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Hypoventilation Training at Supramaximal Intensity Improves Swimming Performance

Authors:
Xavier Woorons at University of Lille, Pluridisciplinary Research Unit Sport Health & Society (URePSSS)
Xavier Woorons
  • University of Lille, Pluridisciplinary Research Unit Sport Health & Society (URePSSS)
Patrick Mucci at University of Lille
Patrick Mucci
Jean-Paul Richalet at Université Paris 13 Nord,
Jean-Paul Richalet
  • Université Paris 13 Nord,
Aurélien Pichon at Université de Poitiers Laboratoire MOVE
Aurélien Pichon
  • Université de Poitiers Laboratoire MOVE
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Abstract

Purpose: This study aimed to determine whether hypoventilation training at supramaximal intensity could improve swimming performance more than the same training carried out under normal breathing conditions. Methods: Over a 5-week period, sixteen triathletes (12 men, 4 women) were asked to include twice a week into their usual swimming session one supramaximal set of 12 to 20 x 25m, performed either with hypoventilation at low lung volume (VHL group) or with normal breathing (CONT group). Before (Pre-) and after (Post-) training, all triathletes performed all-out front crawl trials over 100, 200 and 400m. Results: Time performance was significantly improved in VHL in all trials [100m: - 3.7 ± 3.7s (- 4.4 ± 4.0%); 200m: - 6.9 ± 5.0s (- 3.6 ± 2.3%); 400m: - 13.6 ± 6.1s (-3.5 ± 1.5%)] but did not change in CONT. In VHL, maximal lactate concentration (+ 2.35 ± 1.3 mmol.L-1 on average) and the rate of lactate accumulation in blood (+ 41.7 ± 39.4%) were higher at Post- than at Pre- in the three trials whereas they remained unchanged in CONT. Arterial oxygen saturation, heart rate, breathing frequency and stroke length were not altered in both groups at the end of the training period. On the other hand, stroke rate was higher at Post- compared to Pre- in VHL but was not different in CONT. The measurements of gas exchange over the 400-m trial revealed no change in peak oxygen consumption as well as in any pulmonary variable in both groups. Conclusion: This study demonstrated that VHL training, when performed at supramaximal intensity, represents an effective method for improving swimming performance, partly through an increase in the anaerobic glycolysis activity.
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... However, applying breath-holding differently, that is, integrated in regular training sessions, may reveal some benefits for improving performance indicators (Figure 1, lower part). First, restricted breathing frequency, also called voluntary hypoventilation, during swimming, either at high (Karaula et al., 2016;Lavin et al., 2015) or at low (Trincat et al., 2017;Woorons et al., 2016) end-expiratory lung volume, has been shown to improve 100 m to 400 m swimming performance (Karaula et al., 2016;Lavin et al., 2015;Woorons et al., 2016) but not 50 m performance (Lemaitre et al., 2009) norV O 2 peak (Lavin et al., 2015;Woorons et al., 2008Woorons et al., , 2016. This method is effective in eliciting both hypoxic and hypercapnic stress although it is difficult to discern their respective effects . ...
... However, applying breath-holding differently, that is, integrated in regular training sessions, may reveal some benefits for improving performance indicators (Figure 1, lower part). First, restricted breathing frequency, also called voluntary hypoventilation, during swimming, either at high (Karaula et al., 2016;Lavin et al., 2015) or at low (Trincat et al., 2017;Woorons et al., 2016) end-expiratory lung volume, has been shown to improve 100 m to 400 m swimming performance (Karaula et al., 2016;Lavin et al., 2015;Woorons et al., 2016) but not 50 m performance (Lemaitre et al., 2009) norV O 2 peak (Lavin et al., 2015;Woorons et al., 2008Woorons et al., , 2016. This method is effective in eliciting both hypoxic and hypercapnic stress although it is difficult to discern their respective effects . ...
... However, applying breath-holding differently, that is, integrated in regular training sessions, may reveal some benefits for improving performance indicators (Figure 1, lower part). First, restricted breathing frequency, also called voluntary hypoventilation, during swimming, either at high (Karaula et al., 2016;Lavin et al., 2015) or at low (Trincat et al., 2017;Woorons et al., 2016) end-expiratory lung volume, has been shown to improve 100 m to 400 m swimming performance (Karaula et al., 2016;Lavin et al., 2015;Woorons et al., 2016) but not 50 m performance (Lemaitre et al., 2009) norV O 2 peak (Lavin et al., 2015;Woorons et al., 2008Woorons et al., , 2016. This method is effective in eliciting both hypoxic and hypercapnic stress although it is difficult to discern their respective effects . ...
Apnoea as a novel method to improve exercise performance: A current state of the literature
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Full-text available
Acute breath‐holding (apnoea) induces a spleen contraction leading to a transient increase in haemoglobin concentration. Additionally, the apnoea‐induced hypoxia has been shown to lead to an increase in erythropoietin concentration up to 5 h after acute breath‐holding, suggesting long‐term haemoglobin enhancement. Given its potential to improve haemoglobin content, an important determinant for oxygen transport, apnoea has been suggested as a novel training method to improve aerobic performance. This review aims to provide an update on the current state of the literature on this topic. Although the apnoea‐induced spleen contraction appears to be effective in improving oxygen uptake kinetics, this does not seem to transfer into immediately improved aerobic performance when apnoea is integrated into a warm‐up. Furthermore, only long and intense apnoea protocols in individuals who are experienced in breath‐holding show increased erythropoietin and reticulocytes. So far, studies on inexperienced individuals have failed to induce acute changes in erythropoietin concentration following apnoea. As such, apnoea training protocols fail to demonstrate longitudinal changes in haemoglobin mass and aerobic performance. The low hypoxic dose, as evidenced by minor oxygen desaturation, is likely insufficient to elicit a strong erythropoietic response. Apnoea therefore does not seem to be useful for improving aerobic performance. However, variations in apnoea, such as hypoventilation training at low lung volume and repeated‐sprint training in hypoxia through short end‐expiratory breath‐holds, have been shown to induce metabolic adaptations and improve several physical qualities. This shows promise for application of dynamic apnoea in order to improve exercise performance.
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... An additional method of breath-hold training that has gained interest in recent years is voluntary hypoventilation. Incorporating breath-holding into regular training sessions through voluntary hypoventilation has shown potential to improve athletic performance (Trincat et al. 2017;Karaula et al. 2016;Lavin et al. 2015;Woorons et al. 2016). This technique typically involves the athlete exhaling to a predetermined pulmonary volume (e.g., near functional residual capacity) and holding their breath for a set duration Lapointe et al. (2020)], before repeating the exhale-hold cycle. ...
... This combination of repeated-sprint training with short bouts of end-expiratory breath-holding, similarly to dynamic breath-holds (Joulia et al. 2003;Elia et al. 2021b), is effective in inducing hypoxaemic (~ < 88%) and hypercapnic stress (Yamamoto et al. 1987(Yamamoto et al. , 1988Dempsey and Wagner 1999;Findley et al. 1983). Over time, this training method appears effective in improving swimming performance [twice per week for 5-weeks; Woorons et al. (2016)], running economy [three times per week for 4-weeks; Lavin et al. (2015)] and repeated-sprint ability [six sessions performed over a 2-week period; Trincat et al. (2017)]. While the precise mechanism(s) driving these improvements remain(s) unclear, the authors have attributed them to an enhanced buffering capacity and pH regulation, and to a better oxygen utilisation in fast-twitch muscle fibres (Bishop et al. 2011). ...
The application of breath-holding in sports: physiological effects, challenges, and future directions
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2025
  • EUR J APPL PHYSIOL
Repeated breath-holding has been shown to elicit transient increases in haemoglobin and erythropoietin concentrations, while long-term engagement in breath-hold-related activities has been linked with improved hypercapnic tolerance, mental resilience, and favourable cardiorespiratory, cerebrovascular, and skeletal muscle adaptations. Given these findings, breath-holding was proffered as a possible performance optimisation strategy a little over a decade ago. This prompted practitioners and researchers to explore its broader application either as a priming strategy completed immediately before an endurance activity or as an alternative hypoxic-hypercapnic training method. Therefore, this review aims to offer an update of the acute and long-term physiological responses to breath-holding that are relevant to athletic performance and provide an overview of the existing body of knowledge surrounding its potential utility and efficacy as a performance enhancement strategy. Current evidence suggests that breath-holding may have potential as a priming strategy; however, further placebo-controlled studies are required to rigorously evaluate its efficacy. Additionally, it is evident that developing an effective protocol and administering it successfully is more complex than initially thought. Key factors such as the characteristics of the prescribed protocol, the timing of the intervention relative to the event, and the nature of the existing warm-up routine all require careful consideration. This highlights the need for adaptable, context-specific approaches when integrating breath-holding into real-world sporting environments. Finally, while dynamic breath-hold training shows the greatest potency as a performance optimisation strategy, further research is necessary to determine the optimal training protocol (i.e., hypoxaemic-hypercapnic dose), and duration.
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... Different modes of breathing restriction training are vastly implemented in the training of swimmers [15]. For instance, apneic sprint training has been shown to effectively increase 100-400 m swim performance, the effect attributed largely to upregulated anaerobic glycolytic metabolism [28]. There is evidence to suggest that repeated exposure to underwater apneic exercise reduces lactate production in response to apneic exercise [29], probably also evidencing specificity in adaptation and warranting a progressive increase in the stimulus (more repetitions, shorter rest periods, etc.). ...
... Higher lactate levels in response to swimming with prolonged underwater sections reported in this study could putatively be because the underwater propulsion phase is realized largely by lower body muscles, while for surface front-crawl swimming, upper body muscles are the primary driving force. However, we feel that this could barely be the explanation for exaggerated blood lactate response since although leg muscles are more bulky and perhaps not that efficient for swimming, they are also trained during swimmers' training routines [28] and are not more anaerobic compared to arm muscles [37]. In addition, the large increase in lactate levels with prolonged underwater sections would not be attributable to the intensity of the contractile activity of the muscles per se since the task was submaximal rather than maximal. ...
Higher Blood Lactate with Prolongation of Underwater Section in Submaximal Front-Crawl Swimming
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2024
The underwater phase (UP) is highly important for overall swimming performance in most swimming events. However, the metabolic effects of the prolonged UP remain unclear. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to compare the blood lactate response to submaximal front-crawl swimming with short and extended UP. Twelve (four females) junior competitive swimmers (aged 15.4 (1.4) years) undertook 200 m front-crawl swim trials in a 25 m pool at a pre-determined “anaerobic threshold” velocity on two occasions using short (<5 m) and extended (12.5 m) UP after each turn. Pacing and total time were ensured to be identical between the trials. Capillary blood lactate response was measured. Testing for 25 m swim time with <5 m and 12.5 m UP was conducted on a separate occasion. When athletes undertook and extended UP after each propulsion from the wall, their post-exercise blood lactate concentration reached 7.9 (2.1) mmol/L, more than two times higher than the response to trial with short UP (p < 0.001). All-out 25 m swimming with <5 m or 12.5 m UP disclosed no difference in locomotion velocity (p > 0.05). In conclusion, extending UP of submaximal front-crawl swimming close to maximally allowed during the races substantially increases blood lactate accumulation, i.e., increases the reliance on anaerobic metabolism. Therefore, extended UP is most likely counterproductive for the performance in long-distance swimming, at least for the athletes with a FINA score of <800. On the other hand, the extension of UP could be an effective strategy to train ‘lactate tolerance’, lactate shuttling, removal, and recycling.
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... The traditional hypoventilation training focuses on the hypoxic effects that are thought to stimulate anaerobic glycolysis, with lactic acid tolerance improved eventually (West et al., 2005;Woorons et al., 2010;Yamamoto et al., 1987). To ensure the hypoxic effects, the breath-holdings need to be implemented at low expiratory reserve volume (low lung volume) (Trincat et al., 2017;Woorons et al., 2010Woorons et al., , 2016. However, the traditional voluntary hypoventilation limits exercise intensity and duration, which possibly causes detraining effects (Woorons et al., 2010(Woorons et al., , 2008. ...
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... Les questions relatives à ces différents effets croisés ou possibilités de combinaisons méritent d'être examinées. (Brocherie et al., 2015 ;Schmitt et al., 2006 ;Woorons et al., 2016 ;Beard et al., 2019), les expérimentations du projet HYPOXPERF ont été co-construites avec les staffs des équipes nationales pour être menées prioritairement en condition « écologique » sur les différents centres d'entraînement et avec les fédérations impliquées. Sur l'ensemble des lots de travail, la population initialement ciblée est conforme au projet initial même si, parfois, il a fallu pallier des impératifs organisationnels (changement de gouvernance ou d'encadrement technique au sein de certaines fédérations) et calendaires (replanification du calendrier international des compétitions) et élargir le recrutement à des groupes d'athlètes de haut niveau mais non postulants aux Jeux olympiques (catégorie relève) ou issus d'autres fédérations (Fédération française de triathlon dans le WP1) qui ne faisaient pas partie du projet au départ. ...
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... This cycle of normal breathing followed by apnea was repeated a total of 24 times (6 min). In previous studies, different interventions employed the intervallic apnea protocols with durations of 6 s-24 s [17], 40 m-30 s [18], 25 m-30 s [19], and 15 m-30 s [20]. However, these protocols were conducted with recreational athletes. ...
Effects of Apnea-Induced Hypoxia on Hypoalgesia in Healthy Subjects
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
Introduction: Exercise-induced hypoalgesia is a phenomenon in which exercise bouts induce a reduction in pain sensitivity. Apnea training involves similar characteristics that could potentially induce hypoalgesia. Objectives: The objectives of this study are to explore the effect of apnea training on hypoalgesia; assess the correlation between conditioned pain modulation (CPM) response and apnea-induced hypoalgesia; and examine the association between hypoalgesia with hypoxemia, and heart rate (HR) during apnea. Methods: A randomized controlled trial was conducted comparing a walking protocol employing intermittent apnea compared with normal breathing in healthy volunteers. Hypoalgesia was tested with pressure pain thresholds (PPTs) and CPM. Oxygen saturation (SpO2) and HR were also tested. Results: Relevant but not significant changes were detected in the thumb (MD = 0.678 kg/cm2), and tibialis (MD = 0.718 kg/cm2) in favor of the apnea group. No significant differences were detected in CPM. The apnea group presented lower SpO2, but HR values similar to those of the control group during the intervention. Basal CPM and intrasession hypoxemia significantly correlated with the PPT response. However, HR did not correlate with the PPT response. Conclusions: The current results suggest a trend, though not statistically significant, toward an improvement in the PPT in favor of apnea training compared to normal breathing. Nevertheless, subjects who presented greater basal CPM and lower oxygen saturation during the session presented a greater PPT response, suggesting the possibility of mediators of response. Future investigations should clarify this phenomenon.
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Hypoventilation training - history and development of an untraditional training method
Article
  • Jan 2025
This is the first study to provide a review of the literature on the historical development of voluntary hypoventilation training (VHL). VHL is an unconventional training method that is increasingly gaining attention for its potential to improve athletic performance through controlled hypoxia and hypercapnia. Unlike traditional hypoxic training, which requires specialised equipment or high-altitude exposure, VHL relies on breathing restrictions during exercise, offering a widely accessible alternative. The purpose of this study is to provide a historical perspective on the use of VHL. The review of the literature aims to describe the historical context, physiological basis, and development of VHL, which originated in breath holding techniques used by freedivers and evolved into a training tool adopted by elite athletes like Emil Zátopek to simulate challenging race conditions. In the late twentieth century, VHL was utilised by elite swimmers and mid-distance runners, who used the technique of extension of breath-holding after inspiration. Although this technique was not proven to be effective in inducing significant hypoxia, it was still applied in sports practice and is known as hypoxic training. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Xavier Woorons and colleagues significantly advanced awareness of VHL in the scientific community by demonstrating its effectiveness using the end-expiratory breath-hold technique. This approach was shown to be effective in altering pH, increasing cardiac output, and inducing significant hypoxia and hypercapnia during exercise. Incorporating VHL into a training cycle can enhance respiratory muscle strength, buffering capacity, and endurance abilities. Currently, VHL is applied primarily in team sports due to its proven effectiveness in improving repeated sprint ability. Future research may focus on verifying the safety of this training method and exploring its potential to improve hematopoiesis.
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Additional benefits of a repeated-sprint training with prolonged end-expiratory breath holding for improving repeated-sprint ability in semi-professional soccer players
Article
  • Dec 2024
  • Int J Sports Physiol Perform
Purpose: To investigate the effects of a running repeated-sprint training with voluntary hypoventilation at low lung volume (RSH-VHL) including prolonged end-expiratory breath holding (EEBH) on running repeated-sprint ability (RSA). Methods: 20 semi-professional male soccer players completed 12 sessions of repeated 50-m running sprints over a six-week period either with EEBH (RSH-VHL, n=10) or with normal breathing (RSN, n=10). Before (Pre) and after (Post) training, a running RSA test consisting of performing a maximum 30-m “all-out” sprints until task failure, with a minimum of 10 sprints, was implemented. Results: The maximum number of sprints was increased at Post compared to Pre in RSH-VHL only (13.5±4.4 vs. 7.70±2.3, p 0.01), and was greater in RSH-VHL than in RSN at Post (p<0.01). The mean velocity over sprints 1 to 10 and over sprints 6 to 10 was increased in both groups at Post (p<0.01) but was greater in RSH-VHL than in RSN after the training period (p<0.01). There was no change in the reference velocity (p=0.80) as well as in the maximal velocity reached during the RSA test (p=0.52) in both groups. The mean minimal arterial oxygen saturation recorded during training at the end of the sprints was lower in RSH-VHL (78.5±1.4%) than in RSN (97.3±0.1%). Conclusions: This study shows that an RSH-VHL intervention including prolonged EEBH can provide an additional benefit for improving RSA in male semi-professional soccer players. This result may be due for a large part to the strong hypoxic effect induced by the prolonged EEBH.
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Hypoventilation training including maximal end-expiratory breath holding improves the ability to repeat high-intensity efforts in elite judo athletes
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2024
Purpose To investigate the effects of a repeated-sprint training in hypoxia induced by voluntary hypoventilation at low lung volume (RSH-VHL) including end-expiratory breath holding (EEBH) of maximal duration. Methods Over a 4-week period, twenty elite judo athletes (10 women and 10 men) were randomly split into two groups to perform 8 sessions of rowing repeated-sprint exercise either with RSH-VHL (each sprint with maximal EEBH) or with unrestricted breathing (RSN, 10-s sprints). Before (Pre-), 5 days after (Post-1) and 12 days after (Post-2) the last training session, participants completed a repeated-sprint ability (RSA) test on a rowing ergometer (8 × 25-s “all-out” repetitions interspersed with 25 s of passive recovery). Power output (PO), oxygen uptake, perceptual-motor capacity (turning off a traffic light with a predetermined code), cerebral (Δ[Hbdiff]) and muscle (Δ[Hb/Mb]diff) oxygenation, cerebral total haemoglobin concentration (Δ[THb]) and muscle total haemoglobin/myoglobin concentration (Δ[THb/Mb]) were measured during each RSA repetition and/or recovery period. Results From Pre-to Post-1 and Post-2, maximal PO, mean PO (MPO) of the first half of the test (repetitions 1–4), oxygen uptake, end-repetition cerebral Δ[Hbdiff] and Δ[THb], end-repetition muscle Δ[Hb/Mb]diff and Δ[THb/Mb] and perceptual-motor capacity remained unchanged in both groups. Conversely, MPO of the second half of the test (repetitions 5–8) was higher at Post-1 than at Pre-in RSH-VHL only (p < 0.01), resulting in a lower percentage decrement score over the entire RSA test (20.4% ± 6.5% vs. 23.9% ± 7.0%, p = 0.01). Furthermore, MPO (5–8) was greater in RSH-VHL than in RSN at Post-1 (p = 0.04). These performance results were accompanied by an increase in muscle Δ[THb/Mb] (p < 0.01) and a concomitant decrease in cerebral Δ[THb] (p < 0.01) during the recovery periods of the RSA test at Post-1 in RSH-VHL. Conclusion Four weeks of RSH-VHL including maximal EEBH improved the ability of elite judo athletes to repeat high-intensity efforts. The performance improvement, observed 5 days but not 12 days after training, may be due to enhanced muscle perfusion. The unchanged oxygen uptake and the decrease in cerebral regional blood volume observed at the same time suggest that a blood volume redistribution occurred after the RSH-VHL intervention to meet the increase in muscle perfusion.
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Cardiorespiratory and muscle oxygenation responses to voluntary hypoventilation at low lung volume in upper body repeated sprints
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2024
  • EUR J APPL PHYSIOL
Purpose To investigate the impact of voluntary hypoventilation at low lung volumes (VHL) during upper body repeated sprints (RS) on performance, metabolic markers and muscle oxygenation in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) athletes. Methods Eighteen male well-trained athletes performed two randomized RS sessions, one with normal breathing (RSN) and another with VHL (RS-VHL), on an arm cycle ergometer, consisting of two sets of eight all-out 6-s sprints performed every 30 s. Peak (PPO), mean power output (MPO), and RS percentage decrement score were calculated. Arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2), heart rate (HR), gas exchange, and muscle oxygenation of the long head of the triceps brachii were continuously recorded. Blood lactate concentration ([La]) was measured at the end of each set. Bench press throw peak power (BPPP) was recorded before and after the RS protocol. Results Although SpO2 was not different between conditions, PPO and MPO were significantly lower in RS-VHL. V˙{\dot{\text{V}}}E, HR, [La], and RER were lower in RS-VHL, and VO2 was higher in RS-VLH than in RSN. Muscle oxygenation was not different between conditions nor was its pattern of change across the RS protocol influenced by condition. [La] was lower in RS-VHL than in RSN after both sets. Conclusion Performance was significantly lower in RS-VHL, even though SPO2 was not consistent with hypoxemia. However, the fatigue index was not significantly affected by VHL, nor was the neuromuscular upper body power after the RS-VHL protocol. Additionally, [La] was lower, and oxygen consumption was higher in RS-VHL, suggesting a higher aerobic contribution in this condition.
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Adaptation of Endurance Training with a Reduced Breathing Frequency
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2013
  • J SPORT SCI MED
The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of training with reduced breathing frequency (RBF) on tidal volume during incremental exercise where breathing frequency was restricted and on ventilatory response during exercise when breathing a 3% CO2 mixture. Twelve male participants were divided into two groups: experimental (Group E) and control (Group C). Both groups participated three cycle ergometry interval training sessions per week for six weeks. Group E performed it with RBF i.e. 10 breaths per minute and group C with spontaneous breathing. After training Group E showed a higher vital capacity (+8 ± 8%; p = 0.02) and lower ventilatory response during exercise when breathing a 3% CO2 mixture (-45 ± 27%; p = 0.03) compared with pre-training. These parameters were unchanged in Group C. Post-training peak power output with RBF (PPORBF) was increased in both groups. The improvement was greater in Group E (+42 ± 11%; p < 0.01) than in Group C (+11 ± 9%; p = 0.03). Tidal volume at PPORBF was higher post-training in Group E (+41 ± 19%; p = 0.01). The results of the present study indicate that RBF training during cycle ergometry exercise increased tidal volume during incremental exercise where breathing frequency was restricted and decreased ventilatory sensitivity during exercise when breathing a 3% CO2 mixture. Key PointsTraining with a reduced breathing frequency during exercise decreased ventilator sensitivity to carbon dioxide. In addition, it increased minute ventilation during exercise with imposed reduced breathing frequency.Training with reduced breathing frequency could not be realized at higher intensity of exercise due to the additional stress caused by such a breathing pattern. Therefore the improvement in aerobic endurance (considering peak oxygen uptake) could not be expected after this kind of training.
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The Placebo Effect in Sports Performance
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Full-text available
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The placebo effect, with its central role in clinical trials, is acknowledged as a factor in sports medicine, although until recently little has been known about the likely magnitude and extent of the effect in any specific research setting. Even less is known about the prevalence of the effect in competitive sport. The present paper reviews 12 intervention studies in sports performance. All examine placebo effects associated with the administration of an inert substance believed by subjects to be an ergogenic aid. Placebo effects of varying magnitudes are reported in studies addressing sports from weightlifting to endurance cycling. Findings suggest that psychological variables such as motivation, expectancy and conditioning, and the interaction of these variables with physiological variables, might be significant factors in driving both positive and negative outcomes. Programmatic research involving the triangulation of data, and investigation of contextual and personality factors in the mediation of placebo responses may help to advance knowledge in this area.
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Full-text available
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The placebo effect, with its central role in clinical trials, is acknowledged as a factor in sports medicine, although until recently little has been known about the likely magnitude and extent of the effect in any specific research setting. Even less is known about the prevalence of the effect in competitive sport. The present paper reviews 12 intervention studies in sports performance. All examine placebo effects associated with the administration of an inert substance believed by subjects to be an ergogenic aid. Placebo effects of varying magnitudes are reported in studies addressing sports from weightlifting to endurance cycling. Findings suggest that psychological variables such as motivation, expectancy and conditioning, and the interaction of these variables with physiological variables, might be significant factors in driving both positive and negative outcomes. Programmatic research involving the triangulation of data, and investigation of contextual and personality factors in the mediation of placebo responses may help to advance knowledge in this area.
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Cardiovascular Responses During Hypoventilation at Exercise
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2011
  • INT J SPORTS MED
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Exercise with hypoventilation induces lower muscle oxygenation and higher blood lactate concentration: Role of hypoxia and hypercapnia
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2010
  • EUR J APPL PHYSIOL
Eight men performed three series of 5-min exercise on a cycle ergometer at 65% of normoxic maximal O(2) consumption in four conditions: (1) voluntary hypoventilation (VH) in normoxia (VH(0.21)), (2) VH in hyperoxia (inducing hypercapnia) (inspired oxygen fraction [F(I)O(2)] = 0.29; VH(0.29)), (3) normal breathing (NB) in hypoxia (F(I)O(2) = 0.157; NB(0.157)), (4) NB in normoxia (NB(0.21)). Using near-infrared spectroscopy, changes in concentration of oxy-(Delta[O(2)Hb]) and deoxyhemoglobin (Delta[HHb]) were measured in the vastus lateralis muscle. Delta[O(2)Hb - HHb] and Delta[O(2)Hb + HHb] were calculated and used as oxygenation index and change in regional blood volume, respectively. Earlobe blood samples were taken throughout the exercise. Both VH(0.21) and NB(0.157) induced a severe and similar hypoxemia (arterial oxygen saturation [SaO(2)] < 88%) whereas SaO(2) remained above 94% and was not different between VH(0.29) and NB(0.21). Arterialized O(2) and CO(2) pressures as well as P50 were higher and pH lower in VH(0.21) than in NB(0.157), and in VH(0.29) than in NB(0.21). Delta[O(2)Hb] and Delta[O(2)Hb - HHb] were lower and Delta[HHb] higher at the end of each series in both VH(0.21) and NB(0.157) than in NB(0.21) and VH(0.29). There was no difference in Delta[O(2)Hb + HHb] between testing conditions. [La] in VH(0.21) was greater than both in NB(0.21) and VH(0.29) but not different from NB(0.157). This study demonstrated that exercise with VH induced a lower tissue oxygenation and a higher [La] than exercise with NB. This was caused by a severe arterial O(2) desaturation induced by both hypoxic and hypercapnic effects.
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Combining Hypoxic Methods for Peak Performance
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Full-text available
  • Jan 2010
New methods and devices for pursuing performance enhancement through altitude training were developed in Scandinavia and the USA in the early 1990s. At present, several forms of hypoxic training and/or altitude exposure exist: traditional ‘live high-train high’ (LHTH), contemporary ‘live high-train low’ (LHTL), intermittent hypoxic exposure during rest (IHE) and intermittent hypoxic exposure during continuous session (IHT). Although substantial differences exist between these methods of hypoxic training and/ or exposure, all have the same goal: to induce an improvement in athletic performance at sea level. They are also used for preparation for competition at altitude and/or for the acclimatization of mountaineers. The underlying mechanisms behind the effects of hypoxic training are widely debated. Although the popular view is that altitude training may lead to an increase in haematological capacity, this may not be the main, or the only, factor involved in the improvement of performance. Other central (such as ventilatory, haemodynamic or neural adaptation) or peripheral (such as muscle buffering capacity or economy) factors play an important role. LHTL was shown to be an efficient method. The optimal altitude for living high has been defined as being 2200–2500 m to provide an optimal erythropoietic effect and up to 3100m for non-haematological parameters. The optimal duration at altitude appears to be 4 weeks for inducing accelerated erythropoiesis whereas <3 weeks (i.e. 18 days) are long enough for beneficial changes in economy, muscle buffering capacity, the hypoxic ventilatory response or Na+/K+-ATPase activity. One critical point is the daily dose of altitude. A natural altitude of 2500 m for 20–22 h/day (in fact, travelling down to the valley only for training) appears sufficient to increase erythropoiesis and improve sea-level performance. ‘Longer is better’ as regards haematological changes since additional benefits have been shown as hypoxic exposure increases beyond 16 h/day. The minimum daily dose for stimulating erythropoiesis seems to be 12 h/day. For non-haematological changes, the implementation of a much shorter duration of exposure seems possible. Athletes could take advantage of IHT, which seems more beneficial than IHE in performance enhancement. The intensity of hypoxic exercise might play a role on adaptations at the molecular level in skeletal muscle tissue. There is clear evidence that intense exercise at high altitude stimulates to a greater extent muscle adaptations for both aerobic and anaerobic exercises and limits the decrease in power. So although IHT induces no increase in V̇O2max due to the low‘altitude dose’, improvement in athletic performance is likely to happenwith high-intensity exercise (i.e. above the ventilatory threshold) due to an increase in mitochondrial efficiency and pH/lactate regulation. We propose a new combination of hypoxic method (which we suggest naming Living High-Training Low and High, interspersed; LHTLHi) combining LHTL (five nights at 3000 m and two nights at sea level) with training at sea level except for a few (2.3 per week) IHT sessions of supra-threshold training. This review also provides a rationale on how to combine the different hypoxic methods and suggests advances in both their implementation and their periodization during the yearly training programme of athletes competing in endurance, glycolytic or intermittent sports.
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Analysis of the interactions between breathing and arm actions in the front crawl
Article
  • Jan 2001
  • J Hum Mov Stud
This study analyses the effect of breathing on propulsion by comparing the coordination of arm movements and the relative duration of stroke phases in two swim conditions: crawl with and crawl without breathing. In this comparison, specific attention is given to skill level and swim velocity. Twenty-four male swimmers constituted two groups based on performance level. All swam at two different velocities, corresponding to the paces appropriate for the 100m and 800m in the two breathing conditions. The different stroke phases and the arm coordination were identified by video analysis. According to Chollet et al (2000), arm coordination was quantified using an index of coordination (IdC), which expresses the three major models: opposition, catch-up and superposition. Opposition, where one arm begins the pull phase when the other is finishing the push phase; catch-up, which has a lag time (LT) between propulsive phases of the two arms; and superposition which describes an overlap in the propulsive phases. The IdC is an index which characterises coordination patterns by measure of LT between propulsive phases of each arm. The results show that breathing while swimming increases the discontinuity in the propulsive action of the arms: IdC is lower in crawl with breathing (-3.05%). IdC increases with skill level (IdC more expert=0.06%, IdC less expert=-3.22%) and velocity (IdC100-m=0.05%, IdC800-m=-3.33%). IdC is positively correlated to the durations of the propulsive phases and negatively to the durations of the non-propulsive phases. The coefficients of correlation are between ±0.58 and ±0.95. The more expert swimmers have a greater capacity to adapt breathing style to the biomechanical constraints caused by the motor actions of the arms. While swimming with breathing, the more experts attempt to take advantage of the longer period of gliding motion provided by the higher relative duration of the entry and catch phase (+1.66%). The less expert swimmers who, on the contrary, shorten the catch time (-1.70%) and lengthen the durations of the push (+2.84%) and recovery (+2.09%), appear to opt for an increase in the duration of inhalation. This observation may be extended to the comparison between swimming speeds. At slower speeds, less expert swimmers increase arm recovery time (+5.55%) and the more expert increase the time involved in entry and catch (+4.43%).
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Controlled-frequency breath swimming improves swimming performance and running economy
Article
  • Oct 2013
  • SCAND J MED SCI SPOR
Respiratory muscle fatigue can negatively impact athletic performance, but swimming has beneficial effects on the respiratory system and may reduce susceptibility to fatigue. Limiting breath frequency during swimming further stresses the respiratory system through hypercapnia and mechanical loading and may lead to appreciable improvements in respiratory muscle strength. This study assessed the effects of controlled-frequency breath (CFB) swimming on pulmonary function. Eighteen subjects (10 men), average (standard deviation) age 25 (6) years, body mass index 24.4 (3.7) kg/m(2) , underwent baseline testing to assess pulmonary function, running economy, aerobic capacity, and swimming performance. Subjects were then randomized to either CFB or stroke-matched (SM) condition. Subjects completed 12 training sessions, in which CFB subjects took two breaths per length and SM subjects took seven. Post-training, maximum expiratory pressure improved by 11% (15) for all 18 subjects (P < 0.05) while maximum inspiratory pressure was unchanged. Running economy improved by 6 (9)% in CFB following training (P < 0.05). Forced vital capacity increased by 4% (4) in SM (P < 0.05) and was unchanged in CFB. These findings suggest that limiting breath frequency during swimming may improve muscular oxygen utilization during terrestrial exercise in novice swimmers.
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