Role of Astaxanthin in Sports Nutrition

Abstract

Strenuous exercise induces oxidative stress, inflammation, lipid peroxidation, and muscle damage. Natural astaxanthin is a potent antioxidant with anti-inflammatory properties. As such, astaxanthin supplementation may be important in sports nutrition. Natural astaxanthin has been documented to increase muscular strength and endurance in five out of six human clinical studies as well as four supporting animal trials. This chapter reviews the published studies on astaxanthin supplementation as they relate to sports nutrition.

Full text

Role of Astaxanthin in Sports Nutrition
Bob Capelli, Cyanotech Corporation, Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, USA
Gerald R. Cysewski, PhD, Cyanotech Corporation, Kailua-Kona,
Hawaii, USA
January, 2013
Corresponding Author: Bob Capelli, bcapelli@cyanotech.com 808.334.9415
Summary
Natural Astaxanthin is documented to increase strength and endurance in both human clinical
studies as well as supporting animal trials. In a study funded by Gatorade®, competitive cyclists
taking 4 mg per day of Natural Astaxanthin for 28 days improved cycling times by 5% and
power output by 15% on average. In earlier research, young men taking 4 mg per day of Natural
Astaxanthin for six months performed 62% more deep knee bends, increasing their strength and
endurance almost three times faster than the placebo group. In addition to improving strength
and endurance, Astaxanthin is an excellent supplement for athletes due to its intense and unique
antioxidant activity and its safe and natural anti-inflammatory effects. As an antioxidant, its
reach extends throughout the body to all organs and muscle tissue, combatting excessive free
radical production by athletes, and is many times stronger than other common antioxidants. As
an anti-inflammatory, it reduces six different inflammatory pathways and provides a safe
alternative to over-the-counter and prescription anti-inflammatories, most of which have serious
side effects. In conclusion, Natural Astaxanthin supplementation would be a great benefit to all
athletes and active people, particularly endurance athletes.
Key Words
Astaxanthin; Natural Astaxanthin; endurance; strength; antioxidant; anti-inflammatory; recovery.

Role of Astaxanthin in Sports Nutrition
Introduction
Natural Astaxanthin was released on the human nutrition market in the late 1990’s after
establishing safety parameters and being allowed for human use by the US Food & Drug
Administration. Based on research on its impressive antioxidant strength, Astaxanthin was
originally marketed as “The World’s Strongest Natural Antioxidant.” At that time, exploration
was just beginning to emerge as to Astaxanthin’s various other health benefits. (1). It was also
at that time that a very important human clinical study was done in Sweden by Dr. Curt
Malmsten validating Natural Astaxanthin’s ability to increase strength and endurance. (2). Since
then, additional research has further validated Astaxanthin’s ability to increase strength and
endurance in human and animal populations. New in-vitro work has surfaced showing the
extraordinary and unique ability of Astaxanthin to combat oxidation, of particular interest to
athletes who generate excessive levels of free radicals and wish to lengthen workouts and
improve recovery time. Furthermore, Astaxanthin is emerging as a safe and natural alternative to
over-the-counter and prescription anti-inflammatories to help with overuse injuries as well as
joint, tendon and muscle pain. (1). Although all of these factors can yield enormous benefits for
all types of athletes, no group is better suited for supplementation with Natural Astaxanthin than
endurance athletes. For this reason, Natural Astaxanthin has become an important tool in the
arsenal of many triathletes, marathon runners, long distance bicyclists and more. In this paper,
we will first analyze the existing literature on Astaxanthin’s ability to increase strength and
endurance, and then examine its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and discuss how
these properties can benefit athletes.
Benefits of Astaxanthin for Athletes
Part 1: Strength & Endurance
The most important benefit that Natural Astaxanthin has for athletes is that it increases strength
and endurance. In the animal kingdom, the animal that has the greatest amount of Astaxanthin in
its body is the salmon. Astaxanthin concentrates to the highest levels in the muscles of the
salmon. It has been theorized that Astaxanthin is what gives the salmon the incredible strength
and endurance to swim upriver for weeks to spawn. In salmon, as in other species (including
humans), extremely high levels of free radicals are generated when exerting force. The presence
of a strong antioxidant such as Natural Astaxanthin in the fish’s muscle tissue can mitigate or
eliminate the excess free radicals generated by this extreme exertion of swimming up river for
weeks at a time. It appears that this same effect of Astaxanthin concentrating in the muscles
occurs in humans. The study done in Sweden we mentioned above verified what many early
users of Natural Astaxanthin were reporting—that they were getting stronger and increasing their

endurance when supplementing with Astaxanthin. The study was done with healthy male
students between the ages of seventeen and nineteen. The researcher used forty men with an
equal number (twenty) in the treatment group and in the placebo group. Each subject took one 4
mg capsule per day with a meal for six months.
The subjects’ strength was measured at the beginning of the experiment, halfway through (after
three months), and again at the end of the experiment (after six months) by counting the
maximum number of knee bends to a 90º angle that each subject could do. This was controlled
by an adjustable stool in a “Smith machine.” (The Smith machine is specifically designed for
measuring strength and endurance in clinical trials.) The subjects were properly warmed up for a
set time and in a similar manner before each strength measurement.
The results showed that, in six months, the students taking Natural Astaxanthin improved their
strength and endurance by 62%. This was achieved at the relatively low dose of only 4 mg per
day. The students taking a placebo increased their strength by 22%, which is normal for people in
this age group over a six month period, as they were generally involved in sports and physically
activity. Basically, Astaxanthin made these students stronger and increased their endurance
almost three times faster than the placebo group. (2).
Insert Figure 1.
The same researcher, Dr. Malmstem, teamed up with long term Natural Astaxanthin researcher
Dr. Ake Lignell in an article ten years later, also centered on strength and endurance. This 2008
publication cited several other supporting studies that had occurred over the last ten years since
Dr. Malmstem’s groundbreaking human clinical study. The summary of this article is a good tool
for understanding Natural Astaxanthin’s potential for athletes and active people:
"The marked improvement in strength/endurance would seem very interesting,
since it cannot be explained by improved fitness (step-up test) or improved lactic
acid tolerance (Wingate test). Furthermore, since there was no significant
increase in body weight, an increased muscle mass cannot be used to explain this
positive effect. Because of this, Astaxanthin seems to have a beneficial effect on
strength/endurance.
This is the first study in humans to show that Astaxanthin supplementation has a
positive effect on physical performance. The result of this study is supported by
earlier findings that Astaxanthin supplementation in mice increases swimming
time before exhaustion, and that biomarkers of muscle fatigue decrease in humans
after exercise due to Astaxanthin supplementation.
Further studies need to be designed to find the explanations to the mechanisms
behind the increased muscle endurance. It can be hypothesized that Astaxanthin
protects the membrane structures of the cells, like the mitochondrial membrane
against oxidative stress generated during heavy exercise and thereby preserves the
functionality of the muscle cells.” (3).

While these same results cannot be guaranteed for older people, they certainly indicate that
Astaxanthin increases strength and endurance. The hypothesis for how Astaxanthin helps in this
area: Mitochondrial organelles, which are numerous in muscle tissue, produce up to 95% of our
body’s energy by burning fatty acids and other substances. But this energy that is produced also
generates highly reactive free radicals. The free radicals, in turn, can damage cell membranes and
oxidize DNA. And the free radicals continue to impact the muscles even after we stop exercising
—they activate inflammatory markers which lodge in muscle tissue and cause soreness and
tiredness. According to the mitochondrial theory of aging, degradation done to the mitochondria
is due largely to oxidative damage. The damage done in the cell leaves the mitochondria
deficient of respiration and inefficient in producing energy. When a cell is no longer producing
energy optimally, the strength and endurance of the individual declines.
Because Astaxanthin is such a powerful antioxidant, it effectively scavenges the muscle tissue
for free radicals and eliminates singlet oxygen. During all strenuous physical activity, the body
produces large amounts of free radicals. The more strenuous the activity, the greater the
production of free radicals. (4,5,6) It is probable that the mechanism of action that enables
Natural Astaxanthin to make people stronger and increase their endurance is through its intense
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity in the energy-producing mitochondria.
An extremely significant human clinical trial on Natural Astaxanthin in 2011 was funded by
Gatorade Sports Science Institute. Being the world’s leading company in the sports drink
market, Gatorade’s interest in Astaxanthin is in the area of endurance and sports applications. For
this study, Gatorade used competitive cyclists, supplementing them with a placebo or 4 mg of
Natural Astaxanthin each day for four weeks. From the endurance athlete’s—or for that matter—
from any competitive athlete’s perspective, the results were excellent. In a 20 kilometer
(approximately 12.5 mile) cycling time trial, the performance of the subjects taking Astaxanthin
significantly improved, while the subjects taking placebo showed no improvement. Natural
Astaxanthin made these competitive cyclists on average 5% faster in only 28 days. Also, the
cyclists taking Astaxanthin demonstrated significant improvement in their power output, which
increased by 15% on average over the same 28 day period. (7). Although this study did not
establish a mechanism of action for Astaxanthin’s improvement in performance, strength and
endurance for these cyclists, the fact that it is the second human clinical trial showing that
Natural Astaxanthin can improve strength and endurance in and of itself is of particular
significance. Of particular interest to competitive athletes is the 5% improvement in speed in
less than a month. In many sports where fractions of a second separate gold medal winners from
silver, bronze and being off the podium, a potential 5% improvement is extraordinarily
significant.
Insert Figure 2.
A different kind of sports-related clinical study was done in Japan to measure Natural
Astaxanthin’s effect on lactic acid levels in the muscles. Lactic acid is an unwanted byproduct of
physical exertion; it deposits in the muscles and causes burning during exercise. The result of
reducing lactic acid levels is increased endurance. This study was also done with young men, all
twenty years old; the treatment group took 6 mg per day of Natural Astaxanthin for four weeks.
Lactic acid levels for both groups were measured before running 1200 meters and again two

minutes after running. The results were very positive: The young men taking Natural Astaxanthin
averaged 28.6% lower serum lactic acid after running 1200 meters compared to the placebo
group. (8).
There are animal studies that corroborate the human clinical trials cited above. One such study
done with mice was designed to measure the effects of Astaxanthin on endurance. The results
were similar to the endurance clinical trials in young men and in competitive cyclists:
Astaxanthin markedly increased endurance in mice. This study took course over a five week
period. Mice were divided into two groups and their endurance was tested by seeing how long
they could swim until exhaustion. The mice fed Astaxanthin showed a significant increase in
swimming time before exhaustion. Blood lactose levels were measured in both groups, and, as
expected, the levels of the Astaxanthin group were significantly lower than the control group.
Another effect measured was fascinating: Astaxanthin supplementation significantly reduced fat
accumulation. This is the first mention of such an effect and further proof is needed before
putting any credence into this potential benefit. The study’s authors suggested that Astaxanthin
enabled the mitochondria to burn more fat: “These results suggest that improvement in
swimming endurance by the administration of Astaxanthin is caused by an increase in utilization
of fatty acids as an energy source.” (9).
A subsequent mouse study backed up the results found in the human clinical trials discussed
above as well as earlier mouse trials. This study was set up to investigate the effects of
Astaxanthin supplementation on muscle lipid metabolism in mice that exercised heavily. The
outcome was that mice that were fed Astaxanthin for four weeks and then exercised 1) had better
fat utilization; 2) had longer running time until exhaustion; 3) had better muscle lipid metabolism
and 4) had reduced fat tissue. The researchers concluded that Astaxanthin supplementation led to
improvement in endurance. (10).
The last animal study that we’ll examine in the area of endurance is from the same group of
researchers as the mouse study above. This study took mice and ran them on a treadmill until
they were exhausted. The mice were separated into three different groups: Group A was the
control group that was not exercised at all and was not given Astaxanthin. Group B was
exercised until exhaustion, but was not given Astaxanthin either. Group C was exercised
similarly to Group B, but their diets were supplemented with Natural Astaxanthin. After the
exhaustive exercise, the mice were sacrificed and examined. Their heart muscles and calf
muscles were checked for oxidative damage. The researchers found that various markers of
oxidative damage were reduced in both the heart muscles and calf muscles of Group C. They
found a corresponding reduction of oxidation in the plasma as well. The cell membranes in the
treatment group’s calf and heart muscles suffered significantly less peroxidation damage. Also,
damage to DNA and proteins were significantly reduced in the mice supplemented with
Astaxanthin. Another effect noticed was better modulation of inflammation damage indicators
and serum creatine kinase. In fact, muscle inflammation was found to decrease by more than
50% in the mice given Astaxanthin. “Our data documented that Astaxanthin indeed is absorbed
and transported into skeletal muscle and heart in mice, even though most carotenoids accumulate
mainly in the liver and show relatively little distribution to other peripheral tissues, including
skeletal muscle and heart. This unique pharmacokinetic characteristic of Astaxanthin makes it
well suited to oxidative stress in gastrocnemius [calf] and heart…Thus, Astaxanthin attenuates

exercise-induced damage by directly scavenging reactive oxygen species and also by down-
regulating the inflammatory response.” (11).
This study proves, first of all, by examining the calf muscles and heart muscles of mice, that
Natural Astaxanthin actually reaches these two very spread out areas in the rodents’ bodies. The
authors point out that this is not the case with most other carotenoids. This is a unique and very
important difference between Natural Astaxanthin and other antioxidants and carotenoids: Many
cannot get throughout the body. Because of its shape and esterified nature (with fatty acids
attached to one or both ends of the molecule), Natural Astaxanthin has this tremendous
advantage—it travels to the far reaches of the body, into every organ—the brain, the heart, the
muscles and even the skin, fighting oxidation and inflammation and thereby protecting them.
The other key point that this study proved was that, once in these diverse areas of the body,
Astaxanthin was doing exactly what it’s supposed to do—eliminating free radicals, reducing
inflammation and preventing damage to DNA and cell membranes. This is one of the most
significant animal studies to date demonstrating the extensive and varied benefits of Natural
Astaxanthin in-vivo.
In summary, human clinical trials validate and pre-clinical animal trials corroborate strength and
endurance benefits for athletes who use Natural Astaxanthin. Highlights of these benefits
include:
5% time improvement for competitive cyclists using 4 mg Natural Astaxanthin per
day for 28 days
15% power output improvement for the same competitive cyclists using 4 mg
Natural Astaxanthin per day for 28 days
62% more deep knee bends by 17 – 19 year old men taking 4 mg Natural
Astaxanthin per day for six months
28.6% decrease in serum lactic acid in 20 year old men taking 6 mg Natural
Astaxanthin per day for six weeks when measured after a 1200 meter run
Human clinical results above are substantiated in animal trials
Additional potential benefits in animal trials include:
Reduced fat accumulation
Improved muscle lipid metabolism
Reduced markers for oxidative damage in heart and calf muscles after
heavy exercise
Reduced oxidation in the plasma
Reduced peroxidation damage to DNA and proteins
Improved modulation of inflammatory damage
Improved modulation of serum creatine kinase
Reduced muscle inflammation by 50%

Part 2: A Diverse and Unique Antioxidant
It is well documented that athletes, particularly endurance athletes and anyone doing heavy
workouts, generate extremely high levels of free radicals. Astaxanthin is a perfect supplement
for athletes who want to combat these increased levels of free radicals. Some potential benefits
of neutralizing free radicals are:
Faster recover
Increased length of workouts
Reduced muscle soreness
As cited above, increased endurance (1)
It is also well documented that Astaxanthin is an extremely powerful antioxidant. Countless in-
vitro studies comparing it to many other antioxidants such as Vitamin C, Vitamin E,
Pycnogenol®, green tea catechins, CoQ10, alpha lipoic acid, as well as other carotenoids (beta
carotene, lutein, lycopene) generally show Astaxanthin to be at minimum an order of magnitude
more powerful as an antioxidant. This is true regardless of the type of antioxidant test—whether
it be free radical elimination or singlet oxygen quenching—and the results are sometimes
staggering. For example, Astaxanthin proved to be 800X stronger than CoQ10; 550X stronger
than both green tea catechins and Vitamin E; and 6000X stronger than Vitamin C in eliminating
singlet oxygen. (12,13).
Insert Figure 3.
But Astaxanthin’s strength as an antioxidant is only one factor in why it is so different from other
antioxidants. In addition to being extraordinarily powerful, Astaxanthin, unlike many other
antioxidants, can:
Span the cell membrane and bring antioxidant protection to both the fat-soluble and
water-soluble parts of the cell
Travel throughout the entire body into all organs, muscle tissue and the skin
Bond with muscle tissue
Cross the blood-brain and blood-retinal barriers and bring antioxidant protection to the
eyes and brain
Never become a pro-oxidant (1)
The combination of outstanding antioxidant power; the ability to travel throughout the body and
protect organs vital to athletic performance like the heart, eyes and brain; the ability to bond with
muscle tissue; as well as the fact that it can never turn into a pro-oxidant and potentially cause
oxidation—as can happen with Vitamins C & E, zinc, and carotenoids like beta carotene,
lycopene and zeaxanthin (14,15)—make Astaxanthin an ideal choice as an antioxidant for
athletes.
Part 3: Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Astaxanthin
In addition to being a powerful and unique antioxidant, Astaxanthin also possesses anti-
inflammatory activity to help athletes with joint, tendon and muscle soreness. Once again, there

is a distinguishing factor between Astaxanthin and other anti-inflammatories: Natural
Astaxanthin is safe.
If you consider current anti-inflammatory products on the market, most have serious side effects.
Aspirin has anti-inflammatory effects, but prolonged use can cause stomach bleeding and ulcers.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID’s) such as acetaminophen (Tylenol®) can cause
liver damage. And prescription anti-inflammatory drugs such as Vioxx® and Celebrex® can
cause heart problems. Vioxx was taken off the market and its manufacturer Merck & Co. lost
almost $5 billion in lawsuits related to deaths it caused. In fact, the American Journal of
Medicine reported that NSAID’s contribute to roughly 16,500 deaths and more than 100,000
hospitalizations each year. (16). Yet after many years of consumer use and extensive safety
studies, Natural Astaxanthin has never been documented to have any side effect or
contraindication. It is a safe alternative in the high-risk category of anti-inflammatories.
One possible reason why Astaxanthin is safe compared to alternative anti-inflammatories is that
it works on several different inflammatory pathways, but in a less concentrated way than the
other anti-inflammatories. Astaxanthin is documented to suppress the production of each of
these inflammatory causing agents in our bodies:
1. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha
2. Prostaglandin E-2
3. Nitric oxide
4. Interleukin 1-B
5. Cox-1 enzyme
6. Cox-2 enzyme (17,18,19,20,21)
The most recent of these five studies citing Astaxanthin’s multiple pathways in combatting
inflammation found activity on all six of the pathways listed above, and called Astaxanthin’s
anti-inflammatory activity “remarkable.” (21). Working in a gentler manner on six different
causes of inflammation is much safer than working intensely on one cause (as is the case with
Vioxx and Celebrex which work intensely on the Cox-2 enzyme). Professor of Medicine and
Neurology Greg Cole, PhD from the University of California at Los Angeles explains, “While
anti-inflammatory drugs usually block a single target molecule and reduce its activity
dramatically, natural anti-inflammatories gently tweak a broader range of inflammatory
compounds. You’ll get greater safety and efficacy reducing five inflammatory mediators by 30%
than by reducing one by 100%. (22).
Conclusions
Natural Astaxanthin is documented to increase strength and endurance in both human clinical
studies as well as supporting animal trials. In a study funded by Gatorade®, competitive cyclists
taking 4 mg per day of Natural Astaxanthin for 28 days improved cycling times by 5% and
power output by 15% on average. In earlier research, young men taking 4 mg per day of Natural
Astaxanthin for six months performed 62% more deep knee bends. In addition to improving

strength and endurance, Astaxanthin is an excellent supplement for athletes due to its intense and
unique antioxidant activity and its safe and natural anti-inflammatory effects. As an antioxidant,
its reach extends throughout the body to all organs and muscle tissues, combatting excessive free
radical production by athletes, and is many times stronger than other common antioxidants. As
an anti-inflammatory, it reduces six different inflammatory pathways and provides a safe
alternative to over-the-counter and prescription anti-inflammatories, most of which have serious
side effects. In conclusion, Natural Astaxanthin would be a great benefit to all athletes and
active people, particularly endurance athletes.
References
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Figure 3.