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Is there a "Glass cliff or a solid ledge for female appointees to the board of directors?
Abstract
Ryan and Haslam (2005) report that women are appointed to senior leadership roles at firms that have recently experienced poor financial performance thus placing the appointee in a precarious position with a higher probability of failure. In contrast to the widely cited concept of the "glass ceiling," Ryan and Haslam's view their 2005 result as evidence of a "glass cliff" for females. However, there has been limited empirical support for this view, plus some contradictory findings (Adams, Gupta, and Leeth, 2009). To further test Ryan and Haslam's hypothesis, this study uses a larger and updated dataset of female board member appointments for Canada. The findings, based on a matched sample methodology, suggest that the glass cliff phenomenon is not apparent for board level appointments made in Canada. In fact, the finding of superior stock market performance in the pre-appointment period for companies appointing female directors may suggest the existence of a solid ledge, not a glass cliff, for female board appointees. In addition, the finding of superior market performance in the post-appointment period for companies that appoint males to the board supports Judge's (2003) antidotal study that motivated this type of research. Overall, the paper further advances the research concerning the theory of a glass cliff.
... Some studies even find opposite effects. In Canada, Hennessey, MacDonald, and Carroll (2014) find that women enter corporate board positions when companies are experiencing strong stock market performance, thus meet a "solid ledge" not a glass cliff. Similarly, Adams, Gupta, and Leeth (2009) find that women are appointed to leadership positions in US firms when the firms are in good financial health. ...
... The seeming contradiction in these measures may point toward a short-term vs. long-term distinction: perhaps women are appointed under conditions of longer-term financial healthrequired to build a fund balance and take care of capital assetsbut short-term spending. If so, these findings contradict the glass cliff and, rather, suggest a "solid ledge" similar to that found by Hennessey, MacDonald, and Carroll (2014) and Adams, Gupta, and Leeth (2009). ...
Women are still underrepresented as public-sector organizational leaders, despite comprising half of the United States public-sector workforce. To explore the factors driving gender imbalance, this Element employs a problem-driven approach to examine gender imbalance in local government management. We use multiple methods, inductive and deductive research, and different theoretical frames for exploring why so few women are city or county managers. Our interviews, resume analysis and secondary data analysis suggesting that women in local government management face a complex puzzle of gendered experiences, career paths and appointment circumstances that lend insights into gender imbalanced leadership in this domain.
... Also, researchers such as Bruckmüller et al. (2014, p. 207) point out that women are more likely to be appointed to lead companies "in situation of crisis", as they are often thought to possess "soft skills" or competence in handling situations involving other people. Such situations place them in environments which are associated with a relatively higher levels of stress and probability of failure in management (Hennessey et al., 2014), although as pointed out by Hunt-Earle (2012), ambitious women managers may also view such high-risk situations to be more of an opportunity to prove their leadership skills and climb up the management ladder. ...
... CEO position for women (1999) examined the glass ceiling issue in relation to the female representation on the corporate boards. With regards to the glass cliff phenomenon, Sabharwal (2013) investigated the intention of women in senior executive services in US federal government agencies to leave their jobs within a year using four key variables (influence over policies, empowerment, organizational justice/equity and work-life balance issues), while Hennessey et al. (2014) examined whether the appointment of women to the Board of Directors is influenced by security market performance of companies. Hunt-Earle (2012) studied the glass cliff phenomenon through application to the recruitment industry. ...
... The glass cliff phenomenon is currently a debated theory, however. For example, bothAdams, Gupta, and Leeth (2009) and Hennessey, MacDonald, and Carroll (2014) find that women were appointed CEOs or to the board of directors in companies that had stronger stock market performances. ...
The purpose of this study is to examine how organizational resources affect the gender gap within lay (volunteer) leadership in religious congregations. Using institutional theory as a framework, this study situates congregations within a larger field of organizations competing for legitimacy. Congregations with higher levels of resources—such as wealthier members, better‐educated members, or larger memberships—are more likely to be connected to the core of the field and therefore more likely to have gender egalitarian practices in order to signal their legitimacy. Therefore, I hypothesize that women in resource‐rich congregations will have greater access to volunteer leadership positions than women in congregations that are resource deficient. I analyze 70,942 individuals in 344 religious congregations from the 2001 U.S. Congregational Life Survey using multilevel modeling. I show that religious congregations with more members, better‐educated attenders, and wealthier attenders have smaller gender gaps in volunteer leadership positions. Congregational resources can mitigate the gender gap in lay leadership, and women within resource‐rich organizations have greater access to positions of authority.
... Heterogeneous variables have been used to test possible determinants of glass cliff effects. One research strand focuses on firm performance (accounting-and/or market-based), as represented by Bechtoldt et al. (2016), Cook and Glass (2014a;2014b), Hennessey et al. (2014), Cook and Glass (2011), Haslam et al. (2010), Adams et al. (2009) and Ryan and Haslam (2005). Other research relates to occurrence of an initial loss (Mulcahy & Lineham, 2014); financial distress (Santen & Donker, 2009) or economic crisis ( Sun et al., 2015); shareholder activism ( Gupta et al., 2017); risk of CEO turnover (Elsaid & Ursel, 2017) or a mix of different risk factors (Sabharwal, 2015;Smith, 2015;Smith & Monaghan, 2013;Brady et al., 2011). ...
Following thirty years of discussion of the “glass ceiling,” recent empirical research has focused on the relatively new phenomenon of women on the board of directors—the so-called “glass cliff.” This refers to a form of gender discrimination in which women are more often appointed to leadership positions in risky and precarious business circumstances than their male counterparts. Highlighting the key findings of current quantitative and qualitative research, this literature review assesses existing support for the glass cliff hypothesis and the limitations of empirical research and recommendations. Most of the included studies find support for the glass cliff, in which “think crisis, think female” stereotypes complement the traditional “think leadership, think male” approach. As archival and other studies have been conducted predominantly in Anglo-American countries, future research should extend to other methods and settings. In contrast to the recent literature, the present review draws a clear distinction between archival, experimental and qualitative research, so increasing interest and relevance for practitioners, regulators and researchers.
... The gender inequality in many workplaces has resulted in what is called "Glass Ceiling"; a situation where female managers would attain a management level above which they cannot rise, even with clear paths of promotion. They believed that one of the main reasons behind this discrimination is the perception that women are too "emotional" to handle top positions and that top positions require more masculine traits such as being assertive, aggressive, controlling, and competitive (Hennessey et al., 2014). ...
This study discusses the relationship between a country's happiness, and relevant country characteristics including gender inequality, levels of corruption, and the percentage of women in parliamentary positions. The aim of the study is to understand how these variables change according to female representation in political leadership. Secondary source data was collected and correlation analyses were performed between the variables using the SPSS statistical program. Results show that the lower the Gender Inequality Index, the higher the percentage of Women in Parliament Positions and the higher the Happiness Index. Furthermore, the results indicate that a higher number of women in leadership position is associated with a lower corruption level and a higher degree of Happiness. Results suggest that the context in which women reach political positions is characterized by less corruption and gender inequality alongside greater happiness in the country.
... The glass cliff phenomenon draws from the precarious work literature. Accepting a top management position or a board position in a firm suffering from poor financial performance can be considered precarious work (Hennessey, MacDonald and Carroll, 2014). Gender socialization theory and the social theory of leadership (Eagly and Carli, 2007;Eagly and Johnson, 1990) provide a framework for understanding why women may be over-represented in such positions. ...
We use the glass cliff to study the appointment and employment duration of 193 female CEOs between 1992 and 2014 in a sample of large, small and mid-size North American firms. Consistent with the glass cliff, we find that women are appointed as CEOs in precarious situations. However, we find female CEOs are 40% less likely to face turnover at any point after appointment than male CEOs. This conflicts with an implication of the glass cliff and differs significantly from existing research which shows that female CEOs have only a slightly lower risk of turnover than male CEOs. Our larger, more recent sample captures changes in the labour market that explain the departure from the results of earlier studies. We find evidence that the lower turnover rate of female CEOs is related to firms' desire to avoid the negative publicity that would accompany their termination, and we also show that greater education has a positive impact on CEO job security.
Inequalities between women and men continue in global labor markets. Although the inclusion of women as labor force increases day by day, their representation in senior management levels remains insufficient. Women continue to face several barriers preventing them from attaining equal access, participation, and progress in the business environment. Within this chapter, the authors discuss two types of career barriers called “glass ceiling” and “glass cliff,” which women encounter frequently in their work life. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a general perspective on barriers of women's career advancement and to examine glass ceiling and glass cliff the in its background, its causes, and its consequences. The chapter also aims to analyze studies which criticize the concept of glass ceiling. The results of the chapter are expected to be a source for researchers in the areas of women's career barriers, women's leadership, and gender inequality.
The purpose of the present study was to test whether or not a biodata inventorycould be used to measure service orientation within global entrepreneurial organizationsin Western and Central Europe. A concurrent validation strategy wasconducted consistent with the methodology previously presented by Schoenfeldt(1999). Within the samples of 403 and 295 non-American employees, the serviceorientation ratings were highly correlated with four scales: "Extroversion,""Openness to experience, " "Conscientiousness, " and "Agreeableness" and notsignificantly correlated with "Emotional Stability. " The findings suggest that fororganizational employee development and selection, service orientation may beeffectively measured by an instrument such as this one and therefore potentiallyimprove customer service management systems.
Reviews of existing research evidence have the potential to inform both practice and scholarship. This opportunity is currently not being fully realized in management and organization studies due to the limitations of traditional methods of review, which fail to identify clearly what is known and not known about a given topic. For practitioners, systematic review can help address managerial problems by producing a reliable knowledge base through accumulating findings from a range of studies. For scholars, systematic review can enhance methodological rigor as well as highlight opportunities for further research. Systematic reviews are guided by a set of principles rather than a specific, inflexible, and restricted protocol. By revealing these principles, outlining a systematic review methodology, and offering examples, we hope that this chapter helps both practitioners and scholars to use systematic review to inform their practice.
In this paper we explore the "glass cliff" form of discrimination. We review archival and experimental evidence of the glass cliff and identify multiple processes as having the potential to contribute to the phenomenon. We also outline a range of potential reactions to the phenomenon, and we elaborate strategies for eliminating glass cliffs, but, as with other forms of (gender) discrimination, we argue that these depend on the capacity for disadvantaged groups to overcome resistance on the part of those who are motivated to maintain the status quo.
While business organizations are struggling to hold on to their best and brightest women, the persistence of the glass ceiling makes this difficult. Dismantling the glass ceiling requires an accurate understanding of the overt and subtle barriers to advancement faced by women, and the strategies used to overcome these barriers. A large-scale, national survey of Fortune 1000 CEOs and the highest-ranking, most successful women in their companies identified key career strategies used by the women in their rise to the top, and the barriers to advancement they faced in their firms. A startling finding of the study was the disparity in the perceptions of chief executive officers and the high-ranking women in their firms. The Fortune 1000 CEOs had vastly different perceptions of the organizational and environmental barriers faced by their female employees, and in their companies' progress towards equality in the workplace.
In 1984 Hogan, Hogan, and Busch defined service-orientation as "the disposition to be helpful, thoughful, considerate, and cooperative" (p. 167). As a measure they developed the Service Orientation Index, a 92-item true-false questionnaire. The present study tested whether a biographical inventory could also be used to measure the construct of service-orientation. Subjects were given the biographical inventory and the Index to predict their service-oriented performance in a simulated interaction with a customer. Scores on the Service orientation Index were significantly correlated with scores on tow biographical scales, Sociability and the Need to make a good impression. The correlations, .24 and .27, were as high as those obtained by Hogan, et al. The Index scores were also significantly correlated with the criterion. Subjects with high scores on Sociability and the Need to make a good impression had the highest rating on service-orientation. Implications for research and aplications of these results are mentioned.
Identification is defined as the “perceived oneness with or belongingness to an organization” of which the person is a member. The authors propose that customers, in their role as members, identify with organizations. They use social identity theory to propose and test a model that relates members’ identification with the focal organization to (1) organizational and product characteristics, (2) members’ affiliation characteristics, and (3) members’ activity characteristics. Their empirical setting consists of the members of an art museum. Their survey findings show that members’ identification is positively related to perceived organizational prestige, donating activity, tenure of membership, visiting frequency, and confirmation of member expectations with the organization's services. However, members’ participation in similar organizations is negatively related to identification with the focal organization. The authors discuss how this study can be extended to other marketing contexts and how managers can use the notion of identification in implementing marketing strategies.
When both an industry's workers and its customers report high and rising frustration with the way they are being treated, something is fundamentally wrong. In response to these conditions, many of the world's airlines have made ever-deeper cuts in services and their workforces. Is it too much to expect airlines, or any other enterprise, to provide a fair return to investors, high-quality reliable service to their customers, and good jobs for their employees? Measured against these three expectations, the airline industry is failing. In the first five years of the twenty-first century alone, U.S. airlines lost a total of $30 billion while shedding 100,000 jobs, forcing the remaining workers to give up over $15 billion in wages and benefits. Combined with plummeting employee morale, shortages of air traffic controllers, and increased congestion and flight delays, a total collapse of the industry may be coming. Is this state of affairs inevitable? Or is it possible to design a more sustainable, less volatile industry that better balances the objectives of customers, investors, employees, and the wider society? Does deregulation imply total abrogation of government's responsibility to oversee an industry showing the clear signs of deterioration and increasing risk of a pending crisis? Greg J. Bamber, Jody Hoffer Gittell, Thomas A. Kochan, and Andrew von Nordenflycht explore such questions in a well-informed and engaging way, using a mix of quantitative evidence and qualitative studies of airlines from North America, Asia, Australia, and Europe. Up in the Air provides clear and realistic strategies for achieving a better, more equitable balance among the interests of customers, employees, and shareholders. Specifically, the authors recommend that firms learn from the innovations of companies like Southwest and Continental Airlines in order to build a positive workplace culture that fosters coordination and commitment to high-quality service, labor relations policies that avoid long drawn-out conflicts in negotiating new agreements, and business strategies that can sustain investor, employee, and customer support through the ups and downs of business cycles.
This study explores the dimensionality of organizational justice and provides evidence of construct validity for a new justice measure. Items for this measure were generated by strictly following the seminal works in the justice literature. The measure was then validated in 2 separate studies. Study 1 occurred in a university setting, and Study 2 occurred in a field setting using employees in an automobile parts manufacturing company. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a 4-factor structure to the measure, with distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice as distinct dimensions. This solution fit the data significantly better than a 2- or 3-factor solution using larger interactional or procedural dimensions. Structural equation modeling also demonstrated predictive validity for the justice dimensions on important outcomes, including leader evaluation, rule compliance, commitment, and helping behavior.
The field of organizational justice continues to be marked by several important research questions, including the size of relationships among justice dimensions, the relative importance of different justice criteria, and the unique effects of justice dimensions on key outcomes. To address such questions, the authors conducted a meta-analytic review of 183 justice studies. The results suggest that although different justice dimensions are moderately to highly related, they contribute incremental variance explained in fairness perceptions. The results also illustrate the overall and unique relationships among distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice and several organizational outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, evaluation of authority, organizational citizenship behavior, withdrawal, performance). These findings are reviewed in terms of their implications for future research on organizational justice.
We provide conceptual and empirical insights elucidating how organisational practices influence service staff attitudes and behaviours and how the latter set affects organisational performance drivers. Our analyses suggest that service organisations can enhance their performance by putting in place strategies and practices that strengthen the service-oriented behaviours of their employees and reduce their intentions to leave the organisation. Improved performance is accomplished through both the delivery of high quality services (enhancing organisational effectiveness) and the maintenance of front-line staff (increasing organisational efficiency). Specifically, service-oriented business strategies in the form of organisational-level service orientation and practices in the form of training directly influence the manifest service-oriented behaviours of staff. Training also indirectly affects the intention of front-line staff to leave the organisation; it increases job satisfaction, which, in turn has an impact on affective commitment. Both affective and instrumental commitment were hypothesised to reduce the intentions of front-line staff to leave the organisation, however only affective commitment had a significant effect.
Franchising is normally viewed as a governance mechanism and/or a distribution medium. Most of the existing literature on franchising takes the view of the parent corporation (Franchisor) in order to explain behavior from the corporate level. Measures used in many studies are firm level performance metrics which capture profitability and efficiency. In this paper, I attempt to find if there are differences between franchised firms and independent firms in the residential real estate brokerage industry. In essence, franchising in a fragmented industry such as real estate brokerage is an attempt at a strategic marketing plan. This plan includes a branding element which can be an important motivator to franchise. I find, in a sample of 158 real estate transactions, that there are no differences between the two types of firms by using three statistical techniques-T Test, Regression, and Probit Analysis-and five variables-Listing Agent Type, Days on Market, Original Asking Price, Sale to Asking Price Ratio, and Commission Rate. The results put in doubt the use of franchising for strategic marketing purposes in that independent firms fared as well as franchised firms. These findings have implications for studies in Marketing, Entrepreneurship and Strategy.
This study attempts to identify the relationship between the Big Five (5) Personality Dimensions and job involvement in foreign based banking/financial institutions operating in Northern Region of Malaysia. The objective of the research is to investigate whether there is a relationship between the Big Five (5) Personality Dimensions, namely extroversion, emotional stability/neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience, and the job involvement; and whether the four (4) Moderating Factors: age, gender, marital status and years of working experience, moderate the relationship between the above mentioned variables. The relationship between the Big Five Personality Dimensions and job involvement was examined in a survey with a sample of one hundred and five (105) sales/customer service staff of foreign based banking/financial institutions in the Northern Region of Malaysia. Hypotheses were tested by means of hierarchical regression with the inclusion of a few moderating factors. Results indicate that extroversion and agreeableness are positively related to job involvement. Gender seems to be the only moderating factor that has significance on the relationship between the personality dimension of extroversion and job involvement. Overall, the findings established the existing of a relationship between the Big Five Personality Dimensions and job involvement, although they are not very strong or extensive.
This quantitative study explores whether demographic differences between a leader and follower are negatively related to the leader-follower exchange (LMX) levels and job satisfaction. The demographic character differences primarily focused on differences in age, gender, tenure, and educational qualification. Results of the research support the notion that dissimilarity leads to: (a) poor quality of exchange which in turn affects job satisfaction of the employees due to repulsion because people tend to be drawn to those who are comparable to them; (b) low communication between the members of a dyad; (c) high role ambiguity; (d) differences in attitudes, values, and beliefs; and (e) high role conflict because the dyad members may have different conceptions of what the subordinate's role necessities. Overall, job satisfaction reflects an individual's general attitude towards his or her job based on satisfaction of the needs or wants. The LMX-7 survey, satisfaction with my supervisor survey, overall job satisfaction, and demographic characteristics questionnaire were the instruments used for data collection administered to 123 participants from a convenient sample. Data was analyzed by regression analysis using the SPSS 17.0 statistical computer program.
Looking at women's power in the home, in the workplace, and in politics from a political economy perspective, Torben Iversen and Frances Rosenbluth demonstrate that equality is tied to demand for women's labor outside the home, which is a function of structural, political, and institutional conditions. They go on to explain several anomalies of modern gender politics: why women vote differently from men; why women are better represented in the workforce in the United States than in other countries but less well represented in politics; why men share more of the household work in some countries than in others; and why some countries have such low fertility rates. The first book to integrate the micro-level of families with the macro-level of national institutions, Women, Work, and Politics presents an original and groundbreaking approach to gender inequality. © 2010 by Torben Iversen and Frances Rosenbluth. All rights reserved.
The vast body of theory and research on justice in groups and organizations has focused primarily on issues of distributive justice (Homans, 1961), that is, the manner in which resources are distributed, and on responses to these distributions (for recent reviews, see Freedman & Montanari, 1980; Greenberg, 1982). Another fundamental type of justice manifest in groups and organizations, but one that has received considerably less attention, concerns the rules and processes through which resources are allocated, that is, procedural justice (Leventhal, 1976; Thibaut & Walker, 1975; Tyler & Caine, 1981). For example, in considering the fairness of pay raises, workers may not only take into account how much pay they receive relative to others, but also such procedural factors as who made the decision, and what criteria were taken into account (see Lawler, 1971). Concerns of this type, focusing on the process of allocation, rather than on the outcome of allocation per se, fall into the domain of procedural justice.
Over the last decade of the 20th century, the question of the relationship between organisations and society was subject to much debate, often of a critical nature. The decade saw protests concerning the actions of organizations, exposures of corporate exploitation and unfolding accounting scandals. At the same time, ethical behaviour and a concern for the environment have been shown to have a positive correlation with corporate performance. The nature of corporate social responsibility is therefore a topical one for businesses and academics. corporate social responsibility and how this might be applied within organizations. This book explores some of these perspectives, based upon the experiences of people in different parts of the world. The authors involved are respected academics from a variety of disciplines and from a number of different parts of the world. The contributions to this book investigate theoretical perspectives on the topic, the application in practice of socially responsible behaviour and the ethical dimension of such behaviour.
Before conductors became a standard part of musical ensembles in the nineteenth century, such ensembles were usually led by a performing member of the ensemble. In this document, an analysis of a small portion of these ensembles from a period of time limited primarily to the 1770s is presented. The writings of musicologist Charles Burney, who made two "Musical Tours" through Europe in the 1770s—while researching for his Dictionary of Music—are used as a basis for the first portion of this document. In Part I of this document, Burney's writings are analyzed, with specific attention being paid to his discussion of ensemble leaders. These leaders are primarily keyboardists and violinists. Additionally, pertinent primary sources, including works of art, pay records, and letters, are examined to find what they show about ensemble leadership. ^ In Part II of this document, the results of Part I are used as a basis for the analysis of the recorded and live performances of 'Historically Informed' ensembles—modern ensembles that attempt to accurately reproduce the performance practices of the period in question. Personal performing experiences are discussed, as well as analyses of concerts, audio, and video recordings. ^ The conclusion of this document is that ensembles performing music of the late eighteenth century are better served by having a leader who is a performing member of the ensemble, rather than a conductor who leads through visual cues to the ensemble.
The factor structure of the Affective and Continuance Commitment Scales (ACS and CCS; Meyer & Allen, 1984), as well as the causal links between affective and continuance commitment, were examined. Data were obtained from 2 employee samples on a single occasion and from a sample of new employees on 3 occasions during their first year of employment. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that (a) the ACS and CCS measure different constructs and (b) the CCS can be divided into 2 highly related subscales reflecting costs associated with leaving the organization (lack of alternatives and personal sacrifice). Tests of nonrecursive causal models with cross-sectional data revealed that (a) affective commitment had a negative effect on the alternatives component of continuance commitment in all samples and (b) both components of continuance commitment had a positive effect on affective commitment for established employees. Analyses of the longitudinal data revealed only a weak, negative, time-lagged effect of the alternatives component on affective commitment.
The process of exchange is almost continual in human interactions, and appears to have characteristics peculiar to itself, and to generate affect, motivation, and behavior that cannot be predicted unless exchange processes are understood. This chapter describes two major concepts relating to the perception of justice and injustice; the concept of relative deprivation and the complementary concept of relative gratification. All dissatisfaction and low morale are related to a person's suffering injustice in social exchanges. However, a significant portion of cases can be usefully explained by invoking injustice as an explanatory concept. In the theory of inequity, both the antecedents and consequences of perceived injustice have been stated in terms that permit quite specific predictions to be made about the behavior of persons entering social exchanges. Relative deprivation and distributive justice, as theoretical concepts, specify some of the conditions that arouse perceptions of injustice and complementarily, the conditions that lead men to feel that their relations with others are just. The need for much additional research notwithstanding, the theoretical analyses that have been made of injustice in social exchanges should result not only in a better general understanding of the phenomenon, but should lead to a degree of social control not previously possible. The experience of injustice need not be an accepted fact of life.
The extent to which negative affectivity (NA), the tendency to experience a wide range of negative emotions, inflated correlations between chronic job stressors and strains was examined in this study. NA was found to account for a large proportion of shared variance between stressors and physical strains (as indicated by absence, doctor visits, and physical symptoms). Contrary to the results of Brief, Burke, George, Robinson, and Webster (1988), NA did not account for much of the variance shared by stressors and affective strains (job satisfaction, anger, and feelings of stress and frustration). Reasons for the failure of this and several earlier studies to successfully replicate Brief et al.'s results are explored.
Although a considerable amount of research in personality psychology has been done to conceptualize human personality, identify the ''Big Five'' dimensions, and explore the meaning of each dimension, no parallel research has been conducted in consumer behavior on brand personality, Consequently, an understanding of the symbolic use of brands has been limited in the consumer behavior literature. In this research, the author develops a theoretical framework of the brand personality construct by determining the number and nature of dimensions of brand personality (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness). Tc, measure the five brand personality dimensions, a reliable, valid, and generalizable measurement scale is created. Finally, theoretical and practical implications regarding the symbolic use of brands are discussed.
Distributive justice was found to be a more important predictor of two personal outcomes, pay satisfaction and job satisfaction, than procedural justice, whereas the reverse was true for two organizational outcomes-organizational commitment and subordinate's evaluation of supervisor. However, procedural and distributive justice also interacted in predicting organizational outcomes. We discuss limitations of this study and directions for future research.
