass and maintain fat free mass. Although recommendations exist for contest preparation, applied research is limited and data on the contest preparation regimes of bodybuilders are restricted to case studies or small cohorts. Moreover, the influence of different nutritional strategies on competitive outcome is unknown. Methods
Fifty-one competitors (35 male and 16 female) volunteered to take part in this project. The British Natural Bodybuilding Federation (BNBF) runs an annual national competition for high level bodybuilders; competitors must qualify by winning at a qualifying events or may be invited at the judge’s discretion. Competitors are subject to stringent drug testing and have to undergo a polygraph test. Study of this cohort provides an opportunity to examine the dietary practices of high level natural bodybuilders. We report the results of a cross-sectional study of bodybuilders competing at the BNBF finals. Volunteers completed a 34-item questionnaire assessing diet at three time points. At each time point participants recorded food intake over a 24-h period in grams and/or portions. Competitors were categorised according to contest placing. A “placed” competitor finished in the top 5, and a “Non-placed” (DNP) competitor finished outside the top 5. Nutrient analysis was performed using Nutritics software. Repeated measures ANOVA and effect sizes (Cohen’s d) were used to test if nutrient intake changed over time and if placing was associated with intake. ResultsMean preparation time for a competitor was 22 ± 9 weeks. Nutrient intake of bodybuilders reflected a high-protein, high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet. Total carbohydrate, protein and fat intakes decreased over time in both male and female cohorts (P < 0.05). Placed male competitors had a greater carbohydrate intake at the start of contest preparation (5.1 vs 3.7 g/kg BW) than DNP competitors (d = 1.02, 95% CI [0.22, 1.80]). Conclusions
Greater carbohydrate intake in the placed competitors could theoretically have contributed towards greater maintenance of muscle mass during competition preparation compared to DNP competitors. These findings require corroboration, but will likely be of interest to bodybuilders and coaches.
... Therefore, we would follow previous suggestions to losẽ 0.5 kg of body mass per week in order to promote body mass reduction without activating catabolic pathways [20,21], which seems to be attainable with a caloric restriction of 300-750 kcal per day [21]. This reduction in caloric intake should be accompanied by a protein intake of around 1.2 to 2.0 g/kg, as has been previously suggested for bodybuilders [6,22]. One alternative would be adjusting training volume to account for the reduction in nutrient and caloric intake. ...
Many bodybuilders use anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) to potentiate muscle mass gain as a result of specific resistance training and nutrition. The case we describe hereafter outlines alterations in body composition of an amateur bodybuilder during his pre-competitive period (11 weeks). The Participant was a 28-year old Caucasian male who was aiming to participate in his first bodybuilding competition under the "Men's Physique" category. The Participant self-administered AAS for the whole pre-competitive period, followed a 13 set-meal plan consisting of 10 daily meals interspersed by approximately 2 h, and performed six high-volume resistance-training sessions a week. Body mass and anthropometric variables were measured at the beginning, during and at the end of his pre-competitive period. Dietetic analysis revealed a reduction in protein intake at the 10th (% decrease: −51.3%) and 11th weeks (% decrease: −64.5%) and in calorie intake at the 10th (% decrease: −57.9%) and 11th weeks (% decrease: −59.5%) in comparison to the 1st week. As a result, the Participant reduced both total body mass and fat percentage. However, there was a reduction in absolute fat free mass, despite the use of AAS. Apparently, the combination of excessive volumes of training with inadequate protein consumption was responsible for this outcome.
... While higher carbohydrate diets utilised by other bodybuilding case studies resulted in smaller LBM loss, 21% and 32% [3,4]. Multiple factors could have contribute to the LBM loss seen in Robinson et al. [5], however recent cri- tiques have suggested more prudent dietary strategies should be employed for natural bodybuilding [7,39]. Interestingly, the two female athletes involved in the Petzzaro et al. [7] and Rohrig et al. [8] case reports in- creased LBM and reduced fat mass in despite following a similar dietary approach to Robinson et al. [5]. ...
Dietary Strategies of Elite Natural Bodybuilders - Volume 76 Issue OCE2 - A.J. Chappell, T. Simper
... In practical terms, one may question the rationale of using a large number of SJ exercises for the arms and/or the performance of a separate session for arm muscles, as commonly performed in bodybuilding, 21 because this can provide excessive stimuli to the arm muscles. In this regard, it has been previously reported that an imbalance between training and recovery results in negative consequences, such as muscle atrophy 6-8 and injury. ...
Introduction:
The present study evaluated and compared the recovery of pectoralis major (PM) and triceps brachii (TB) muscles of trained men after bench press exercise.
Methods:
Eighteen volunteers performed eight sets of bench press exercise to momentary muscle failure and were evaluated for TB and PM peak torque and total work on an isokinetic dynamometer.
Results:
PM peak torque and total work remained lower than baseline for 72 and 96 hours, respectively. TB peak torque was only different from baseline immediately post training, while total work was significantly lower than baseline immediately and 48 hours after training. Normalized peak torque values were only different between TB and PM at 48 hours post training.
Discussion:
Considering the small and nonsignificant difference between the recovery of TB and PM muscles, the results suggest that bench press exercise may promote a similar stress on these muscles. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Moreover, if the studies involved a large number of subjects, it might be possible that the small difference reported would reach statistical significance. However, the cost benefit of adding SJ exercises would remain questionable in practical terms, especially if we consider the increase in time commitment and risk of overuse injuries [29][30][31]. ...
... Anecdotally, the recommendation of using SJ exercises is derived from the notion that SJ exercises recruit a higher number of motor units than MJ exercises, as commonly suggested [34] and employed by bodybuilders [35,36]. While it seems logical that a higher degree of specific exertion and activation might occur when targeting a specific muscle through SJ exercises, it is important to consider the body of scientific literature (Table 1). ...
Resistance exercises can be considered to be multi-joint (MJ) or single-joint (SJ) in nature. Many strength coaches, trainers, and trainees believe that adding SJ exercises to a resistance training (RT) program may be required to optimize muscular size and strength. However, given that lack of time is a frequently cited barrier to exercise adoption, the time commitment resulting from these recommendations may not be convenient for many people. Therefore, it is important to find strategies that reduce the time commitment without negatively affecting results. The aim of this review was to analyze and discuss the present body of literature considering the acute responses to and long-term adaptations resulting from SJ and MJ exercise selection. Studies were deemed eligible for inclusion if they were experimental studies comparing the effects of MJ, SJ, or MJ ? SJ on dependent variables; studies were excluded if they were reviews or abstracts only, if they involved clinical populations or persons with articular or musculoskeletal problems, or if the RT intervention was confounded by other factors. Taking these factors into account, a total of 23 studies were included. For the upper and lower limbs, analysis of surface electromyographic (sEMG) activation suggests that there are no differences between SJ and MJ exercises when comparing the prime movers. However, evidence is contrasting when considering the trunk extensor musculature. Only one study directly compared the effects of MJ and SJ on muscle recovery and the results suggest that SJ exercises resulted in increased muscle fatigue and soreness. Long-term studies comparing increases in muscle size and strength in the upper limbs reported no difference between SJ and MJ exercises and no additional effects when SJ exercises were included in an MJ exercise program. For the lumbar extensors, the studies reviewed tend to support the view that this muscle group may benefit from SJ exercise. People performing RT may not need to include SJ exercises in their program to obtain equivalent results in terms of muscle activation and long-term adaptations such as hypertrophy and strength. SJ exercises may only be necessary to strengthen lumbar extensors and to correct muscular imbalances.
Nos últimos anos, as academias, os consultórios dos cirurgiões plásticos e os centros de tratamento estético fazem parte de um mercado que vem crescendo em larga escala, além de serem consideradas fábricas produtoras de um corpo ideal. Neste mesmo viés, o intuito deste trabalho é investigar na literatura o consumo alimentar dos praticantes de musculação. Foi realizada uma pesquisa bibliográfica utilizando as seguintes palavras chaves: Consumo alimentar de praticantes de musculação, musculação, macronutrientes, micronutrientes, nutrição. A busca abrangeu artigos científicos publicados entre 2018 e 2023, disponíveis nas bases de dados Scielo, Pubmed e Revista Brasileira de Nutrição Esportiva, nos idiomas inglês e português, a fim de possibilitar um maior alcance de trabalhos publicados nas bases de dados utilizadas. Após a pré-seleção dos artigos pela leitura dos títulos, seguiu-se com a leitura dos resumos a fim de se obter parâmetros mais aprofundados. Além disso, foi feita uma análise detalhada e crítica dos estudos selecionados após a leitura dos resumos, com o objetivo de identificar os pontos centrais de cada trabalho. E, posteriormente, agrupar os subtemas que sintetizam as produções. Após a avaliação dos trabalhos foi possível observar que há inadequações alimentares e uso de suplementos alimentares sem prescrição de um nutricionista ou médico. O que se torna necessário a conscientização sobre a importância e benefícios da alimentação neste esporte.
Bodybuilding involves an intricate combination of training and dieting focused around periodic mesocycles to tailor time towards preparation and competition. In contrast to other muscle sports (such as weightlifting and powerlifting), bodybuilding competitors are judged on appearance (muscle size, definition and posing) as opposed to physical performance. Professional competitors achieve this by altering training variables (such as intensity and volume) as well as dietary and supplementation strategies throughout the 'season'. These mesocycles follow protocols based on a scientific literature, with the intention to achieve better results and preserve the health of each competitor. In order to achieve the long term improvements to health and skill-related components of fitness, a programme and strategy must be implemented that incorporates components of both dietary restriction as well as systematic variations to training and exercise selection. Because of the nature of body aesthetics and muscularity in bodybuilding, off-season training follows hypertrophic goals to increase muscular size. Increased caloric intake as well as increased training volume and intensity are the most common adaptations to a hypertrophic mesocycle. A positive energetic caloric balance (~10-20%) and high protein consumption provide necessary nutrients for muscle protein synthesis and energy storage and usage. During any cycle, weight gain and loss should not surpass 5% bodyweight per week to reduce the health concerns associated with rapid weight fluctuations. Current literature suggests that macronutrient intakes of protein 1.6-2.2 g•kg-1 •d-1 (25-30% TDC), carbohydrates 5-6 g•kg-1 •d-1 (50-60% TDC) and fat 1-1.5 g•kg-1 •d-1 (20-25% TDC) are suggested as optimal for professional bodybuilders to meet the physiological needs of an off-season mesocycle focusing on lean muscle gain. Bodybuilding • Nutrition • Hypertrophy • Performance • Physique
La Dysmorphie Musculaire (DM) est une préoccupation excessive relative à la prise de masse musculaire et à l’adoption de comportements déviants associés qui touche particulièrement les bodybuilders. Bien que plusieurs méta-analyses aient été réalisées sur ce sujet, aucune d’entre elles n’a porté sur les facteurs sociodémographiques, socioculturels et psychologiques associés à la DM. L’objectif de ce travail était de recenser l’ensemble des articles scientifiques publiés dans des revues internationales en langue anglaise, entre 1995 et 2017, relatifs à la recherche de prise de masse musculaire et à la DM. A l’aide de trois bases de données électroniques (GoogleScholar, PubMed, et ScienceDirect) et selon trois critères d’inclusion, 86 articles ont été retenus. L’analyse du contenu de ces articles a permis d’identifier quatre catégories de travaux: (a) les comportements et les troubles associés à la recherche de masse musculaire et à la DM; (b) les facteurs sociodémographiques; (c) les facteurs socio-culturels; (d) et les facteurs psychologiques associés. Les apports de ces études sont discutés, et leurs limites identifiées afin d’envisager des perspectives de recherches et de prévention.
Il mondo delle diete per lo sportivo si rivela talvolta problematico in quanto diverse fonti (o alcune “mode”) promuovono introiti proteici troppo elevati, nonché l’utilizzo di prodotti sintetici a scopo integrativo, o piani alimentari del tutto sbilanciati. È ampiamente condiviso che la ripartizione del fabbisogno giornaliero di nutrienti debba essere: carboidrati 55-65%, grassi 20-25% e proteine 10-15%. La fonte di energia a più rapida utilizzazione per la sintesi di ATP è fornita dai carboidrati convertiti in glucosio. Una maggiore assunzione determina la loro
conversione in lipidi. Alcune evidenze indicano livelli raccomandati di proteine pari a 0,8 grammi al giorno per chilo di peso corporeo in persone sedentarie, a 1 grammo in caso di allenamento leggero, a 1,2-1,6 grammi in atleti di resistenza con programmi di allenamento pesante, a 1,2-1,7 grammi in atleti di forza con programmi di allenamento pesante, a 2 grammi nell’atleta adolescente e in caso di programmi intensivi o gare di resistenza. Gli alimenti di origine vegetale contengono “proteine incomplete”, ma una corretta combinazione delle diverse proteine vegetali (contenute in frutta, verdura, cereali integrali, legumi, frutta secca e semi) consente l’assunzione di tutti gli amminoacidi con il vantaggio di una minore introduzione di grassi saturi contenuti nei prodotti di origine animale.
The purpose of this study was to report and analyze the practices adopted by bodybuilders in light of scientific evidence and to propose evidence-based alternatives. Six (four male and two female) bodybuilders and their coaches were directly interviewed. According to the reports, the quantity of anabolic steroids used by the men was 500–750 mg/week during the bulking phase and 720–1160 mg during the cutting phase. The values for women were 400 and 740 mg, respectively. The participants also used ephedrine and hydrochlorothiazide during the cutting phase. Resistance training was designed to train each muscle once per week and all participants performed aerobic exercise in the fasted state in order to reduce body fat. During the bulking phase, bodybuilders ingested ~2.5 g of protein/kg of body weight. During the cutting phase, protein ingestion increased to ~3 g/kg and carbohydrate ingestion decreased by 10–20%. During all phases, fat ingestion corresponded to ~15% of the calories ingested. The supplements used were whey protein, chromium picolinate, omega 3 fatty acids, branched chain amino acids, poly-vitamins, glutamine and caffeine. The men also used creatine in the bulking phase. In general, the participants gained large amounts of fat-free mass during the bulking phase; however, much of that fat-free mass was lost during the cutting phase along with fat mass. Based on our analysis, we recommend an evidence-based approach by people involved in bodybuilding, with the adoption of a more balanced and less artificial diet. One important alert should be given for the combined use of anabolic steroids and stimulants, since both are independently associated with serious cardiovascular events. A special focus should be given to revisiting resistance training and avoiding fasted cardio in order to decrease the reliance on drugs and thus preserve bodybuilders' health and integrity.
Background:
The consumption of a high protein diet (>4 g/kg/d) in trained men and women who did not alter their exercise program has been previously shown to have no significant effect on body composition. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to determine if a high protein diet in conjunction with a periodized heavy resistance training program would affect indices of body composition, performance and health.
Methods:
Forty-eight healthy resistance-trained men and women completed this study (mean ± SD; Normal Protein group [NP n = 17, four female and 13 male]: 24.8 ± 6.9 yr; 174.0 ± 9.5 cm height; 74.7 ± 9.6 kg body weight; 2.4 ± 1.7 yr of training; High Protein group [HP n = 31, seven female and 24 male]: 22.9 ± 3.1 yr; 172.3 ± 7.7 cm; 74.3 ± 12.4 kg; 4.9 ± 4.1 yr of training). Moreover, all subjects participated in a split-routine, periodized heavy resistance-training program. Training and daily diet logs were kept by each subject. Subjects in the NP and HP groups were instructed to consume their baseline (~2 g/kg/d) and >3 g/kg/d of dietary protein, respectively.
Results:
Subjects in the NP and HP groups consumed 2.3 and 3.4 g/kg/day of dietary protein during the treatment period. The NP group consumed significantly (p < 0.05) more protein during the treatment period compared to their baseline intake. The HP group consumed more (p < 0.05) total energy and protein during the treatment period compared to their baseline intake. Furthermore, the HP group consumed significantly more (p < 0.05) total calories and protein compared to the NP group. There were significant time by group (p ≤ 0.05) changes in body weight (change: +1.3 ± 1.3 kg NP, -0.1 ± 2.5 HP), fat mass (change: -0.3 ± 2.2 kg NP, -1.7 ± 2.3 HP), and % body fat (change: -0.7 ± 2.8 NP, -2.4 ± 2.9 HP). The NP group gained significantly more body weight than the HP group; however, the HP group experienced a greater decrease in fat mass and % body fat. There was a significant time effect for FFM; however, there was a non-significant time by group effect for FFM (change: +1.5 ± 1.8 NP, +1.5 ± 2.2 HP). Furthermore, a significant time effect (p ≤ 0.05) was seen in both groups vis a vis improvements in maximal strength (i.e., 1-RM squat and bench) vertical jump and pull-ups; however, there were no significant time by group effects (p ≥ 0.05) for all exercise performance measures. Additionally, there were no changes in any of the blood parameters (i.e., basic metabolic panel).
Conclusion:
Consuming a high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) in conjunction with a heavy resistance-training program may confer benefits with regards to body composition. Furthermore, there is no evidence that consuming a high protein diet has any deleterious effects.
Until recently, the general belief was that non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) were healthy sugar substitutes because they provide sweet taste without calories or glycemic effects. However, data from several epidemiological studies have found that consumption of NNS, mainly in diet sodas, is associated with increased risk to develop obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes. The main purpose of this article is to review recent scientific evidence supporting potential mechanisms that explain how "metabolically inactive" NNS, which have few, if any, calories, might promote metabolic dysregulation. Three potential mechanisms, which are not mutually exclusive, are presented: 1) NNS interfere with learned responses that contribute to control glucose and energy homeostasis, 2) NNS interfere with gut microbiota and induce glucose intolerance, and 3) NNS interact with sweet-taste receptors expressed throughout the digestive system that play a role in glucose absorption and trigger insulin secretion. In addition, recent findings from our laboratory showing an association between individual taste sensitivity to detect sucralose and sucralose's acute effects on metabolic response to an oral glucose load are reported. Taken as a whole, data support the notion that NNS have metabolic effects. More research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms by which NNS may drive metabolic dysregulation and better understand potential effects of these commonly used food additives.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Inc.
Bodybuilding competitions are becoming increasingly popular. Competitors are judged on their aesthetic appearance and usually exhibit a high level of muscularity and symmetry and low levels of body fat. Commonly used techniques to improve physique during the preparation phase before competitions include dehydration, periods of prolonged fasting, severe caloric restriction, excessive cardiovascular exercise and inappropriate use of diuretics and anabolic steroids. In contrast, this case study documents a structured nutrition and conditioning intervention followed by a 21 year-old amateur bodybuilding competitor to improve body composition, resting and exercise fat oxidation, and muscular strength that does not involve use of any of the above mentioned methods. Over a 14-week period, the Athlete was provided with a scientifically designed nutrition and conditioning plan that encouraged him to (i) consume a variety of foods; (ii) not neglect any macronutrient groups; (iii) exercise regularly but not excessively and; (iv) incorporate rest days into his conditioning regime. This strategy resulted in a body mass loss of 11.7 kg's, corresponding to a 6.7 kg reduction in fat mass and a 5.0 kg reduction in fat-free mass. Resting metabolic rate decreased from 1993 kcal/d to 1814 kcal/d, whereas resting fat oxidation increased from 0.04 g/min to 0.06 g/min. His capacity to oxidize fat during exercise increased more than twofold from 0.24 g/min to 0.59 g/min, while there was a near 3-fold increase in the corresponding exercise intensity that elicited the maximal rate of fat oxidation; 21% V ̇ O 2max to 60% V ̇ O 2max. Hamstring concentric peak torque decreased (1.7 to 1.5 Nm/kg), whereas hamstring eccentric (2.0 Nm/kg to 2.9 Nm/kg), quadriceps concentric (3.4 Nm/kg to 3.7 Nm/kg) and quadriceps eccentric (4.9 Nm/kg to 5.7 Nm/kg) peak torque all increased. Psychological mood-state (BRUMS scale) was not negatively influenced by the intervention and all values relating to the Athlete's mood-state remained below average over the course of study. This intervention shows that a structured and scientifically supported nutrition strategy can be implemented to improve parameters relevant to bodybuilding competition and importantly the health of competitors, therefore questioning the conventional practices of bodybuilding preparation.
Over the past 20 y, higher-protein diets have been touted as a successful strategy to prevent or treat obesity through improvements in body weight management. These improvements are thought to be due, in part, to modulations in energy metabolism, appetite, and energy intake. Recent evidence also supports higher-protein diets for improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors. This article provides an overview of the literature that explores the mechanisms of action after acute protein consumption and the clinical health outcomes after consumption of long-term, higher-protein diets. Several meta-analyses of shorter-term, tightly controlled feeding studies showed greater weight loss, fat mass loss, and preservation of lean mass after higher-protein energy-restriction diets than after lower-protein energy-restriction diets. Reductions in triglycerides, blood pressure, and waist circumference were also reported. In addition, a review of the acute feeding trials confirms a modest satiety effect, including greater perceived fullness and elevated satiety hormones after higher-protein meals but does not support an effect on energy intake at the next eating occasion. Although shorter-term, tightly controlled feeding studies consistently identified benefits with increased protein consumption, longer-term studies produced limited and conflicting findings; nevertheless, a recent meta-analysis showed persistent benefits of a higher-protein weight-loss diet on body weight and fat mass. Dietary compliance appears to be the primary contributor to the discrepant findings because improvements in weight management were detected in those who adhered to the prescribed higher-protein regimen, whereas those who did not adhere to the diet had no marked improvements. Collectively, these data suggest that higher-protein diets that contain between 1.2 and 1.6 g protein · kg(-1) · d(-1) and potentially include meal-specific protein quantities of at least ∼25-30 g protein/meal provide improvements in appetite, body weight management, cardiometabolic risk factors, or all of these health outcomes; however, further strategies to increase dietary compliance with long-term dietary interventions are warranted.
© 2015 American Society for Nutrition.
Following DIY (do it yourself) diets as well as consuming supplements exceeding by far the recommended daily intake levels, is common among athletes; these dietary habits often lead to an overconsumption of some macro and/or micronutrients, exposing athletes to potential health risks. The aim of this study is to document the development of possible adverse effects in a 33 year-old amateur bodybuilder who consumed for 16 years a DIY high protein diet associated to nutrient supplementation. Body composition, biochemical measures and anamnestic findings were evaluated. We present this case to put on alert about the possible risks of such behavior repeated over time, focusing on the adverse gastrointestinal effects. We discuss the energy and nutrient composition of his DIY diet as well as the use of supplements.
This study provides preliminary data of the potential risks of a long-term DIY dietary supplementation and a high protein diet. In this case, permanent abdominal discomfort was evidenced in an amateur body builder with an intake exceeding tolerable upper limit for vitamin A, selenium and zinc, according to our national and updated recommendations. As many amateur athletes usually adopt self-made diets and supplementation, it would be advisable for them to be supervised in order to prevent health risks due to a long-term DIY diet and over-supplementation.
The aim of this study was compare changes in upper body muscle strength and size in trained men performing resistance training (RT) programs involving multi-joint plus single-joint (MJ+SJ) or only multi-joint (MJ) exercises. Twenty young men with at least 2 years of experience in RT were randomized in 2 groups: MJ+SJ (n = 10; age, 27.7 ± 6.6 years) and MJ (n = 10; age, 29.4 ± 4.6 years). Both groups trained for 8 weeks following a linear periodization model. Measures of elbow flexors and extensors 1-repetition maximum (1RM), flexed arm circumference (FAC), and arm muscle circumference (AMC) were taken pre- and post-training period. Both groups significantly increased 1RM for elbow flexion (4.99% and 6.42% for MJ and MJ+SJ, respectively), extension (10.60% vs 9.79%, for MJ and MJ+SJ, respectively), FAC (1.72% vs 1.45%, for MJ and MJ+SJ, respectively), and AMC (1.33% vs 3.17% for MJ and MJ+SJ, respectively). Comparison between groups revealed no significant difference in any variable. In conclusion, 8 weeks of RT involving MJ or MJ+SJ resulted in similar alterations in muscle strength and size in trained participants. Therefore, the addition of SJ exercises to a RT program involving MJ exercises does not seem to promote additional benefits to trained men, suggesting MJ-only RT to be a time-efficient approach.
Background: Some authors suggest that single joint (SJ) exercises promote greater muscle hypertrophy because they are easier to be learned and therefore have less reliance on neural factors. On the other hand, some authors recommend an emphasis on multi-joint (MJ) exercises for maximizing muscle strength, assuming that MJ exercises are more effective than SJ execises because they enable a greater magnitude of weight to be lifted. Objectives: The present study aimed to compare the effects of MJ vs. SJ exercises on muscle size and strength gains in untrained young men. Patients and Methods: Twenty-nine young men, without prior resistance training experience, were randomly divided into two groups. One group performed (n = 14) only MJ exercises involving the elbow flexors (lat. pull downs), while the other (n = 15) trained the elbow
flexors muscles using only SJ exercises (biceps curls). Both groups trained twice a week for a period of ten weeks. The volunteers were evaluated for peak torque of elbow flexors (PT) in an isokinetic dynamometer and for muscle thickness (MT) by ultrasonography. Results: There were significant increases in MT of 6.10% and 5.83% for MJ and SJ, respectively; and there were also significant increases in PT for MJ (10.40%) and SJ (11.87%). However, the results showed no difference between groups pre or post training for MT or PT. Conclusions: In conclusion, the results of the present study suggest that MJ and SJ exercises are equally effective for promoting increases in upper body muscle strength and size in untrained men. Therefore, the selection between SJ and MJ exercises should be based on individual and practical aspects, such as, equipment availability, movement specificity, individual preferences and time commitment.
It has been hypothesized that performing aerobic exercise after an overnight fast accelerates the loss of body fat. The purpose of this study was to investigate changes in fat mass and fat-free mass following four weeks of volume-equated fasted versus fed aerobic exercise in young women adhering to a hypocaloric diet. Twenty healthy young female volunteers were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 experimental groups: a fasted training (FASTED) group that performed exercise after an overnight fast (n = 10) or a post-prandial training (FED) group that consumed a meal prior to exercise (n = 10). Training consisted of 1 hour of steady-state aerobic exercise performed 3 days per week. Subjects were provided with customized dietary plans designed to induce a caloric deficit. Nutritional counseling was provided throughout the study period to help ensure dietary adherence and self-reported food intake was monitored on a regular basis. A meal replacement shake was provided either immediately prior to exercise for the FED group or immediately following exercise for the FASTED group, with this nutritional provision carried out under the supervision of a research assistant. Both groups showed a significant loss of weight (P = 0.0005) and fat mass (P = 0.02) from baseline, but no significant between-group differences were noted in any outcome measure. These findings indicate that body composition changes associated with aerobic exercise in conjunction with a hypocaloric diet are similar regardless whether or not an individual is fasted prior to training.
Non-caloric artificial sweeteners (NAS) are among the most widely used food additives worldwide, regularly consumed by lean and obese individuals alike. NAS consumption is considered safe and beneficial owing to their low caloric content, yet supporting scientific data remain sparse and controversial. Here we demonstrate that consumption of commonly used NAS formulations drives the development of glucose intolerance through induction of compositional and functional alterations to the intestinal microbiota. These NAS-mediated deleterious metabolic effects are abrogated by antibiotic treatment, and are fully transferrable to germ-free mice upon faecal transplantation of microbiota configurations from NAS-consuming mice, or of microbiota anaerobically incubated in the presence of NAS. We identify NAS-altered microbial metabolic pathways that are linked to host susceptibility to metabolic disease, and demonstrate similar NAS-induced dysbiosis and glucose intolerance in healthy human subjects. Collectively, our results link NAS consumption, dysbiosis and metabolic abnormalities, thereby calling for a reassessment of massive NAS usage.
The consumption of dietary protein is important for resistance-trained individuals. It has been posited that intakes of 1.4 to 2.0 g/kg/day are needed for physically active individuals. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of a very high protein diet (4.4 g/kg/d) on body composition in resistance-trained men and women.
Thirty healthy resistance-trained individuals participated in this study (mean ± SD; age: 24.1 ± 5.6 yr; height: 171.4 ± 8.8 cm; weight: 73.3 ± 11.5 kg). Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: Control (CON) or high protein (HP). The CON group was instructed to maintain the same training and dietary habits over the course of the 8 week study. The HP group was instructed to consume 4.4 grams of protein per kg body weight daily. They were also instructed to maintain the same training and dietary habits (e.g. maintain the same fat and carbohydrate intake). Body composition (Bod Pod®), training volume (i.e. volume load), and food intake were determined at baseline and over the 8 week treatment period.
The HP group consumed significantly more protein and calories pre vs post (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the HP group consumed significantly more protein and calories than the CON (p < 0.05). The HP group consumed on average 307 ± 69 grams of protein compared to 138 ± 42 in the CON. When expressed per unit body weight, the HP group consumed 4.4 ± 0.8 g/kg/d of protein versus 1.8 ± 0.4 g/kg/d in the CON. There were no changes in training volume for either group. Moreover, there were no significant changes over time or between groups for body weight, fat mass, fat free mass, or percent body fat.
Consuming 5.5 times the recommended daily allowance of protein has no effect on body composition in resistance-trained individuals who otherwise maintain the same training regimen. This is the first interventional study to demonstrate that consuming a hypercaloric high protein diet does not result in an increase in body fat.
Caloric restriction occurs when athletes attempt to reduce body fat or make weight. There is evidence that protein needs increase when athletes restrict calories or have low body fat.
The aims of this review were to evaluate the effects of dietary protein on body composition in energy-restricted resistance-trained athletes and to provide protein recommendations for these athletes.
Database searches were performed from earliest record to July 2013 using the terms protein, and intake, or diet, and weight, or train, or restrict, or energy, or strength, and athlete. Studies (N = 6) needed to use adult (≥ 18 yrs), energy-restricted, resistance-trained (> 6 months) humans of lower body fat (males ≤ 23% and females ≤ 35%) performing resistance training. Protein intake, fat free mass (FFM) and body fat had to be reported.
Body fat percentage decreased (0.5% to 6.6%) in all study groups (N = 13) and FFM decreased (0.3 to 2.7kg) in nine of 13. Four groups gained or did not lose FFM. They had the highest body fat, smallest magnitudes of energy restriction or underwent novel resistance training stimuli. Two groups lost non-significant amounts of FFM. The same conditions that existed in the groups that did not lose FFM existed in the first group. These conditions were not present in the second group, but this group consumed the highest protein intake in this review (2.5-2.6g/kg).
Protein needs for energy-restricted resistance-trained athletes are likely 2.3-3.1g/kg of FFM scaled upwards with severity of caloric restriction and leanness.
We aimed to examine the effect of maintaining or reducing resistance training volume during Ramadan-intermittent-fasting (RIF) on short-term maximal performances. 20 footballers (age: 18.4±0.8 years; body-mass: 72.4±4.1 kg; height: 183.4±4.6 cm) were matched and randomly assigned to a normal-training-group (G1) or a tapering-group (G2). They were tested for muscular strength (maximal-voluntary-contraction) and power (squat-jump and counter-movement-jump) 1 month before RIF (T0), 1 week before RIF (T1), after 2 weeks of fasting (T2) and at the end of RIF (T3). From T1 to T2, subjects performed a whole-body resistance training program (8-repetitions×4-sets with 4-min recovery in-between). During RIF, G1 maintained the same training program, while G2 performed a period of reduced training volume (3 sets/exercise; - 22%). Muscle strength and power increased significantly from T0 to T1, from T0 to T2 and from T0 to T3 in G1 and G2 and from T1 to T2 and from T1 to T3 only in G2 (p<0.05). Performance was higher in G2 than G1 during T2 (p<0.01). Moreover, the ∆-change of performance between T0 and T2 and T3 was significantly higher in G2 than G1 (p<0.05). For young soccer players, a tapering period characterized by a reduced training volume during RIF may lead to significant improvement in muscle strength and power.
The aim of this study was to determine the physiological effects of an high-intensity circuit training (HICT) on several cardiovascular disease risk factors in healthy, overweight middle-aged subjects, and to compare the effects of HICT to traditional endurance training (ET) and low-intensity circuit training (LICT).
Fifty-eight participants (ages 61+/-3.3 yrs, BMI 29.8+/-0.9 ) were randomly assigned to one of the three exercise treatment groups: HICT, LICT and ET. The three groups exercised three times per week, 50 min per session for 12 weeks. Baseline and after intervention anthropometric characteristics: body weight (BW), fat mass (FM); blood pressure: diastolic (DBP) and systolic (SBP), blood parameters; CHOL-t (total cholesterol), LDL-C (low density lipoprotein-cholesterol), HDL-C (high density lipoprotein-cholesterol), TG (triglycerides), ApoB and ratio ApoB/ApoA1 were measured.
Compared to other groups, HICT showed significantly higher reductions in FM, DBP, CHOLt, LDL-C, TG, ApoB and significantly greater increases in high density HDL-C. LICT resulted in the greatest reduction in SBP. All groups showed a significant improvement of BW without any significant differences between groups.
Our findings indicate that high-intensity circuit training is more effective in improving blood pressure, lipoproteins and triglycerides than endurance training alone or lower intensity circuit training.
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of adding single-joint (SJ) exercises to a multi-joint (MJ) exercise resistance-training program on upper body muscle size and strength. Twenty-nine untrained young men participated in a 10-week training session. They were randomly divided in 2 groups: the MJ group performed only MJ exercises (lat pulldown and bench press); the MJ+SJ group performed the same MJ exercises plus SJ exercises (lat pulldown, bench press, elbow flexion, and elbow extension). Before and after the training period, the muscle thickness (MT) of the elbow flexors was measured with ultrasound, and peak torque (PT) was measured with an isokinetic dynamometer. There was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in MT (6.5% for MJ and 7.04% for MJ+SJ) and PT (10.40% for MJ and 12.85% for MJ+SJ) in both groups, but there were no between-group differences. Therefore, this study showed that the inclusion of SJ exercises in a MJ exercise training program resulted in no additional benefits in terms of muscle size or strength gains in untrained young men.
Energy-restricted high-protein diets (HPDs) have shown favorable results for body weight (BW) management, yet studies differ in their outcomes depending on the dietary protein content. Our objective was to determine the effects of dietary protein content on BW loss-related variables during a 6-mo energy restriction with the use of diets containing protein at the level of requirement [normal-protein diet (NPD), 0.8 g ⋅ kg BW-1 . d-1] and above (HPD, 1.2 g ⋅ kg BW-1 . d-1). In overweight and obese participants (24 men and 48 women), BW, body composition, and metabolic responses were assessed before and after subsequent energy intakes of 100, 33, and 67% of the original individual daily energy requirements. Protein intake was consistent in the NPD (0.8 ± 0.3 g ⋅ kg BW-1 . d-1) and HPD (1.2 ± 0.3 g ⋅ kg BW-1 . d-1) groups throughout the study (P < 0.001). BMI and body fat mass similarly decreased in the NPD and HPD groups (P < 0.01). Fat free mass (FFM), resting energy expenditure (REE) compared with predicted REE, and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) changed favorably with the HPD compared with the NPD group after BW loss (P < 0.05). A NPD of 0.8 g ⋅ kg BW-1 . d-1 is sufficient for BW management, whereas a HPD of 1.2 g ⋅ kg BW-1 . d-1 is necessary for preservation of REE and a stronger initial sparing effect of FFM and lowering of DBP.
Background
The benefits of exercise are well established but one major barrier for many is time. It has been proposed that short period resistance training (RT) could play a role in weight control by increasing resting energy expenditure (REE) but the effects of different kinds of RT has not been widely reported.
Methods
We tested the acute effects of high-intensity interval resistance training (HIRT) vs. traditional resistance training (TT) on REE and respiratory ratio (RR) at 22 hours post-exercise. In two separate sessions, seventeen trained males carried out HIRT and TT protocols. The HIRT technique consists of: 6 repetitions, 20 seconds rest, 2/3 repetitions, 20 secs rest, 2/3 repetitions with 2′30″ rest between sets, three exercises for a total of 7 sets. TT consisted of eight exercises of 4 sets of 8–12 repetitions with one/two minutes rest with a total amount of 32 sets. We measured basal REE and RR (TT0 and HIRT0) and 22 hours after the training session (TT22 and HIRT22).
Results
HIRT showed a greater significant increase (p < 0.001) in REE at 22 hours compared to TT (HIRT22 2362 ± 118 Kcal/d vs TT22 1999 ± 88 Kcal/d). RR at HIRT22 was significantly lower (0.798 ± 0.010) compared to both HIRT0 (0.827 ± 0.006) and TT22 (0.822 ± 0.008).
Conclusions
Our data suggest that shorter HIRT sessions may increase REE after exercise to a greater extent than TT and may reduce RR hence improving fat oxidation. The shorter exercise time commitment may help to reduce one major barrier to exercise.
Exercise and nutrition are often used in combination to lose body fat and reduce weight. In this respect, exercise programs are as important as correct nutrition. Several issues are still controversial in this field, and among them there are contrasting reports on whether training in a fasting condition can enhance weight loss by stimulating lipolytic activity. The authors' purpose was to verify differences in fat metabolism during training in fasting or feeding conditions. They compared the effect on oxygen consumption (VO2) and substrate utilization, estimated by the respiratory-exchange ratio (RER), in 8 healthy young men who performed the same moderate-intensity training session (36 min of cardiovascular training on treadmill at 65% maximum heart rate) in the morning in 2 tests in random sequence: FST test (fasting condition) without any food intake or FED test (feeding condition) after breakfast. In both cases, the same total amount and quality of food was assumed in the 24 hr after the training session. The breakfast, per se, increased both VO2 and RER significantly (4.21 vs. 3.74 and 0.96 vs. 0.84, respectively). Twelve hours after the training session, VO2 was still higher in the FED test, whereas RER was significantly lower in the FED test, indicating greater lipid utilization. The difference was still significant 24 hr after exercise. The authors conclude that when moderate endurance exercise is done to lose body fat, fasting before exercise does not enhance lipid utilization; rather, physical activity after a light meal is advisable.
The effect of regular aerobic exercise on body fat is negligible; however, other forms of exercise may have a greater impact on body composition. For example, emerging research examining high-intensity intermittent exercise (HIIE) indicates that it may be more effective at reducing subcutaneous and abdominal body fat than other types of exercise. The mechanisms underlying the fat reduction induced by HIIE, however, are undetermined. Regular HIIE has been shown to significantly increase both aerobic and anaerobic fitness. HIIE also significantly lowers insulin resistance and results in a number of skeletal muscle adaptations that result in enhanced skeletal muscle fat oxidation and improved glucose tolerance. This review summarizes the results of HIIE studies on fat loss, fitness, insulin resistance, and skeletal muscle. Possible mechanisms underlying HIIE-induced fat loss and implications for the use of HIIE in the treatment and prevention of obesity are also discussed.
America's obesity epidemic has gathered much media attention recently. A rise in the percent of the population who are obese coincides with an increase in the widespread use of non-caloric artificial sweeteners, such as aspartame (e.g., Diet Coke) and sucralose (e.g., Pepsi One), in food products (Figure 1). Both forward and reverse causalities have been proposed. While people often choose "diet" or "light" products to lose weight, research studies suggest that artificial sweeteners may contribute to weight gain. In this mini-review, inspired by a discussion with Dr. Dana Small at Yale's Neuroscience 2010 conference in April, I first examine the development of artificial sweeteners in a historic context. I then summarize the epidemiological and experimental evidence concerning their effects on weight. Finally, I attempt to explain those effects in light of the neurobiology of food reward.
Circuit training is a very popular methodology in fitness program because it allows to join together cardiovascular and strength training. The purpose of this study was to determine the physiological effects of circuit training performed at different intensities on body composition, strength and blood lactate in middle-aged subjects who had recently undergone only minimum physical training.
Forty participants (aged 50-65) were assigned to a control group (CG) or to one of the three exercise treatment groups: Endurance Group (EG), Circuit-Low Intensity Group (CLG), Circuit-High Intensity Group (CHG). The three groups exercised three times per week, 50 min per session for 12 wk using EG (N.=10), CLG (N.=10) or CHG (N.=10). Pre- and post-training, participants
Among the three groups, CHG showed the greatest reductions in body weight (BW), percentage of fat mass (FM), waistline, blood lactate (produced at 100 Watt during submaximal test) and greater improvement in 6RM in horizontal leg press and underhand cable pulldowns.
The results obtained favored the conclusion that high-intensity exercise combined with endurance training in the circuit training technique is more effective than endurance training alone or low intensity circuit training in improving body composition, blood lactate, moreover CHG results in significantly greater strength increase compared to traditional circuit training.
To examine the influence of dietary protein on lean body mass loss and performance during short-term hypoenergetic weight loss in athletes.
In a parallel design, 20 young healthy resistance-trained athletes were examined for energy expenditure for 1 wk and fed a mixed diet (15% protein, 100% energy) in the second week followed by a hypoenergetic diet (60% of the habitual energy intake), containing either 15% (approximately 1.0 g x kg(-1)) protein (control group, n = 10; CP) or 35% (approximately 2.3 g x kg(-1)) protein (high-protein group, n = 10; HP) for 2 wk. Subjects continued their habitual training throughout the study. Total, lean body, and fat mass, performance (squat jump, maximal isometric leg extension, one-repetition maximum (1RM) bench press, muscle endurance bench press, and 30-s Wingate test) and fasting blood samples (glucose, nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), glycerol, urea, cortisol, free testosterone, free Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and growth hormone), and psychologic measures were examined at the end of each of the 4 wk.
Total (-3.0 +/- 0.4 and -1.5 +/- 0.3 kg for the CP and HP, respectively, P = 0.036) and lean body mass loss (-1.6 +/- 0.3 and -0.3 +/- 0.3 kg, P = 0.006) were significantly larger in the CP compared with those in the HP. Fat loss, performance, and most blood parameters were not influenced by the diet. Urea was higher in HP, and NEFA and urea showed a group x time interaction. Fatigue ratings and "worse than normal" scores on the Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes were higher in HP.
These results indicate that approximately 2.3 g x kg(-1) or approximately 35% protein was significantly superior to approximately 1.0 g x kg(-1) or approximately 15% energy protein for maintenance of lean body mass in young healthy athletes during short-term hypoenergetic weight loss.
This randomized double-blind cross-over study assessed protein (PRO) requirements during the early stages of intensive bodybuilding training and determined whether supplemental PRO intake (PROIN) enhanced muscle mass/strength gains. Twelve men [22.4 +/- 2.4 (SD) yr] received an isoenergetic PRO (total PROIN 2.62 g.kg-1.day-1) or carbohydrate (CHO; total PROIN 1.35 g.kg-1.day-1) supplement for 1 mo each during intensive (1.5 h/day, 6 days/wk) weight training. On the basis of 3-day nitrogen balance (NBAL) measurements after 3.5 wk on each treatment (8.9 +/- 4.2 and -3.4 +/- 1.9 g N/day, respectively), the PROIN necessary for zero NBAL (requirement) was 1.4-1.5 g.kg-1.day-1. The recommended intake (requirement + 2 SD) was 1.6-1.7 g.kg-1.day-1. However, strength (voluntary and electrically evoked) and muscle mass [density, creatinine excretion, muscle area (computer axial tomography scan), and biceps N content] gains were not different between diet treatments. These data indicate that, during the early stages of intensive bodybuilding training, PRO needs are approximately 100% greater than current recommendations but that PROIN increases from 1.35 to 2.62 g.kg-1.day-1 do not enhance muscle mass/strength gains, at least during the 1st mo of training. Whether differential gains would occur with longer training remains to be determined.
The debate regarding optimal protein/amino acid needs of strength athletes is an old one. Recent evidence indicates that actual requirements are higher than those of more sedentary individuals, although this is not widely recognized. Some data even suggest that high protein/amino acid diets can enhance the development of muscle mass and strength when combined with heavy resistance exercise training. Novices may have higher needs than experienced strength athletes, and substantial interindividual variability exists. Perhaps the most important single factor determining absolute protein/amino acid need is the adequacy of energy intake. Present data indicate that strength athletes should consume approximately 12-15% of their daily total energy intake as protein, or about 1.5-2.0 g protein/kg.d-1 (approximately 188-250% of the U.S. recommended dietary allowance). Although routinely consumed by many strength athletes, higher protein intakes have not been shown to be consistently effective and may even be associated with some health risks.
To examine endogenous anabolic hormone and growth factor responses to various heavy resistance exercise protocols (HREPs), nine male subjects performed each of six randomly assigned HREPs, which consisted of identically ordered exercises carefully designed to control for load [5 vs. 10 repetitions maximum (RM)], rest period length (1 vs. 3 min), and total work effects. Serum human growth hormone (hGH), testosterone (T), somatomedin-C (SM-C), glucose, and whole blood lactate (HLa) concentrations were determined preexercise, midexercise (i.e., after 4 of 8 exercises), and at 0, 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min postexercise. All HREPs produced significant (P less than 0.05) temporal increases in serum T concentrations, although the magnitude and time point of occurrence above resting values varied across HREPs. No differences were observed for T when integrated areas under the curve (AUCs) were compared. Although not all HREPs produced increases in serum hGH, the highest responses were observed consequent to the H10/1 exercise protocol (high total work, 1 min rest, 10-RM load) for both temporal and time integrated (AUC) responses. The pattern of SM-C increases varied among HREPs and did not consistently follow hGH changes. Whereas temporal changes were observed, no integrated time (AUC) differences between exercise protocols occurred. These data indicate that the release patterns (temporal or time integrated) observed are complex functions of the type of HREPs utilized and the physiological mechanisms involved with determining peripheral circulatory concentrations (e.g., clearance rates, transport, receptor binding). All HREPs may not affect muscle and connective tissue growth in the same manner because of possible differences in hormonal and growth factor release.
This study examined the interaction of 2 diets (high protein, reduced carbohydrates vs. low protein, high carbohydrates) with exercise on body composition and blood lipids in women (n = 48, approximately 46 y old, BMI = 33 kg/m(2)) during weight loss. The study was a 4-mo weight loss trial using a 2 x 2 block design (Diet x Exercise). Diets were equal in total energy (7.1 MJ/d) and lipids ( approximately 30% energy intake) but differed in protein content and the ratio of carbohydrate:protein at 1.6 g/(kg . d) and <1.5 (PRO group) vs. 0.8 g/(kg . d) and >3.5 (CHO group), respectively. Exercise comparisons were lifestyle activity (control) vs. a supervised exercise program (EX: 5 d/wk walking and 2 d/wk resistance training). Subjects in the PRO and PRO + EX groups lost more total weight and fat mass and tended to lose less lean mass (P = 0.10) than the CHO and CHO + EX groups. Exercise increased loss of body fat and preserved lean mass. The combined effects of diet and exercise were additive for improving body composition. Serum lipid profiles improved in all groups, but changes varied among diet treatments. Subjects in the CHO groups had larger reductions in total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, whereas subjects in the PRO groups had greater reductions in triacylglycerol and maintained higher concentrations of HDL cholesterol. This study demonstrated that a diet with higher protein and reduced carbohydrates combined with exercise additively improved body composition during weight loss, whereas the effects on blood lipids differed between diet treatments.
Position Statement
The following seven points related to the intake of protein for healthy, exercising individuals constitute the position stand of the Society. They have been approved by the Research Committee of the Society. 1) Vast research supports the contention that individuals engaged in regular exercise training require more dietary protein than sedentary individuals. 2) Protein intakes of 1.4 – 2.0 g/kg/day for physically active individuals is not only safe, but may improve the training adaptations to exercise training. 3) When part of a balanced, nutrient-dense diet, protein intakes at this level are not detrimental to kidney function or bone metabolism in healthy, active persons. 4) While it is possible for physically active individuals to obtain their daily protein requirements through a varied, regular diet, supplemental protein in various forms are a practical way of ensuring adequate and quality protein intake for athletes. 5) Different types and quality of protein can affect amino acid bioavailability following protein supplementation. The superiority of one protein type over another in terms of optimizing recovery and/or training adaptations remains to be convincingly demonstrated. 6) Appropriately timed protein intake is an important component of an overall exercise training program, essential for proper recovery, immune function, and the growth and maintenance of lean body mass. 7) Under certain circumstances, specific amino acid supplements, such as branched-chain amino acids (BCAA's), may improve exercise performance and recovery from exercise.
Background: Replacement of caloric sweeteners with lower- or no-calorie alternatives may facilitate weight loss or weight maintenance by helping to reduce energy intake; however, past research examining low-calorie sweeteners (LCSs) and body weight has produced mixed results.
Objective: The objective was to systematically review and quantitatively evaluate randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and prospective cohort studies, separately, that examined the relation between LCSs and body weight and composition.
Design: A systematic literature search identified 15 RCTs and 9 prospective cohort studies that examined LCSs from foods or beverages or LCSs consumed as tabletop sweeteners. Meta-analyses generated weighted mean differences in body weight and composition values between the LCS and control groups among RCTs and weighted mean correlations for LCS intake and these parameters among prospective cohort studies.
Results: In RCTs, LCSs modestly but significantly reduced all outcomes examined, including body weight (−0.80 kg; 95% CI: −1.17, −0.43), body mass index [BMI (in kg/m2): −0.24; 95% CI: −0.41, −0.07], fat mass (−1.10 kg; 95% CI: −1.77, −0.44), and waist circumference (−0.83 cm; 95% CI: −1.29, −0.37). Among prospective cohort studies, LCS intake was not associated with body weight or fat mass, but was significantly associated with slightly higher BMI (0.03; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.06).
Conclusions: The current meta-analysis provides a rigorous evaluation of the scientific evidence on LCSs and body weight and composition. Findings from observational studies showed no association between LCS intake and body weight or fat mass and a small positive association with BMI; however, data from RCTs, which provide the highest quality of evidence for examining the potentially causal effects of LCS intake, indicate that substituting LCS options for their regular-calorie versions results in a modest weight loss and may be a useful dietary tool to improve compliance with weight loss or weight maintenance plans.
Opinion on the role of protein in promoting athletic performance is divided along the lines of how much aerobic-based versus resistance-based activity the athlete undertakes. Athletes seeking to gain muscle mass and strength are likely to consume higher amounts of dietary protein than their endurance-trained counterparts. The main belief behind the large quantities of dietary protein consumption in resistance-trained athletes is that it is needed to generate more muscle protein. Athletes may require protein for more than just alleviation of the risk for deficiency, inherent in the dietary guidelines, but also to aid in an elevated level of functioning and possibly adaptation to the exercise stimulus. It does appear, however, that there is a good rationale for recommending to athletes protein intakes that are higher than the RDA. Our consensus opinion is that leucine, and possibly the other branched-chain amino acids, occupy a position of prominence in stimulating muscle protein synthesis; that protein intakes in the range of 1.3-1.8 g · kg(-1) · day(-1) consumed as 3-4 isonitrogenous meals will maximize muscle protein synthesis. These recommendations may also be dependent on training status: experienced athletes would require less, while more protein should be consumed during periods of high frequency/intensity training. Elevated protein consumption, as high as 1.8-2.0 g · kg(-1) · day(-1) depending on the caloric deficit, may be advantageous in preventing lean mass losses during periods of energy restriction to promote fat loss.
Muscle fibers are generally fractionated into type I, IIA, and IIX fibers. Type I fibers specialize in long duration contractile activities and are found in abundance in elite endurance athletes. Conversely type IIA and IIX fibers facilitate short-duration anaerobic activities and are proportionally higher in elite strength and power athletes. A central area of interest concerns the capacity of training to increase or decrease fiber types to enhance high-performance activities. Although interconversions between type IIA and IIX are well recognized in the literature, there are conflicting studies regarding the capacity of type I and II fibers to interconvert. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to analyze the effects of various forms of exercise on type I and type II interconversions. Possible variables that may increase type II fibers and decrease type I fibers are discussed, and these include high velocity isokinetic contractions; ballistic movements such as bench press throws and sprints. Conversely, a shift from type II to type I fibers may occur under longer duration, higher volume endurance type events. Special care is taken to provide practical applications for both the scientist and the athlete.
The purpose of the study was to investigate simultaneous effects of energy balance, caloric intake, and the hormonal anabolic-catabolic balance in bodybuilders prior to competition. Fourteen male bodybuilders took part in an 11-week energy-restricted period to reduce body fat. The subjects were divided into the energy-restricted group (ERG) (n = 7), who were preparing for the competition, or the control group (CG) (n = 7) who continued to train regularly and did not change their dietary or training pattern. Participants were tested at 11 weeks (T1), 5 weeks (T2), and 3 days (T3) before competition for diet, body composition, and fasting hormonal assessment. Body mass and body fat percentage of ERG were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased during the study period. In ERG, insulinlike growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and insulin decreased significantly during the 11-week weight-reduction period (p < 0.05). Testosterone was decreased only from week 11 to week 5 (from 20.3 +/- 6.0 to 18.0 +/- 6.8 nmol/L). Changes in IGF-I concentration were significantly related to changes in insulin (r = 0.741), fat mass (r = 0.705), lean body mass (r = 0.696), and body mass (r = 0.652). Changes in insulin concentrations were significantly related to changes in fat mass (r = 0.630) and lean body mass (r = 0.725). These data indicate that severe energy restriction to extremely low body energy reserves decreases significantly the concentrations of 3 anabolic pathways despite high protein intake. Monitoring of insulin and IGF-1 concentration is suggested to prevent losses in muscle mass in energy-restricted conditions. Other nutritional strategies might be needed to prevent possible catabolic effect during preparation of bodybuilders to competition.
To examine the effects of dietary protein and obesity classification on energy-restriction-induced changes in weight, body composition, appetite, mood, and cardiovascular and kidney health.
Forty-six women, ages 28 to 80, BMI 26 to 37 kg/m(2), followed a 12-week 750-kcal/d energy-deficit diet containing higher protein (HP, 30% protein) or normal protein (NP, 18% protein) and were retrospectively subgrouped according to obesity classification [pre-obese (POB), BMI = 26 to 29.9 kg/m(2); obese (OB), BMI = 30 to 37 kg/m(2)).
All subjects lost weight, fat mass, and lean body mass (LBM; p < 0.001). With comparable weight loss, LBM losses were less in HP vs. NP (-1.5 +/- 0.3 vs. -2.8 +/- 0.5 kg; p < 0.05) and POB vs. OB (-1.2 +/- 0.3 vs. -2.9 +/- 0.4 kg; p < 0.005). The main effects of protein and obesity on LBM changes were independent and additive; POB-HP lost less LBM vs. OB-NP (p < 0.05). The energy-restriction-induced decline in satiety was less pronounced in HP vs. NP (p < 0.005). Perceived pleasure increased with HP and decreased with NP (p < 0.05). Lipid-lipoprotein profile and blood pressure improved and kidney function minimally changed with energy restriction (p < 0.05), independently of protein intake.
Consuming a higher-protein diet and accomplishing weight loss before becoming obese help women preserve LBM. Use of a higher-protein diet also improves perceptions of satiety and pleasure during energy restriction.
We have examined the relationship between artificially sweetened beverage (ASB) consumption and long-term weight gain in the San Antonio Heart Study. From 1979 to 1988, height, weight, and ASB consumption were measured among 5,158 adult residents of San Antonio, Texas. Seven to eight years later, 3,682 participants (74% of survivors) were re-examined. Outcome measures were incidence of overweight/obesity (OW/OB(inc)) and obesity (OB(inc)) (BMI > or = 25 and > or = 30 kg/m(2), respectively), and BMI change by follow-up (DeltaBMI, kg/m(2)). A significant positive dose-response relationship emerged between baseline ASB consumption and all outcome measures, adjusted for baseline BMI and demographic/behavioral characteristics. Consuming >21 ASBs/week (vs. none) was associated with almost-doubled risk of OW/OB (odds ratio (OR) = 1.93, P = 0.007) among 1,250 baseline normal-weight (NW) individuals, and doubled risk of obesity (OR = 2.03, P = 0.0005) among 2,571 individuals with baseline BMIs <30 kg/m(2). Compared with nonusers (+1.01 kg/m(2)), DeltaBMIs were significantly higher for ASB quartiles 2-4: +1.46 (P = 0.003), +1.50 (P = 0.002), and +1.78 kg/m(2) (P < 0.0001), respectively. Overall, adjusted DeltaBMIs were 47% greater among artificial sweetener (AS) users than nonusers (+1.48 kg/m(2) vs. +1.01 kg/m(2), respectively, P < 0.0001). In separate analyses--stratified by gender; ethnicity; baseline weight category, dieting, or diabetes status; or exercise-change category--DeltaBMIs were consistently greater among AS users. These differences, though not significant among exercise increasers, or those with baseline diabetes or BMI >30 kg/m(2) (P = 0.069), were significant in all 13 remaining strata. These findings raise the question whether AS use might be fueling--rather than fighting--our escalating obesity epidemic.
The effects of adding single-joint exercises to a multi-joint exercise resistance training program on upper body muscle strength and size in trained men
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The effects of endurance, strength, and power training on muscle fiber type shifting
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