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Microbes and urban watersheds: Concentrations, sources, & pathways
... [133] Unauthorized trails are created for a variety of purposes (Chapter 3), including valid reasons such as safety or to avoid overly challenging or muddy areas. [29,57,66,77] In other cases unauthorized trails are created to access special features such as views, streams and wetlands. Indistinct trails can lead to accidental trail proliferation, particularly in rocky areas. ...
... Indistinct trails can lead to accidental trail proliferation, particularly in rocky areas. [57] Good trail design can help alleviate some of these more predictable issues. However, some effects such as bathroom stops and trails from peoples' back yards are less predictable. ...
... For example, designing trails along side slopes rather than in the floodplain, or installing sufficient depths and types of gravel, can reduce the need for people to step off trails to avoid mud. [29,57] Strategically including short spur trails to access sensitive habitat areas or view points in the initial trail design can reduce or eliminate the need for damaging unauthorized trails in these areas [37,93,533] Signage for views such as "photo point" can draw users to these formal spur trails. [93,538] When prioritizing which unauthorized trails to address first, consider focusing on the most sensitive habitat or wildlife areas first. ...
Metro is the regional government in the Portland, Oregon area. Thanks to the region’s voters, the agency has acquired approximately 17,000 acres of natural areas to protect water quality, wildlife habitat and connect people with nature. The goal of this document is to better understand the trade-offs between different types and levels of recreational access in the context of our work to protect habitat and water quality, and provide access to nature in a growing urban area. Only by thoroughly understanding the effects of recreational activities on wildlife and water quality are we able to avoid, minimize and mitigate potential harm to the resources we are committed to protecting.
Recreation ecology is the scientific study of environmental impacts resulting from recreational activity in protected natural areas. The nature of a literature review is to summarize what has been studied, what has been learned, and what the experts have concluded. This document reviews the literature on overall and relative effects of three user groups – hikers, mountain bikers and equestrians – on trails, habitat, and wildlife to help inform ecologically appropriate placement and construction of trails in natural areas. Studies are reviewed from the U.S. and elsewhere, with a focus on soft-surface trails in natural areas. We included limited information about other non-motorized trail user groups such as trail runners and beach walkers. Motorized off-road vehicles were omitted from this review because they are generally not allowed on natural area trails within the urban and near-urban region. A previous literature review on the effects of dogs on wildlife and water quality is included as Appendix 1.
Studies vary in terminology for our recreational groups of interest. In this report “hiker” generally means a person walking along a trail for various reasons such as exercise, wildlife watching or moving between places. “Mountain biker” refers to a non-motorized bicycle rider on a soft or natural surface trail; alternative terms in the literature include off-road bicyclists or off-road cyclists. “Equestrian” refers to a person riding a horse on a trail. Throughout the text we refer to these as “user groups.”
Trails provide people with important opportunities to improve health and well-being, and providing access to nature is especially important in urban areas.[2-5] However, as indicated in various literature reviews, trails and trail use can damage natural areas including negatively affecting soils, vegetation, water quality, plants, and animals.[6-27] Damage to trails or habitats and negative effects on wildlife are more likely when trails are inappropriately located, designed, constructed, maintained or used, or when unauthorized trails are allowed to proliferate. These issues can also increase trail maintenance costs[28-30] and negatively affect visitors’ experience.[31-33]
This document reviews the types of recreational effects in Chapters 2-7, including information about user group-specific effects. Each chapter includes a summary of key points. Chapter 8 offers information on how to minimize, monitor and manage effects. Throughout the review we provide representative study examples with additional citations.
We paid close attention to the effects of recreation on wildlife (Chapters 6 and 7) because they are less well documented than physical effects such as erosion or vegetation damage. Scientific names for species mentioned in the text are in Appendix 2. For wildlife, human disturbance increases animals’ stress and can cause them to hide, change behavior or flee. Some species, such as those that do well in urban areas, are generalists and can tolerate human disturbance. Other species such as pregnant animals, long-distance migrants, and habitat specialists tend to be more stressed and displaced by trail users. Some species may permanently leave a natural area.
Figure 1 illustrates the relationships between environmental, trail design, recreational use and their effects on trail damage, water quality, vegetation damage and wildlife...
... As forests are cleared and soils are stripped, compacted, and covered over with roads, buildings, and other impervious surfaces, precipitation that was previously taken up by vegetation or that moved slowly into and through the soil layer as subsurface flow is now converted to overland flow. The landscape's natural capacity to absorb and attenuate flows and contaminants is further reduced as other features of the terrain are ditched, drained, armored, and straightened to shed runoff as quickly and efficiently as possible (Booth and Jackson 1997;CWP 2003;Mallin et al. 2001Mallin et al. , 2000aSchueler 2000bSchueler , 2000c. This combination of reduced retention and enhanced conveyance results in greater runoff volumes, lower stream baseflows, more stormflow events, and higher peak streamflows that rapidly rise and recede (Booth 1991;Corbett et al. 1997;CWP 2003;Booth 2002, 2001;Leopold 1968;Poff et al. 1997;Schueler 2000aSchueler , 2000b (Figure 3). ...
... Flow regime is one of five main water resources features altered by the cumulative effects of human activities. The other four are physical habitat structure, water quality, energy sources (e.g., food sources), and biotic interactions Karr 1998 Schueler 2000aSchueler , 1987CWP 2003) Schueler 2000a, 2000cTourbier and Westmacott 1981;Weiskel et al. 1996). Mallin et al. (2001) explains that these impacts are accentuated in coastal shellfish watersheds because "shellfishing beds are often located within meters of developed land and much of the stormwater runoff reaching these areas does not receive any pretreatment before entering the estuaries" (p. ...
... Comprehensive stormwater monitoring studies have reported mean fecal coliform concentrations ranging from 5,000 to 22,000 colonies per 100 milliliters in stormwater discharges, with concentrations varying as much as five orders of magnitude at individual sampling sites (CWP 2003;Pitt et al. 2004;Schueler 2000c;USEPA 2002a). Studies have also documented high levels of selected pathogens in stormwater discharges (Burton and Pitt 2002). ...
... 14 Fecal coliform levels in raw sewage (6.4 × 10 6 ) are higher than combined sewer overflows (10 4-10 6 ) and urban stormwater runoff (2.0 × 10 4 ). 15 The majority of fecal coliform bacteria in stormwater runoff are presumed to be of nonhuman origin. Dogs, cats, raccoons, rats, beavers, and geese are sources of nonhuman fecal coliform in urban watersheds. ...
... Dogs, cats, raccoons, rats, beavers, and geese are sources of nonhuman fecal coliform in urban watersheds. 15 Fecal coliform is considered an imperfect water quality indicator because it is challenging to distinguish between human and nonhuman sources. 6,15,16 Microbial source tracking methods for aquatic environments have been developed to differentiate human from nonhuman sources. ...
... 15 Fecal coliform is considered an imperfect water quality indicator because it is challenging to distinguish between human and nonhuman sources. 6,15,16 Microbial source tracking methods for aquatic environments have been developed to differentiate human from nonhuman sources. ...
Caffeine has been suggested as a chemical indicator for domestic wastewater in freshwater systems, although it is not included in water quality monitoring programs. The Third Fork Creek watershed in Durham, NC, is highly urbanized, with a history of receiving untreated wastewater from leaking and overflowing sanitary sewers. The poor water quality originating in the Third Fork Creek watershed threatens its intended uses and jeopardizes drinking water, aquatic life, and recreational activities provided by Jordan Lake. Organic waste contaminants have been detected in both Third Fork Creek watershed and Jordan Lake; however, the sampling periods were temporary, resulting in a few samples collected during nonstorm periods. It is recommended that (1) the concentration of caffeine and other organic waste contaminants are determined during storm and nonstorm periods and (2) caffeine is monitored regularly with traditional water quality indicators to evaluate the health of Third Fork Creek watershed.
... As forests are cleared and soils are stripped, compacted, and covered over with roads, buildings, and other impervious surfaces, precipitation that was previously taken up by vegetation or that moved slowly into and through the soil layer as subsurface flow is now converted to overland flow. The landscape's natural capacity to absorb and attenuate flows and contaminants is further reduced as other features of the terrain are ditched, drained, armored, and straightened to shed runoff as quickly and efficiently as possible (Booth and Jackson 1997;CWP 2003;Mallin et al. 2001Mallin et al. , 2000aSchueler 2000bSchueler , 2000c. This combination of reduced retention and enhanced conveyance results in greater runoff volumes, lower stream baseflows, more stormflow events, and higher peak streamflows that rapidly rise and recede (Booth 1991;Corbett et al. 1997;CWP 2003;Booth 2002, 2001;Leopold 1968;Poff et al. 1997;Schueler 2000aSchueler , 2000b (Figure 3). ...
... Flow regime is one of five main water resources features altered by the cumulative effects of human activities. The other four are physical habitat structure, water quality, energy sources (e.g., food sources), and biotic interactions Karr 1998 Schueler 2000aSchueler , 1987CWP 2003) Schueler 2000a, 2000cTourbier and Westmacott 1981;Weiskel et al. 1996). Mallin et al. (2001) explains that these impacts are accentuated in coastal shellfish watersheds because "shellfishing beds are often located within meters of developed land and much of the stormwater runoff reaching these areas does not receive any pretreatment before entering the estuaries" (p. ...
... Comprehensive stormwater monitoring studies have reported mean fecal coliform concentrations ranging from 5,000 to 22,000 colonies per 100 milliliters in stormwater discharges, with concentrations varying as much as five orders of magnitude at individual sampling sites (CWP 2003;Pitt et al. 2004;Schueler 2000c;USEPA 2002a). Studies have also documented high levels of selected pathogens in stormwater discharges (Burton and Pitt 2002). ...
Clean water is the key factor for determining the suitability of coastal areas for growing and harvesting shellfish. Clams, oysters and other filter-feeding shellfish can accumulate contaminants that may be present in the coastal environment. Shellfish growing areas are particularly vulnerable to fecal pollution from sewage systems, farm animal wastes, stormwater runoff, wildlife and other sources because of the health risks associated with enteric viruses and other pathogens. Pollution impacts are exacerbated by changes in land use, land cover and watershed hydrology associated with urbanization. Microbial pollution is chronic and pervasive in many coastal areas and is closely correlated with population densities, development levels, rainfall events, stormwater runoff and river flows. Moderate levels of development in the range of 10 to 25 percent impervious cover correlate with degraded aquatic habitats, including shellfish growing areas. Shellfish waters are vulnerable to contamination at even lower levels of development if there are raw sewage discharges or if natural hydrologic processes are disrupted and there is high connectivity between upland pollution sources and shellfish waters. These findings underscore the importance of preserving natural land cover and hydrologic systems for buffering pollution imp acts and preserving coastal waters for shellfish harvesting.
... 5,6 Escherichia coli are commonly used as fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) in waterbodies, as its occurrence suggests presence of other pathogens. 7,8 Untreated runoff with E. coli concentrations exceeding 10 4 colony-forming units (CFU) per 100 mL, 1,4,7 can be introduced to waterbodies during storm events, resulting not only in environmental degradation, but also compromising human health. Additionally, the economy of coastal communities is especially vulnerable to bacteria pollution from stormwater runoff and related beach closures and fishing bans. ...
... 14 These systems report bacteria removal efficiency reaches up to 99%, however field studies have indicated that FIB removal was variable and can range from 0 to 80%, which is not sufficient from a public health perspective considering the elevated FIB concentrations in runoff. 1,4,7,8 Moreover, recent studies of structural BMPs concluded that pathogen removal primarily relied on attachment/collection and not inactivation. 15,16 Sorbed pathogens can remain viable and even grow during attachment, 17,18 potentially remobilizing them during intermittent flow conditions. ...
Non-point source pollution (NPS) such as stormwater runoff may introduce high loads of bacteria, impairing surface water bodies. The existing filter materials in stormwater best management practices (BMP) are typically not designed to inactivate bacteria. Herein, novel filtration media were extensively tested for microbial load reduction in stormwater runoff. Red cedar wood chips (RC) were amended with different loadings of either 3-(trihydroxysilyl) propyldimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride (TPA) or silver nanoparticles (AgNP). Under batch conditions at 25°C, log10 removal values (LRV) up to 3.71±0.38 (mean ± standard error) for TPA-RC and 2.25±1.00 for AgNP-RC were achieved for Escherichia coli (E. coli), while unmodified RC achieved less than 0.5 LRV. Similar trends were observed at 17.5°C, however at low temperature (10°C) no statistically significant difference in E. coli inactivation between modified and unmodified RC was detected. Inactivation kinetic studies show that TPA-RC has higher inactivation rate constants compared to AgNP-RC. Under dynamic flow conditions a mass balance approach indicates that even after remobilization up to 99.8% of E. coli removal using 9mg/g TPA-RC compared to 64.8% for unmodified RC. This study demonstrates that RC wood chips amended with antimicrobial compounds show promising applications as filtration material including use in stormwater BMPs.
... As the literature shows, pathogens present in stormwater runoff in urban settings can emerge from human and non-human origins. Potential pathways of human sewage to surface water include combined sewer overflows, sanitary sewer overflows, illegal or inadvertent sanitary connections to storm drains (i.e., cross connections), transient dumping of wastewater into storm drains, failing septic systems (Araújo and Lima Neto 2018;Schueler 2000), and even from encampments of vulnerable persons. In terms of animal sources of pollution, stormwater runoff washes off animal feces deposited on land surfaces and discharges this into receiving water bodies during storm events. ...
Urban stormwater runoff is a known source of microbial contamination of stormwater ponds. However, less is known about the influences of land use and rainfall on microbial quality over time in these receiving waters. In this study, two fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), namely Escherichia coli and thermotolerant coliforms, were monitored in three stormwater ponds in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. The stormwater ponds were selected due to their potential as water sources for beneficial uses such as irrigation, which requires lower water quality than drinking water, thereby alleviating the pressure on the city’s potable water demands. The selected stormwater ponds vary in size and shape, contribution catchment size, and percentages of several primary land use types. Microbial source tracking for human, dog, seagull, Canada goose, ruminant, and muskrat was also conducted to determine sources of bacterial contamination in the stormwater ponds. Sampling was conducted near the pond surface and adjacent to the shoreline, specifically near the outfalls that discharge stormwater runoff into the ponds and the inlets that convey water out of the ponds. Overall, the FIB concentrations in the vicinity of pond outfalls were significantly or relatively higher than those near pond inlets. The contamination in the McCall Lake and the Country Hills stormwater ponds showed higher amounts of human markers (40 to 60%) compared to the Inverness stormwater pond (< 20%), which coincided with their higher FIB concentration medians. The results revealed that stormwater drained from catchments with a higher percentage of commercial land use was more contaminated than those with primary residential land use, while the impacts of residential development on the FIB levels in the Inverness stormwater pond were not obvious. Furthermore, FIB concentrations in the ponds increased in response to both rain events and inter-event dry periods, with human-specific markers being predominant despite the high levels of animal markers during inter-event dry periods. Human-origin sources might be among the main microbial loading contributors in the pond catchments in general. All these findings can inform the development or improvement of measures for mitigating microbial pollution, strategies for reusing stormwater, and maintenance programs.
... While these papers did not all present detailed modeling or statistical work, they all made important scientific contributions to understanding the structure of institutional innovations to address water management problems needing attention. A few works in other journals have also investigated challenges and opportunities to achieve better access to safe drinking water in Sub Saharan Africa [16,[26][27][28][29][30][31][32]. ...
The article discusses the challenges facing rural regions of Sub-Saharan Africa in accessing safe drinking water, which has significant impacts on human nutrition and food science. Despite efforts by governments and donors, a large number of people in rural SSA still lack access to safe drinking water. The article argues that behavioral nudging could be a cost-effective method to improve access to drinking water and promote the adoption of water purification technologies that are compatible with local institutions. The authors investigate three behavioral nudging approaches, including word of mouth, public proclamation, and educational nudging, that could be used to promote the adoption of safe drinking water technologies in rural SSA. The findings suggest that well-designed implementation of these approaches could increase economic capacity to pay for safe drinking water technologies. The article concludes by noting that the approach and findings could be adapted and generalized beyond rural SSA.
... Elevated FIB levels are often correlated with disease outbreaks (Arnone and Walling, 2007). Major sources of FIB to stormwater include combined sewer overflows, illicit wastewater disposal, septic system failures, and animal waste (Schueler and Holland, 2000). Stormwater is a major pathway for FIB pollution in fresh and marine waters (Saifur and Gardner, 2021). ...
Bioretention has been widely used to mitigate hydrologic impacts of stormwater runoff and is increasingly being relied upon to treat chemical and biological pollutants transported by stormwater. Despite this reliance, we still lack an understanding of treatment performance for certain organic and biological contaminants which may interact with biotic and abiotic components of bioretention systems. We evaluated the treatment of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in stormwater runoff by bioretention. We compared treatment performance by Washington's standard bioretention mix of 60% sand: 40% compost (by volume), and by three other mixtures amended with biochar, fungi (Stropharia rugosoannulata), or both. All bioretention columns were conditioned with clean water and then dosed with collected roadway runoff at a rate equivalent to a 6 month, 24 h storm in this region during 8 events over a 14-month period. Effluents for each column were analyzed for 23 PAHs, Escherichia coli, fecal coliform, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and total suspended solids (TSS). The fate and transport of PAHs within the bioretention columns was tracked by measuring soil PAHs in media cores taken from the columns. ΣPAH were almost completely removed by all treatments across all storms, with removal rates ranging from 97 to 100% for 94 out of 96 samples. Compost appeared to be a source of PAHs in bioretention media, as biochar-amended media initially contained half the ΣPAHs as treatments with the standard 60:40 sand:compost mixture. We observed a net loss of ΣPAHs (19–73%) in bioretention media across the study, which could not be explained by PAHs in the effluent, suggesting that bioremediation by microbes and/or plants attenuated media PAHs. E. coli and fecal coliform were exported in the first dosing event, but all columns achieved some treatment in subsequent dosing events. Overall, these findings suggest that PAHs in stormwater can be remediated with bioretention, are unlikely to accumulate in bioretention media, and that biochar amendments can improve the treatment of E. coli.
... While these papers did not all present detailed modeling or statistical work, they all made important scientific contributions to understanding the structure of institutional innovations to address water management problems needing attention. A few works in other journals have also investigated challenges and opportunities to achieve better access to safe drinking water in Sub Saharan Africa [16,[26][27][28][29][30][31][32]. ...
Growing water shortages for large regions of the arid regions of the world, are likely to become more recurrent as climate change impacts grow. Countries across the world are facing water security difficulties that stem from population growth, urbanization, and rapid industrialization. The use of behavioral nudges methods implemented to encourage a socially desired behavior at a low to zero cost, has been an effective method at reducing water consumption in places where they have been deployed. For example, studies in California USA, Barcelona Spain, and Australia indicate that adoption of nudges give significant positive results in water consumption reduction. We describe some of the barriers that make it difficult to implement behavioral nudges to address the water crises in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). We investigate the literature available in Sub-Saharan Africa and discover that the application of behavioral nudges has been sparingly used for reasons that are not obvious at first glance. Second, we find that the potential impediments to the use of behavioral nudges in SSA to be awareness, inadequate access to science and technology, political systems that are poorly suited for implementing nudging, abundance of multiple ethnic groups that speak different languages, along with other barriers that could challenge implementation of behavioral nudges. In light of those barriers, we present a conceptual model with a potential to address these barriers to behavioral nudging a workable solution in SSA.
... The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemical, pathogens, physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration [6,7]. The pathogens 2 of 12 include Salmonella species, Escherichia coli, parasitic worm, virus (hepatitis A), helminthes such as guinea worm [8,9]. ...
In this study, we evaluated the physicochemical and microbial qualities of source and stored household waters in some communities in Southwestern Nigeria using standard methods. Compared parameters include physicochemical constituents; Temperature (T), pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Hardness (TH), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Magnesium ion (Mg2+) and Calcium ion (Ca2+) and microbiological parameters included Total Coliform Counts (TC), Faecal Coliform Counts (FC), Fungal Counts (Fung C), Heterotrophic Plate Counts (HPC). Comparing Stored and Source samples, the mean values of some physicochemical parameters of most of the stored water samples significantly (P<0.05) exceeded that of Sources and ranged in the following order: T (15.3±0.3oC - 28.3±0.5oC), pH (6.4±0.1 - 7.6±0.1), TDS (192.1±11.1 ppm - 473.7±27.9 ppm), TH (10.6±1.7 mg/L - 248.6±18.6 mg/L), BOD (0.5±0.0 mg/L - 3.2±0.3 mg/L), Mg2+ (6.5±2.4 mg/L - 29.1±3.2 mg/L) and Ca2+ (6.5±2.4 mg/L - 51.6±4.4 mg/L). The mean microbial counts obtained from microbial comparison of different points (Stored and Source) of collection showed that most of the stored water had counts significantly exceeding (P<0.05) those of the source water samples (cfu/100 mL) which ranged as follows: TC (3.1±1.5 - 156.8±42.9), FC (0.0±0.0 - 64.3±14.2) and HPC (47.8±12.1 - 266.1±12.2) across all sampled communities. Also, the predominant isolates recovered from the samples were identified as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter aerogenes, Aspergillus spp, Mucor spp, Rhizopus spp and Candida spp. The presence of these pathogenic and potentially pathogenic organisms in the waters and the high counts of the indicator organisms suggest the waters to be a threat to public health.
... By its nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies (Madu et al., 2008, Awoyemi et al., 2014. Specific contaminants leading to water pollution include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discolouration (Schueler, 2000). High concentrations of these substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna. ...
Physico-chemical parameters and microbial contents of Ogun River at Magodo area, Lagos were investigated in relation to its safety for consumption. Water samples were weekly collected between August and December, 2016 at three equi-distance intervals for analysis on physico-chemical parameters, total bacterial count and biochemical tests following standard recommended procedures. Mean concentrations of the physico-chemical parameters were found in ranges for pH (6.68 ± 0.15-6.86 ± 0.21), temperature (26.78 ± 0.14-26.92 ± 0.31), electrical conductivity (355.40 ± 101.93-456.40 ± 115.77), total dissolved solids (166.80 ± 48.08-215.00 ± 54.29), dissolved oxygen (7.06 ± 0.01-7.08 ± 0.02), biochemical oxygen demand (25.59 ± 0.03-25.64 ± 0.01), chemical oxygen demand (98.75 ± 0.03-98.84 ± 0.02), total hardness (345.80 ± 1.28-349.40 ± 3.87), total alkalinity (9.28 ± 0.02-9.33 ± 0.02), nitrate (0.27 ± 0.00-0.28 ± 0.00), sulphate (0.55 ± 0.05-0.62 ± 0.00) and chloride (68.84 ± 0.77-74.97 ± 1.23). Total colony forming unit (Cfu) of bacteria in the river was found highest in descending order Centrimide Agar (CA) > Mac-Conkey Agar (MCA) > Plate Count Agar (PCA) > Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA) at the first and second serial dilution respectively. Biochemical tests showed the presence of Staphylococcus species, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus sp., Salmonella sp. and Baccillus sp. in the river. Variations in the microbial load and physico-chemical parameters in Ogun River as a result of different human activities around the river was found within the standard limits which makes the River safe for human consumption.
... Biological methodology in water analysis is based on the utilization of plants and other living creatures, as well as microbial life which capacity, population, or status can serve as markers to screen the wellbeing of an ecosystem [6]. Coliform, which are not a genuine reason for infection, are generally utilized as a bacterial marker of water contamination; however, a wide spectrum of accompanying infectious microorganisms are also found in surface 37 waters including Burkholderia pseudomallei, Salmonella, Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia, in addition to parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type, and viruses such as norovirus [7]. Coliforms include different bacterial species such as Escherichia coli that is commonly found in soil, vegetation and in the gastrointestinal tract of creatures and thus can be transferred to freshwater supplies from the immediate pollution by wastes into streams or lakes, or from spillovers and leakages from pastures and water treatment facilities into streams or groundwater; therefore, its presence in water resources is conclusive evidence of pollution [8]. ...
This study aims to evaluate the status of Al-Chibayish marsh water and regional plants in regard to bacterial contamination and to investigate the phytochemical characteristics of the region's plants. For this purpose, water samples were collected from three different sites of Al-Chebaysh marshes located in Dhi Qar governorate, south of Iraq in 2017 to investigate water bacteriological contamination. Additionally, samples of five different plant species were collected from the same region to evaluate plant bacterial contamination status as well as their phytochemical characteristics. Water and plant samples were then examined by bacterial culture and powdered dry plant samples were analyzed using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Bacteriological results showed that water was worryingly contaminated with clear bacterial contamination in the local flora. The major chemical compositions of the studied local plant were within the normal ranges under pollution conditions with clear signs of antibacterial potentials in S. natans and Ceratophyllum spp. Additionally, FTIR spectroscopy results showed that many of the regional plants contain various important phytochemical functional groups which increase their importance in the marsh ecosystem sustainability.
... Coliform bacteria are a bacterial indicator species used for the identification of water pollution. Disease causing bacterial species includes Cryptosporidium parvum, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Giardia lamblia, Norovirus, Salmonella and Parasitic worms like Schistosoma [33][34][35]. ...
... If all this DNA represented bacteria with an average genome size of 3 Mbp, it would correspond to 355,693 genomes/ml of water. This is roughly on par with reports in the literature of stormwater containing between 10 2 and 10 6 bacterial cells per ml of water [51][52][53] . For obtaining a single read from an FIO present as a single cell in this sample would require on average 10 2 -10 6 sequencing reads, which is achievable with current sequencing technologies, and thus a sensitivity comparable to that of selective culturing can be obtained. ...
Urban sewer systems consist of wastewater and stormwater sewers, of which only wastewater is processed before being discharged. Occasionally, misconnections or damages in the network occur, resulting in untreated wastewater entering natural water bodies via the stormwater system. Cultivation of faecal indicator bacteria (e.g. Escherichia coli; E. coli) is the current standard for tracing wastewater contamination. This method is cheap but has limited specificity and mobility. Here, we compared the E. coli culturing approach with two sequencing-based methodologies (Illumina MiSeq 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and Oxford Nanopore MinION shotgun metagenomic sequencing), analysing 73 stormwater samples collected in Stockholm. High correlations were obtained between E. coli culturing counts and frequencies of human gut microbiome amplicon sequences, indicating E. coli is indeed a good indicator of faecal contamination. However, the amplicon data further holds information on contamination source or alternatively how much time has elapsed since the faecal matter has entered the system. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing on a subset of the samples using a portable real-time sequencer, MinION, correlated well with the amplicon sequencing data. This study demonstrates the use of DNA sequencing to detect human faecal contamination in stormwater systems and the potential of tracing faecal contamination directly in the field.
... and Salmonella spp. (Schueler 2000). Furthermore, it becomes quite popular to Concentrations of E. coli bacteria expressed as the most probable number (MPN)/100 ml of water samples collected from Aker River, Oslo, Norway Source Authors establish "educational" or "hobby" farms with livestock to be presented year-round for city people. ...
Faecal contamination of water has both anthropogenic and zoogenic origins that can shade various point and nonpoint/diffuse sources of pollution. Due to the dual origin and number of sources of faecal contamination, there are immense challenges in the implementation of effective measures to protect water bodies from pollution that poses threats to human and environmental health. The main health threats refer to infections, illnesses and deaths caused by enteric pathogenic microbes, in particular those responsible for waterborne zoonoses. To detect and identify the origins and sources of faecal pollution simultaneously, various methods and indicators have been compiled into a comprehensive measuring toolbox. Molecular diagnostics using genetic markers derived from Bacteroidales 16S rRNA gene sequences are quite prevalent in the current methodological implementation for the identification of faecal contamination sources in water. For instance, a culture- and library-independent microbial source tracking toolbox combining micro- and molecular biology tests run as a three-step procedure has been implemented in Norway. Outcomes from the Norwegian studies have identified two general trends in dominance of contributors to faecal water contamination in urban environments. Firstly, there is a tendency of higher contributions from anthropogenic sources during the cold season. Secondly, the identification of the dominance of zoogenic sources in faecal water contamination during warm periods of the year.
... and Salmonella spp. (Schueler 2000). Furthermore, it becomes quite popular to Concentrations of E. coli bacteria expressed as the most probable number (MPN)/100 ml of water samples collected from Aker River, Oslo, Norway Source Authors establish "educational" or "hobby" farms with livestock to be presented year-round for city people. ...
Pharmaceutical pollution is becoming an unavoidable environmental issue of emerging concern. As forecasted, the consumption of medicinal drugs and their use in veterinary practice is expected to systematically increase over coming years, resulting in their increased discharge. The most commonly used pharmaceuticals include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., diclofenac, naproxen, ibuprofen), cardiovascular drugs (e.g., beta-blockers, diuretics, calcium channel blockers, lipid-regulating agents), antibiotics, oral contraceptives, anti-depressants, immunosuppressive drugs and cytostatics. Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are known to partially survive the conventional process of wastewater treatment. In freshwaters, they may undergo photodegradation, biodegradation, sorption to sediments and uptake by organisms. The latter results in metabolism or bioaccumulation, and potential toxicological effects and physiological responses. The magnitude of effects is largely modulated by the concentration of APIs, time of exposure and some environmental factors such as light and nutrient availability. The response to APIs in closely taxonomically related species may be significantly different. The concomitant presence of different APIs usually evokes potentiation of adverse effects. The most serious effects of pharmaceutical pollution evidenced so far for freshwaters include increase in antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, feminization, behavioral changes, and immunosuppression in fish. Beyond any doubt, it is imperative to support systematic research on API detection methods, to monitor the great number of APIs in wastewater, surface and groundwater, and tap water, and to assess the ecological risks arising from their increased presence in the freshwater environment.
... Coliform bacteria are a bacterial indicator species used for the identification of water pollution. Disease causing bacterial species includes Cryptosporidium parvum, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Giardia lamblia, Norovirus, Salmonella and Parasitic worms like Schistosoma [33][34][35]. ...
This study was conducted at University of Gujrat during 2016 to 2017 as a term paper for Master of Philosophy. The data regarding effect of ozone depletion on human was reviewed and compiled as a review paper from various published articles of international reputed journals annual/environmental reports of recognized organization and ebooks. Factors which are effecting water pollution are addressed. Water pollution is very important problem of 21st century. Due to water pollution pure water is becoming less scare day by day. The biggest cause of water pollution is industrialization and increase in population. By drinking polluted water people becoming more and more ill.
... The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemical, pathogens, physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration [6,7]. The pathogens include Salmonella species, Escherichia coli, parasitic worm, virus (hepatitis A), helminthes such as guinea worm [8,9]. ...
In this study, we evaluated the physicochemical and microbial qualities of source and stored household waters in some communities in Southwestern Nigeria using standard methods. Compared parameters include: physicochemical constituents; Temperature (T), pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Hardness (TH), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Magnesium ion (Mg²⁺) and Calcium ion (Ca²⁺) and microbiological parameters included Total Coliform Counts (TC), Faecal Coliform Counts (FC), Fungal Counts (Fung C), Heterotrophic Plate Counts (HPC).Comparing Stored and Source samples, the mean values of some physicochemical parameters of most of the stored water samples significantly (p < 0.05) exceeded that of Sources and ranged in the following order: T (15.3 ± 0.3 °C–28.3 ± 0.5 °C), pH (6.4 ± 0.1–7.6 ± 0.1), TDS (192.1 ± 11.1 ppm–473.7 ± 27.9 ppm), TH (10.6 ± 1.7 mg/L–248.6 ± 18.6 mg/L), BOD (0.5 ± 0.0 mg/L–3.2 ± 0.3 mg/L), Mg²⁺ (6.5 ± 2.4 mg/L–29.1 ± 3.2 mg/L) and Ca²⁺ (6.5 ± 2.4 mg/L–51.6 ± 4.4 mg/L). The mean microbial counts obtained from microbial comparison of different points (Stored and Source) of collection showed that most of the stored water had counts significantly exceeding (p < 0.05) those of the source water samples (cfu/100 mL) which ranged as follows: TC (3.1 ± 1.5–156.8 ± 42.9), FC (0.0 ± 0.0–64.3 ± 14.2) and HPC (47.8 ± 12.1–266.1 ± 12.2) across all sampled communities. Also, the predominant isolates recovered from the samples were identified as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter aerogenes, Aspergillus spp., Mucor spp., Rhizopus spp. and Candida spp. The presence of these pathogenic and potentially pathogenic organisms in the waters and the high counts of the indicator organisms suggest the waters to be a threat to public health.
... Africa 170*10 10 Feachem et al. (1983), Finegold (1969), Maier et al. (2009), Moore and Holdeman (1974); Reder et al. (2015), Schueler and Holland (2000), van Houte and Gibbons (1966), Zubrzychi and Spaulding (1962). ...
... Africa 170*10 10 Feachem et al. (1983), Finegold (1969), Maier et al. (2009), Moore and Holdeman (1974); Reder et al. (2015), Schueler and Holland (2000), van Houte and Gibbons (1966), Zubrzychi and Spaulding (1962). ...
Main messages
• Good water quality, together with an adequate quantity of water, are necessary for achieving the
Sustainable Development Goals for health, food security and water security. Therefore it is of concern
that water pollution has worsened since the 1990s in the majority of rivers in Latin America, Africa
and Asia.
• It is important that actions to protect and restore water quality are linked to efforts to achieve the
Sustainable Development Goals and the Post 2015 Development Agenda.
• Severe pathogen pollution already affects around one-third of all river stretches in Latin America,
Africa and Asia. In addition to the health risk of drinking contaminated water, many people are also
at risk of disease by coming into contact with polluted surface waters for bathing, clothes cleaning
and other household activities. The number of rural people at risk in this way may range into the
hundreds of millions on these continents.
• Severe organic pollution already affects around one-seventh of all river stretches in Latin America,
Africa and Asia and is of concern to the state of the freshwater fishery and therefore to food security
and livelihoods.
• Severe and moderate salinity pollution affects around one-tenth of all river stretches in Latin America,
Africa and Asia and is of concern because it impairs the use of river water for irrigation, industry and
other uses.
• The immediate cause of increasing water pollution is the growth in wastewater loadings to rivers
and lakes. Ultimate causes are population growth, increased economic activity, intensification and
expansion of agriculture, and increased sewerage hook-ups with no or a low level of treatment.
• Among the groups most vulnerable to water quality deterioration in developing countries are women
because of their frequent usage of surface water for household activities, children because of their
play activities in local surface waters and because they often have the task of collecting water for the
household, low income rural people who consume fish as an important source of protein, and low
income fishers and fishery workers who rely on the freshwater fishery for their livelihood.
• Although water pollution is serious and getting worse in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, the majority
of rivers on these three continents are still in good condition, and there are great opportunities for
short-cutting further pollution and restoring the rivers that are polluted. A mix of management and
technical options supported by good governance will be needed for these tasks.
• A wide range of management and technical options are available to developing countries for water
pollution control. Many of these options were not available or used by developed countries when
confronted with similarly deteriorating water quality decades ago.
• Monitoring and assessment of water quality are essential for understanding the intensity and
scope of the global water quality challenge. Yet the coverage of data in many parts of the world is
inadequate for this purpose. For example, the density of water quality measuring stations in Africa
is one hundred times lower than the density used elsewhere in the world for monitoring. An urgent
task is therefore to expand the collection, distribution, and analysis of water quality data through
the international GEMS/Water Programme and other activities. Hot spot areas of water pollution
identified in this report can be used to set priorities for data collection.
... The transition away from small family-owned operations to large-scale tenant farming and the associated changes in the way these farms are managed will also merit consideration. Until recently, most assessments of BMP effectiveness have focused on TP and sediment reduction, where a common assumption was that the Many commercial devices claim to remove P but lack rigorous external evaluation (2010); 25 Gain (1996); 26 Harper and Herr (1993); 27 Martin and Smoot (1986); 28 Yu and Benelmouffok (1988); 29 Gibb et al. (1999); 30 Schueler (1999); 31 Hogan and Walbridge (2007); 32 Shaver and Maxted (1994); (2007), McDowell et al. (2008) majority of P losses occur as particulate P attached to sediments. As noted above, it is now increasingly apparent that more attention should be directed towards the concurrent removal and fate of dissolved P. Furthermore, P export via tile drains cannot be neglected in systematically-drained watersheds, such as the Maumee River watershed that drains to Lake Erie (King et al., 2014). ...
... Africa 170*10 10 Feachem et al. (1983), Finegold (1969), Maier et al. (2009), Moore and Holdeman (1974); Reder et al. (2015), Schueler and Holland (2000), van Houte and Gibbons (1966), Zubrzychi and Spaulding (1962). ...
The quality of surface water has noticeably improved in recent decades in many parts of the developed
world, but is being challenged as economic growth, intensification of land use often combined with
demographic or climate change lead to widespread and severe degradation. The need to reverse this
development is reflected in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, both as a dedicated goal
on water and as an integral element of the objectives in other sectors.
The report ‘A Snapshot of the World’s Water Quality – Towards a global assessment’ summarizes key
findings of the pre-study for a World Water Quality Assessment: (i) water pollution has worsened since
the 1990s in many rivers in Latin America, Africa and Asia; (ii) the majority of rivers are still in good
condition, and there are great opportunities for short-cutting further pollution and restoring the rivers
that are polluted; (iii) monitoring and assessment are essential for understanding the intensity and
scope of the global water quality challenge, yet data coverage is inadequate.
The methodology developed offers a baseline to measure progress, a framework for global assessment
and a pathway towards sustainable solutions that will deliver on that agenda. With the support from
UN Water and the many contributing authors, this report will help bridge the gap between water
quality, the inclusive green economy and the interlinked issues of sustainable development.
... While BMP manufacturers, such as Filtrexx and Filterra offer filter modules that have to be added to a BMP to treat additional contaminant categories, other multi-contaminant BMPs, such as biofiltration systems, remove 0%–80% of bacteria [19,20]. This is considered insufficient from a public health perspective [1,21,22]. Therefore, new approaches are required to enhance the inactivation of pathogenic organisms as well as the removal of other contaminants in stormwater and possibly implement these technologies in the next generation BMPs. In addition, varying climatic conditions such as those experienced in the Northeastern United States, including cold winters, spring snowmelt, and long intermittent dry periods persist in between intense precipitation events in summer, may impact system performance. ...
Non-point source pollution of stormwater contributes high contaminant loads into surface water bodies and poses a threat to the ecosystem, public health and economy. Although (pre)treatment standards have not been introduced at the federal level, Rhode Island (RI) has set minimal contaminant reduction standards for stormwater using structural best management practices (BMP). As BMP performance depends highly on geographical location and climate, and the Northeastern United States experiences broad ranges of temperatures throughout the year along with long intermittent periods between precipitation events, stormwater treatment can be challenging. In this field study, two tree filters were evaluated: a conventional unit (CTF) with sand/shale mix as filter media, and a modified tree filter (ITF) with an added layer of red cedar wood chips amended with 3-(trihydroxysilyl)propyldimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride. Both BMPs were monitored for 346 days primarily for Escherichia coli and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Both tree filters met or outperformed RI’s standards for bacteria removal (60%) and TSS (85%), making them a good choice for BMP use in this climate. Total suspended solids, E. coli, PAHs, nitrate, and phosphate removal is higher in ITF. A controlled field scale tracer test using E. coli confirmed these results.
... High concentrations of occurring contaminants are toxic and can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna. Pathogens (such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Burkholderia Pseudomallei and many others) are even more harmful and can seriously damage ecosystems, flora, fauna and humans [6]. Hence, the need to develop a tool for con-tinuous remote water monitoring through chemical and physical analyzes in an automatic way, without the need of maintenance and supervision, giving precise and accurate data directly comparable with those achievable in laboratory. ...
In this paper, it is proposed the concept of a wireless sensor network (WSN) designed for real time remote sea water quality monitoring. Each net-work node is equipped by sensors measuring temperature, ambient light, con-ductivity, dissolved oxygen, pH, dissolved ions and turbidity for an automated diagnosis that enables the early identification of critical situations in the water quality, allowing an immediate intervention favoring pollution control.
... All these results have been necessary in the hydrological assessment for a proper characterization of the urban conditions existing in Cluj-Napoca, in order to obtain efficient bioretention cells models according local or regional conditions. The used method of calculation was The Simple Method (Schueler, 1987(Schueler, , 1999 The calculation of the annual runoff. The Simple Method calculates annual runoff as a product of annual runoff volume, and a runoff coefficient (Rv). ...
Hydrological assessment aimed to estimate the annual volume of rainwater runoff - product of precipitation and the impervious surfaces in the urban sites studied and appreciate the quality and quality of rainwater runoff associated with the variation of the site characteristics, especially the variation of the impermeable surfaces. For the hydrological assessment have been selected four different sites in terms of land use. The research took place in 2012-2014. For the pollutant loading of the stormwater runoff was used The Simple Method. This method required a particular type of data: the surface of studied area, the percentage of impervious cover, the annual amount of precipitation and concentrations of pollutants in stormwater runoff. For statistical analysis was used SSPSS Statistics 17.0 software. The results show that the land use type and the activities specifics for a certain area have a large influence over the pollutants loads of the annual stormwater runoff. The pollutants loads of the stormwater runoff form industrial area have the highest values for the following chemical constituents: total nitrogen total phosphorus, total iron. The Simple Method offers rapid analyses that not require a large a large amount of data. The hydrological assessment of the areas, conducted by application of this method, enables outlining some management strategies for rainwater runoff through bioretention. Suspended solids present high values for all analysed areas, particularly in the industrial and high density residential area. Due to the fact that most pollutants are associated with the particles, the most worrying are the values of suspended solids.
... In order to obtain the human per capita FC loading (excretion from humans) an average number of FC in human feces (cfu g À1 ) was multiplied with the amount of feces produced per day and person. A broad variation of FC in human feces exists according to the literature, ranging between 10 6 e10 9 cfu g À1 feces (Feachem et al., 1983;Finegold, 1969;Maier et al., 2009;Moore and Holdeman, 1974;Schueler and Holland, 2000;van Houte and Gibbons, 1966;Zubrzychi and Spaulding, 1962). The amount of feces produced per day and person varies depending on differences in diet, i.e. on the national average nutrition. ...
Information on fecal coliform (FC) concentrations in European rivers is scarce. The objective of this study was to identify hotspots of water pollution in Europe and provide information on the different FC sources and their contributions to the loads that lead to concentrations in rivers. Model simulations were carried-out with the large-scale water quality model WorldQual to assess the calculated loads regarding to its associated sources and to further estimate the related in-stream concentration. For the year 1995, model results indicated that FC loadings were higher in central Europe with 500 to above 2000 1010 cfu km−2 a−1 than in northern and eastern Europe where loadings ranged between 0 and 200 1010 cfu km−2 a−1. Major sources of FC loadings are domestic sewage, followed by scattered settlements (private treatment), urban surface runoff and manure application. Concentrations showed similar regional patterns as loadings, with high concentrations in central Europe and low concentrations in northern and eastern Europe.
... Over 7,000 municipalities across the nation are required to create educational campaigns to reduce storm water pollutants (Herbert, 2011). A large source of bacteria and nutrient pollution in U.S. waterways is dog waste (Schueler, 1999). Some of the educational campaigns created for the reduction of pet waste have used social science theories, but most have not (U.S. E.P. A., 2007, 2010Southwest Florida Water Management District, 2008). ...
Aiming to help municipalities develop effective education and outreach campaigns to reduce stormwater pollutants, such as pet waste, this study applied the Health Belief Model (HBM) to identify perceptions of dog waste and corresponding collection behaviors from dog owners living in a small U.S. city. Results of 455 online survey responses strongly support the HBM, a well-established health communication theory, and provide evidence for helping municipalities develop dog waste reduction campaigns. These findings guide dog waste behavior change campaign strategies discussed at the end of the article, and point to HBM's potential application to other environmental issues.
... For instance, in the United States more than 25% of people rely on septic systems alone (241,246) and for Australia this figure is around 12% (97). Septic systems may fail and the failure rate can be considerably high (i.e. more than 40% in Australia) (146,247). However, the rate may vary in different communities, and failure rates of around 55% ...
... EMC values largely derive from Nationwide Urban Runoff Program work on smaller watersheds during the early 1980s (USEPA, 1983), and values used for simulations in the NYC area are provided in Table I. The Simple Method does not actually simulate runoff nutrient depletion from source to sink (Schueler, 1999;USEPA, 1983;USEPA, 2001c), and instead uses a single linear equation to predict the pollutant load L P based on the land-use type u, the annual depth of runoff-producing precipitation P eff , the runoff coefficient for the land use R u , the EMC for the land-use C u , and the area of land in the land-use type A u . ...
The HSPF (Hydrologic Simulation Program - Fortran) model is a U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency endorsed mechanistic model for
simulating the water quality impact of storm triggered point and
non-point source loading. Although HSPF simulates both impervious and
pervious hydrologic components of watershed runoff, the model cannot
represent important urban transport mechanisms that route pollutants to
receiving waters, including storm sewer runoff, spatially variable
watertable triggered runoff, and basin-interior trapping of pollutants
in vegetative filters and detention basins. These limitations, when
revealed in modeling runoff in NYC's sub-urbanized Croton drinking water
supply area, were overcome by loosely coupling HSPF with three other
runoff models, Storm Water Management Model (SWMM),
Hydrologic-Simulation Program - Fortran (HSPF), Program for Predicting
Polluted Particle Passage through Pits, Puddles and Ponds (P8), and
Topographic-based Land Atmosphere Transfer Scheme (TOPLATS). Combined,
these four models simulate the following transport pathways of concern:
1) impervious processes of catch basin and storm sewer hydraulics, 2)
pervious processes of infiltration, surface runoff, sub-surface storm
flow, watertable dynamics, and 3) reach and reservoir processes of
runoff routing and storm runoff detention. In addition to providing
process simulation for investigators, the coupling of these models
ultimately enables selection of more appropriate parameter values for a
separate set of HSPF model runs that lump the dynamics revealed in the
companion models.
... In the year 2000, the population of the Cow Bayou watershed (~23,900) was slightly higher than that of Adams Bayou (~17,500). Between 1990 and 2000, the population of the Adams Bayou watershed increased only 2%, while the Cow Bayou watershed population grew by 17%. The major industries in the watersheds include chemical manufacturing, oil and gas production, forestry, and beef production. ...
... EMC values largely derive from Nationwide Urban Runoff Program work on smaller watersheds during the early 1980s (USEPA, 1983), and values used for simulations in the NYC area are provided in Table I. The Simple Method does not actually simulate runoff nutrient depletion from source to sink (Schueler, 1999;USEPA, 1983;USEPA, 2001c), and instead uses a single linear equation to predict the pollutant load L P based on the land-use type u, the annual depth of runoff-producing precipitation P eff , the runoff coefficient for the land use R u , the EMC for the land-use C u , and the area of land in the land-use type A u . ...
Internal hydrological processes in suburban watersheds and their effects on water quality warrant investigation. Instrument clusters (throughfall collectors, suction lysimeters, monitoring wells, and shallow and deep piezometers) were installed at several locations within three small (50 - 70 ha) watersheds (one forested, two with different degrees of suburban development) in the Croton Watershed, southeastern New York. Biweekly and storm samples were analyzed for base cations, selected anions, and DOC over a one-year period. The topographic index (TI) quantified landscape position; flowpath analyses determined degree of development at each cluster, using % impervious cover as the metric. Water quality degradation was observed in sites with medium and high TI values; no such effect was observed along the ridges, i.e., low TI values. At medium TI values, areas with more than 5% impervious had degraded water quality. At high TI values, the water chemistry degradation appeared at 10% or greater impervious surface
An overlooked source of faecal contamination of rivers comes from misconnected pipes from residential properties. With a large increase in housing developments along with property extensions, there is widespread concern that piping networks are not being adequately checked for misconnections before property sales. Two surveys of 45 sites on the River Lee and its tributaries used coliforms and biofilm communities to identify misconnection hotspots, with the focus on contamination from raw sewage. Between the 2013 survey and a repeat in 2020, there has been a significant increase in the number of coliforms from surface water outfalls from an average of 43,693 cfu per 100ml to 123,797 cfu - nearly a three-fold increase. The percentage of misconnections containing raw sewage was calculated as 7.2% in 2014, increasing to 10.6% in 2020, thus suggesting an increase in the number of misconnections. The biofilm communities that developed on tiles pegged into the river substrate below surface water outfalls were categorised by three community groupings: clean communities, a transitional group and dirty communities. A clear separation between these groups can be seen in the DECORANA plots. CCA found a relationship between taxa in clean and dirty sites associated with coliform counts. This study highlights that the contribution of raw sewage is underestimated, and this is becoming a persistent and serious pollution problem, especially in urban rivers where the increase is greater. Using coliform testing and biofilm communities in combination will highlight misconnection hotspots.
Stormwater is a valuable alternative water resource with scope for recycling and beneficial use. However, stormwater often contains disease-causing faecal pathogens which require prior removal. Stormwater biofilters are sustainable, soil-plant based passive infiltration systems which demonstrate promising pathogen treatment. Due to their passive nature, however, biofilters often display inconsistent treatment performance. This project investigated how plants and native microbes inhabiting these systems could be engineered for enhanced pathogen treatment. It was found that significant antimicrobial-producing plants and their microbial symbionts supported enhanced pathogen treatment within biofilters. Ergo, these features are recommended for future application within biofilters for improved treatment consistency.
This chapter characterizes the requirements of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) middleware and its components for dynamic registering and discovering of spatial services specifically for collaborative modeling in environmental planning. The chapter explores the role of Web services with respect to implementation standard and protocols and identifies implementation features for exposing distributed GIS business logic and components via Web services. In particular, the chapter illustrates applications of the interoperability specifications of Open GIS Consortium’s (OGC) Web Mapping Service and (WMS), Web Processing Standards (WPS) with respect to implementation feature. The chapter demonstrates a prototype implementation of collaborative environmental decision support systems (GEO-ELCA- Exploratory Land Use Change Assessment) where Web service-enabled middleware adds core functionality to a Web mapping service. The application demonstrates how individual workspace-based namespaces can be used to perform Web mapping functionality (such as spatial analysis in visualization) through the integration of environmental simulation models to explore collective planning scenario. Built on OGC compliant connector and supports WMS and WPS, the system includes interactive supports for geospatial data query, mapping services and visualization tools for multi-user transactions.
Human fecal contamination of water is a public health risk. However, inadequate testing solutions frustrate timely, actionable monitoring. Bacterial culture-based methods are simple but typically cannot distinguish fecal host source. PCR assays can identify host sources but require expertise and infrastructure. To bridge this gap we have developed a field-ready nucleic acid diagnostic platform and rapid sample preparation methods that enable on-site identification of human fecal contamination within 80 min of sampling. Our platform relies on loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) of human-associated Bacteroides HF183 genetic markers from crude samples. Oligonucleotide strand exchange (OSD) probes reduce false positives by sequence specifically transducing LAMP amplicons into visible fluorescence that can be photographed by unmodified smartphones. Our assay can detect as few as 17 copies/ml of human-associated HF183 targets in sewage-contaminated water without cross-reaction with canine or feline feces. It performs robustly with a variety of environmental water sources and with raw sewage. We have also developed lyophilized assays and inexpensive 3D-printed devices to minimize cost and facilitate field application.
Enacting strategies to improve urban life can no longer be encapsulated into one discipline’s goals, one realm of implementation or viewed at from one standard scale. To facilitate sustainable development within the urban form, design and planning strategies must address social, environmental, economic and aesthetic onsiderations in unison (Figure 1).
Discovering how collaboration among different disciplines can benefit one another and a critical evaluation of these relationships will become increasingly imperative in our dynamic and complex world. One such collaboration is between environmental groups involved in improving water quality and community building groups that strive to help communities in need become aware of and develop their assets and capacities. Lack of social resources and water quality concerns are two significant problems in the urban environment, but typically organizations that
strive to improve these resources work independently of one another. However, a few innovative organizations have found overlapping objectives and reasons for collaboration by highlighting the secondary benefits of certain stormwater management strategies. The intent of this investigation was to critically review the literature, conduct case studies and a post-occupancy evaluation to discover how such partnerships can be executed successfully and what lessons can be learned. This investigation has revealed that successful partnerships between these groups require that secondary benefits of stormwater management strategies be
tailored to a community’s unique concerns and presented to the community in such
terms. It has also been found that success for these projects is dependent on whether their plans address several scales and have long-term viability with regards for environmental, social and economic health, while also providing aesthetic appeal and desirability.
Water pollution is a major environmental problem in the United States. To improve the surface water quality of the 2,493 ha (6,160 ac) Coulee Baton watershed in Louisiana, a collaborative nonpoint source pollution control study was initiated in 2004. Conservation measures and best management practices (BMPs) including cross-fencing of pasturelands (726.9 m [2,385 ft]), irrigation land leveling (12.9 ha [32 ac]), grade stabilization structures (two), irrigation water pipeline (975.4 m [3,200 ft]), and a livestock well covering a total of 92.7 ha (229 ac) of agricultural land, and repair or replacement of 80 septic systems in the watershed were voluntarily implemented by landowners and homeowners. Water samples were collected from seven monitoring sites for 66 rain events from September 24, 2009, to August 9, 2011. Laboratory determinations of water samples included total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), total solids (TS), five-day biological oxygen demand (BOD5), nitrate/nitrite-nitrogen (NO3/NO2-N), soluble reactive phosphate (SRP), total phosphorus (TP), total Kjeldahl N (TKN), chloride (Cl), fluoride (Fl), sulfate (SO4), and fecal coliform counts. Surface water temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity, conductivity, and pH were determined in the field using YSI Sonde (YSI Incorporated, Yellow Springs, Ohio). For the watershed, DO, BOD5, and TS concentrations and fecal coliform count ranged, respectively, between 1.2 and 14.1 mg L-1 (ppm), 2 and 40.1 mg L-1, 35 and 5,719 mg L-1, and 400 106 and 17 106 most probable number (MPN) per 100 mL. The months of March, April, June, and September showed, on average, higher concentrations of TS and TDS, fecal coliform count, NO3/NO2-N, and SRP and TP, respectively. As compared to the ongoing BMPs, the post-BMPs, TSS, NO3/NO2-N, SRP, and BOD5 concentrations, on average, were lower by 56.2%, 23.1%, 82.5%, and 27.4%, respectively. Developed land use types and the failed septic systems were identified as major sources of fecal coliform pollution. These results suggest comprehensive strategies are necessary for effective nonpoint source pollution control in agricultural watersheds. Copyright © 2016 Soil and Water Conservation Society. All rights reserved.
One of the most significant threats to the health and safety of man is the quantity and quality of the water consumed; and in especially the developing world, inadequate sanitation facilities and shortage of clean water sources is the cause of waterborne diseases and death to millions of people. This study was therefore geared towards understanding the sources and threats to domestic water supply in the city of Owerri and peoples' preference for different water sources and possible health implications of such choices. A combination of field observation, interview techniques and questionnaire survey was applied in the study. The study concludes that groundwater sources remain the most preferred water source for domestic use in Owerri town while majority of city dwellers prefer satchet or bottled water for drinking purposes. Major threats to water quality included improper waste disposal and management and unsafe water storage/handling processes. It was also realized that, there is little or no treatment of all water sources in Owerri before usage both for drinking and other domestic uses. Recommendations include proper implementation of environmental/water protection laws and edicts, proper monitoring of packaged water production factories and processes by public health officials.
If construction or development occurs in a watershed, the area of impervious surfaces such as roads, parking lots, and buildings typically increases, with a corresponding decrease in the area of natural pervious surfaces. The result is an increase in stormwater runoff volumes, peak flow rates, and a degradation of runoff quality. The degradation of runoff quality can be observed in increased concentrations and total mass loads of nutrients and other organics, metals, chlorides, bacteria, viruses, hydrocarbons, and other substances, as well as increases in runoff temperature. The increased loading of these substances to receiving water bodies can be quite detrimental. This chapter discusses the most common contaminants found in urban stormwater runoff, their impacts, and typical concentrations.
Metro periodically reviews the science literature behind its natural resource policies to ensure policies are based on the most current science. Recently staff reviewed the scientific literature regarding the impacts of dogs on wildlife to inform Metro Regulatory Code Title 10.01, which excludes pets from most Metro properties. The only exceptions are service dogs, leashed dogs on some regional trails, Broughton Beach, boat ramps and properties managed by others through intergovernmental agreements that are integrated into larger parks where leashed dogs are allowed (e.g., Forest Park).
Any human related activity can disturb wildlife. In order to meet Metro's dual goals of protecting natural resources and providing access to nature, Metro has tried to strategically locate trails in less sensitive habitat and to ensure that human activity is as non-disruptive as possible. Part of that strategy has been to allow public access, while limiting certain activities such as bringing dogs into natural areas.
The evidence that dogs negatively impact wildlife is overwhelming. It is clear that people with dogs – on leash or off – are much more detrimental to wildlife than people without dogs. Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are considered to be a subspecies of wolves (Canis lupus), and wildlife perceive dogs as predators.(30) Impacts include:
1. Physical and temporal displacement – The presence of dogs causes wildlife to move away, temporarily or permanently reducing the amount of available habitat in which to feed, breed and rest. Animals become less active during the day to avoid dog interactions. Furthermore, the scent of dogs repels wildlife and the effects remain after the dogs are gone.
2. Disturbance and stress response – Animals are alarmed and cease their routine activities. This increases the amount of energy they use, while simultaneously reducing their opportunities to feed. Repeated stress causes long-term impacts on wildlife including reduced reproduction and growth, suppressed immune system and increased vulnerability to disease and parasites.
3. Indirect and direct mortality – Dogs transmit diseases (such as canine distemper and rabies) to and from wildlife. Loose dogs kill wildlife.
4. Human disease and water quality impacts - Dog waste pollutes water and transmits harmful parasites and diseases to people.
Twenty samples of fresh water from different sources in Karaye Local Government Area, Kano State were randomly collected and subjected to Arsenic speciation and pH determination using standard Laboratory methods. Average pH values for all the sampling units indicated no deviation from allowed limits and ranged from 6.89-7.48 with an overall mean of 7.34. The mean arsenic concentrations varies from 0.10 to 0.60mg/L and a mean of 0.34mg/L, which is above the World Health Organization drinking water guideline (0.0lmg/L). Therefore, the sources of drinking water were found to be contaminated with abnormal concentration of arsenic species and consumers are vulnerable to severe health hazards. The high arsenic concentrations could be attributed to both natural and anthropogenic processes such, as erosion, undersurface weathering, toxic chemicals, improper waste and sewage disposal, wastes from industries, agricultural activities and vehicular emissions.
Potable water is a scarce resource in Yenegoa (Bayelsa Nigeria) town because of problems of ground water conditions and contamination. Residents in the town depend therefore on imported water and unwholesome ground water sources for sustenance. Over 200 boreholes exist in the city and constitute the major source of domestic water to this growing third world city. Thus, the present study aimed to diagnose the quality of the water consumed by the population. Thirty boreholes were therefore selected and the presence of readily analyzable biological contaminants in ground water sources in the city and their health implications were examined. Selected micro-organisms (coliform, E. coli, Pseudomonas and
Salmonella) where analyzed and compared with WHO/FEPA water quality standards. Results revealed the presence of hazardous biological communities in the ground water sources especially in the Opolo-Okaka-Old Yenegoa-Swali axis, while groundwater sources from the up-gradient and more clayey Igbogene-Agudama- Okutukutu axis were relatively free of the selected biological contaminants. The study concludes that ground water in the Yenegoa central district and the Swali areas suffer intense biological contamination which therefore exposes inhabitants to water borne diseases such as: cholera, diarrhea, typhoid fever, bacterial and amebic dysentery, polio infections, hepatitis and schistosomiasis. Suspected
contamination sources is seepage from oft-ill constructed soak-away pits. Also, groundwater problems arising from the seasonal flooding of porous soil formations leading to the collapse of the water table especially in the long rainy season that characterize the study area is also a major causative factor.
Enhancement of Surface Runoff Quality Using Tree Filters and Modified Sorbents
Enhanced Stormwater Contaminant Removal Using Modified Sorbents in Tree Filters.
The objective of this study was to develop and test nanoparticle- and polymer-based bioactive amended sorbents to enhance stormwater runoff treatment in best management practices (BMPs). Red cedar wood and expanded shale were the sorbents tested. Red cedar wood chips (RC) were modified with 3-(trihydroxysilyl) propyldimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride (TPA) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) at different mass loadings (0.36 mg/g, 0.67 mg/g, and 0.93 mg/g for TPA and 0.33 mg/g and 0.68 mg/g for AgNPs) to simultaneously improve the sorption of organic and inorganic contaminants and pathogenic deactivation in BMPs treating stormwater runoff. Unmodified expanded shale is often used as a filter material for stormwater treatment and was used as a base comparison. The results showed that TPA and AgNPs loading onto red cedar increased the Langmuir maximum sorption coefficient (Q) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, up to 35 fold and 29 fold, respectively, compared to unmodified red cedar. In the case of heavy metals, Q for lead increased with increased loading of TPA and AgNPs, whereas no significant change in the Q value for cadmium was observed, while zinc and nickel sorption slightly decreased. The Langmuir maximum sorption coefficient of copper was higher for modified red cedar; however, no correlation was observed with TPA or AgNP loadings. The log reduction value (LRV) for Escherichia coli using unmodified red cedar was <1 log, while modified red cedar exhibited LRV up to 2.90 ± 0.50 log for 0.67 mg/g TPA-RC and up to 2.10 ± 0.90 log for 0.68 mg/g AgNP-RC. Although AgNP-modified red cedar shows a comparable performance to TPA-RC, the high cost of production may limit the use of AgNP-amended materials. While TPA-modified red cedar has advantages of lower cost and lower toxicity, the fate, transport, and environmental implications of TPA in natural environments has not been fully evaluated. The findings from this study show that if BMPs were to incorporate the modified red cedar, stormwater treatment of PAH and E. coli could be enhanced, and the quality of the treated water will improve.
Numerous sources of infectious disease causing microorganisms exist in watersheds and can impact recreational and drinking water quality. Organisms of concern include bacteria, viruses, and parasites. The watershed manager is challenged to limit human contact with pathogens, limit the numbers of pathogens reaching surface or groundwaters, and limit the pathogens reaching crops eaten raw to levels below those needed to cause infection. Therefore, the goal of the National Risk Management Research Laboratory's (NRMRL) watershed pathogens research program is to develop optimum solutions for managing the complex problem of watershed microbial contamination and thus support watershed managers' decision making. It supports the Agency's Strategy for Waterborne Microbial Disease Control by addressing contamination sources, named in the strategy as one of the highest priority approaches to water protection. This paper summarizes the current state of the knowledge on the sources and impacts of microbial pathogens in the watershed and discusses challenges to their successful management, research underway to resolve them, and research that is planned by the NRMRL.
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