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Education Policy and Social Class: The Selected Works of Stephen J. Ball

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Abstract

Bringing together twenty years of research and writing, this book provides an overview of Stephen Ball's career and shows not only the development of his most important ideas but also the long-lasting contributions he has made to the field of educational policy analysis. This volume contains sixteen key essays divided into three sections: perspectives on policy research policy technologies and policy analysis social class and education policy. Each chapter presents innovative ways of thinking about public policy, asking probing questions about what policy is, how policy is influenced and what effects intentional and unintentional policies have. As a body of work, this collection raises issues of ethics and social justice which are often neglected in the mass of policies that now affect every aspect of our education systems.

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... En teoretisk utgångspunkt för artikeln bygger på läroplansteori (Ball, 2006;Linde, 2012;Lundgren, 2015;Wahlström, 2016). Enligt läroplansteori är kunskapsfrågan avgörande, det vill säga vad räknas som kunskap enligt formuleringarna i dagens styrdokument (Wahlström, 2016(Wahlström, , 2020. ...
... När styrdokument förändras och får en annan innebörd kan det enligt Ball (2006) innebära problem för lärarna som de måste lösa. I denna artikel tas utgångspunkt i formuleringar avseende dokumentation i styrdokumenten och hur det kan påverka läraruppdraget. ...
... Enligt Hsieh och Shannon (2005) inbegriper en kvalitativ summerande innehållsanalys bland annat en process att identifiera och koda ord och begrepp i datamaterialet vilket innebär att man fokuserar på att identifiera och kvantifiera förekomsten av specifika ord eller innehåll i texter. I denna studie användes en summerande innehållsanalys i syfte att förstå formuleringar i styrdokumenten (Ball, 2006;Linde, 2012;Lundgren, 2015;Vallberg Roth, 2011;Wahlström, 2016) avseende dokumentation och den kontextuella användningen av dokumentation. ...
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Syftet med artikeln är att bredda och fördjupa förståelsen för hur dokumentation gestaltas i de finländska och svenska styrdokumenten i relation till förskolläraruppdraget. En kvalitativ summerande innehållsanalys har använts i syfte att förstå den kontextuella användningen av dokumentation i förskolans styrdokument. I resultatet presenteras de nyckelord och teman som framkommit i analysarbetet av styrdokumentens skrivningar om dokumentation. Temapresentationerna visar hur dokumentation kan förstås i relation till läraruppdraget. En slutsats som dras av denna studie är att dokumentationsarbetet påverkas av förståelsen av förskollärares uppdrag och professionskunskaper. Detta innefattar medvetenhet om formuleringar i styrdokumenten och de båda perspektiven av professionalism ”utifrån och in” samt ”inifrån och ut”, i relation till dokumentation och läraruppdraget. Documentation in preschool – the teaching assignment and teaching profession in Finland and Sweden This article aims to broaden and deepen the understanding of how Finnish and Swedish governing documents for preschool highlight documentation in relation to the teaching assignment. A qualitative summative content analysis was used in order to understand the contextual use of documentation. The results show keywords and themes on documentation in the analyzed documents and the presentation of themes show how documentation can be understood in relation to the teaching assignment. One conclusion drawn from the present study is that the understanding of the teaching assignment and the teachers’ professional knowledge affect the documentation work. This includes awareness of formulations in governing documents and the ability to relate to the two perspectives of professionalism "outside in” and "inside out” in relation to the documentation and teaching assignment.
... Leckie and Goldstein (2016) have demonstrated statistical and methodological flaws in these league tables, but schools are judged on the published results. Performativity demands, league tables based on published examination results, and the threat of imminent school inspection often dominates the practice and discourse of schools and teachers (Ball, 2006;Furlong and Lunt, 2014). As a result, despite teachers being fully aware of their combined academic and pastoral role as well as the imperatives for social inclusion, many feel their primary responsibility to be the academic progress and attainment of their students (Perryman, Ball, Maguire and Braun, 2011). ...
... League tables based on published examination results and the threat of imminent school inspection often dominates the discourse and pedagogic practice of schools and teachers. Indeed, one of the inevitable consequences of high stakes testing in schools designed to hold schools and teachers accountable (Ball, 2006;Thompson, 2017) is a restriction of the curriculum for disadvantaged children. ...
... Other teachers may feel powerless to challenge the stereotypical views of others or to affect the internal logic of a performance driven curriculum. Real change requires a thorough overhaul of the values and curriculum and systemic change of the kind envisaged by Ball (2006), Zeichner (2009) and others. Yet ITE programmes have a duty to address issues of social inclusion and the pedagogy of potential that are crucial to educational social justice agendas. ...
... This study reviewed the literature using bibliometric methods, conducted content analysis and evaluated the results using Gale's Critical Policy Sociology [4] and Ball's Critical Analysis Template [5]. This study was innovative since it reviewed a large number of studies (363 articles from the WoS database), and it may be considered a relatively new approach to considering the issues in educational policy. ...
... This study used the policy historiography, genealogy, and archeology as described by Gale [4], as well as Ball's [5] Critical Analysis Template (See Table 1) to critically analyze the findings of studies: The purpose of this study is to investigate the complex nature of education policy issues using a critical perspective, as well as to reveal current issues and trends and to shed light on emerging topics. The following research questions have been created to investigate and evaluate issues in education policies: ...
... Policy issues in education themselves create extensive policy challenges. This points to the local dimension of environmental and sustainability research in terms of the global/local versus national/general distinction in Ball's Critical Analysis Template [5]. Along with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), environmental education and sustainability created debates in educational policy circles [82]. ...
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Education policies help to improve society by decreasing inequities and establishing effective learning environments. Periodic assessments can help researchers and policymakers uncover new obstacles and ensure progress on these ever-changing education policy concerns using critical theory. Bibliometric studies, a type of periodic study, emphasize the importance of data-driven approaches in the formulation and implementation of education policies. This study conducts a bibliometric analysis of education policy issues from 2000 to 2023. Based on keywords, we initially selected 931 articles from the Web of Science (WoS) database. Only articles in English were included, and we used PRISMA guidelines to reduce the number of articles to 363. We focused on citations, publication frequency, topics, trends, and issues. Two independent researchers analyzed the documents for reliability. For validity, we used transferability. We also used a content analysis of frequently cited articles. Our analysis revealed three prominent trends. The first trend pertained to controversial environmental issues and sustainability concepts in education policy. The second theme was professional development, special education, and school choice. The third one was science, vocational education, special education, and ICT. The content analysis results indicated that teaching and learning, professional development, science education, subject matter teaching, and mobile learning were the topics of the content analyzed articles. We found that relying solely on bibliometric review resulted in broad conceptualizations of educational policy issues, focusing primarily on efficiency and effectiveness. Additionally, we applied critical theoretical frameworks to conduct a more comprehensive analysis of the emergent issues identified through bibliometric analysis.
... As a result, teachers have strived to implement curriculum, goals, and subgoals for each school subject, and students have been presented with many tests to check their knowledge. This is a tendency that many educational researchers have warned against from the beginning of the implementation of a neoliberal education policy in the USA and Great Britain, by e.g., emphasizing that such focus would not only narrow the understanding of the goals and aims of education but also lead to a so-called 'teaching-to-the-test-regime', where teachers and students lose sight of value and content in education (Apple 2006;Ball 2006;Berliner 2009;Biesta 2010). Instead, many of these researchers emphasized that education should rather be 'value-based' and focus on ethics, relationship, values, and the whole individual (see e.g., Biesta 2010; Carr 2011) 1 . 1 For a more in-depth introduction to skills and value-based education, I refer to my article in a previous issue of Fecun (Petersen 2022 In the 2020s however, there are signs in both Denmark and Bhutan that the predominant 'skills and competency-based' understanding of education is about to be reversed and be replaced by a more 'value-based' education, which focuses on broader aspects of the goal of education and students' development in more holistic ways (see e.g., Knudsen et al. 2024;Oxenbøll 2019;Tobden & Ham 2022). ...
... Not only the American, but also the European criticism of this approach in education therefore has a kind of ripple effect in local education systems, including both the previously mentioned recent Danish changes and understandings of the aim of education (Ball 2006;BEK nr. 374 2023;Biesta 2010) In addition to David Berliner (2009), Michael Apple (2006, and many others, Nel Noddings (2003), as previously mentioned, was also aware of the pitfalls in the American education policy at the time, focusing primarily on the achievement on goals, but neglecting a core aim, namely education for "personal life and for happiness in our occupations" (p.93). ...
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In this article, based on a brief introduction to the Bhutan Baccaleareaute and Nel Nodding's theories of happiness, education, and ethics of care, I will reflect on the possibilities of 'reimagining' education based on these two approaches. In conclusion, I will briefly discuss limitations and issues in the practical implementation of the two approaches to education.
... Our study is embedded within the critical policy sociology current (Ball, 2006;Regmi, 2017). ...
... This self-censorship reflects a certain amount of embarrassment about her way of thinking. We thus see that the technology of choice leads Lucia to look at interculturality from an individualistic and selfish prism justified by a mother's love for her children and the consequent fear of their suffering: the verb 'to cope with' denotes her fear of integration, frequent among the middle classes in their strategies of choice (Ball, 2006 In this extract Lucía's stance about freedom of choice is blunt: 'I think it's terrible'. Revealing a high level of awareness of how choice is a technology of government, she rejects the individualistic and selfish behaviours that are naturalised through school choice. ...
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While from a neoliberal governmentality approach, school choice encourages families to behave as consumers of education, interview-based research has nuanced this explanation by uncovering the tensions experienced by mothers. Based on these contributions, this article provides a theoretical-analytical framework specifically designed for interview analysis to capture the contradictions faced by mothers in the process of school choice. This framework combines the governmentality approach with a set of tools from discourse studies. Throughout this paper, we deploy this framework on interview fragments with mothers and fathers whose children attend public schools in Madrid. Thus, a secondary objective of this work is to present three different types of stances taken by mothers toward school choice, as revealed by these interview fragments.
... More precisely, policies are not only actions or texts but also unanticipated consequences (Taylor et al. 1997), various interpretations of different actors (Colebatch 2009), and living mechanisms that are reconceptualized in each setting (Bell and Stevenson 2006). Similarly, Ball (2006) indicated that policies are dynamic processes and outcomes formed by both texts that refer to the actions and discourse that reflect how the policy is handled. ...
... As one of the key public services, education policy is no different from public policy, with a similarly controversial and contested nature (Hoy 1994) and a distinctly politicized character (Olssen et al. 2004). In other words, education policy is no longer a statement of intention defined by policy-makers (Ball 2006); instead, it is the negotiation process shaped by the values and the interpretation of the interest parties on the one hand and by the socio-political environment on the other. Such a definition reflects a continuum from agenda setting and formulating policy decisions to implementation with an interaction and communication pattern (Berkhout and Wielemans 1999). ...
Chapter
This chapter addresses the state of Citizen-centered policy making (CPM) in the Turkish Education System (TES) by drawing and theorizing on the policy making cycle. Once elaborating on key approaches for CPM and describing the key challenges in CPM, the chapter discusses CPM approaches and practices in education. The chapter argues that over-centralization, overpopulation, and resulting change inflation are the key characteristics of TES, which fundamentally reduce the capacity of the system to demonstrate CPM in educational policy making. These characteristics result in a culture of “non-participation” in educational policies in TES, where the key constituencies in the system mostly fail to contribute to educational policies. National Education Council (NEC) conventions were used as showcases to demonstrate the lack of active citizen participation in educational policy making in TES. According to prominent results of the study, although there are several attempts of the government to include citizens in the educational policy making process, this has not been accomplished in each step of the policy process, which results in not only a lack of participation of the stakeholders in some steps but also illusory stakeholder involvement in others.KeywordsEducational policy makingCentralizationCitizen participationEducational changeCitizen-centered policy makingTurkish education systemOver-CentralizationNational Education CouncilAttemptsTurkey
... (Guide to California Law, no date) Superficially this sounds like an interesting possibility, after all education happens sequentially (inequalities from primary school can be amplified and normalized in secondaries) and education policy is often thought of as a sequence of decisions and actions. However, as Stephen Ball (2006Ball ( , 2008 has argued, policy is a lot ''messier'' than is normally assumed: there are unpredictable and unstable links between Educational Review 243 different contexts of policy production and implementation. Also, the racism that I have outlined (earlier) is a lot more extensive and powerful than this model suggests. ...
... (Guide to California Law, no date) Superficially this sounds like an interesting possibility, after all education happens sequentially (inequalities from primary school can be amplified and normalized in secondaries) and education policy is often thought of as a sequence of decisions and actions. However, as Stephen Ball (2006Ball ( , 2008 has argued, policy is a lot ''messier'' than is normally assumed: there are unpredictable and unstable links between Educational Review 243 different contexts of policy production and implementation. Also, the racism that I have outlined (earlier) is a lot more extensive and powerful than this model suggests. ...
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Adopting an approach shaped by critical race theory (CRT) the paper proposes a radical analysis of the nature of race inequality in the English educational system. Focusing on the relative achievements of White school leavers and their Black (African Caribbean) peers, it is argued that long standing Black/White inequalities have been obscured by a disproportionate focus on students in receipt of free school meals (FSMs). Simultaneously the media increasingly present Whites as race victims, re-centring the interests of White people in popular discourse, while government announcements create a false image of dramatic improvements in minority achievement through a form of ‘‘gap talk’’ that disguises the deep-seated and persistent nature of race inequality. The paper concludes by reviewing the key elements that define the current situation and notes that they fit the essential characteristics, used in law, to identify the operation of a conspiracy. It is argued that conceiving the racism that saturates the system in terms of a conspiracy has a number of advantages, not least the insight it provides into the workings of ‘‘Whiteness’’ as a fundamental driver of social policy.
... Grade point average, retention, time-to-graduation, graduation rates, graduate school attendance, employment, and earnings continue to be widely accepted traditional student success metrics at both an institutional and student level (Chang et al., 2019;Felton & Lambert, 2020;Rutter & Mintz, 2019). The use of these traditional metrics alone, however, minimize the complexity of students' lives and frequently ignore racialized, structural, economic, and institutional inequities (Ball, 1995;Yazedjian et al., 2008). The absence of student voice in the crafting of student success initiatives can result in ineffective institutional practices that run the risk of failing to benefit students. ...
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This study examined undergraduate students’ perceptions and definitions of success and implications for higher education. Participants consisted of a diverse group of students from a large urban public university. A team of multidisciplinary researchers conducted a qualitative study adopting a phenomenological approach. Results show that students believed success to be a personal, expansive, and transformative journey with a focus on the future. Students’ perceptions of success build upon institutionally defined metrics of success, highlighting personal growth, wellbeing, tenacity, the ability to give back to communities, and progress toward career goals. Our research illustrates that students’ views of success are not ubiquitous. In order for student success initiatives to be successful, we recommend that institutions examine student beliefs within their own student populations. This study offers institutions new opportunities to be relevant and responsive to the unique needs of students in their particular student bodies.
... Sedangkan Kebijakan Pendidikan menganalisis bagaimana kebijakan dibuat, diimplementasikan, dan dievaluasi dalam konteks pendidikan. Kebijakan dari Kementerian Agama dan Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan memiliki dampak berbeda pada madrasah dan pesantren (Ball, S.J. 2017). ...
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This study examines the phenomenon of dualism in the management and implementation of Islamic education in Indonesia, focusing on the parallel systems of madrasahs and pesantren. Employing a qualitative approach, this research aims to understand the dynamics, challenges, and implications of these two educational systems. Through in-depth interviews with educators, administrators, and policymakers, as well as a review of literature and policy documents, the study finds that madrasahs adhere to the national educational standards set by the Ministry of Religious Affairs, whereas pesantren operate with greater autonomy, emphasizing traditional Islamic education. This dualism results in variations in student outcomes and educational experiences, highlighting the need for integrated policies that recognize and bridge the strengths of both systems. The study concludes with recommendations to enhance the synergy between madrasahs and pesantren to improve the quality of Islamic education in Indonesia.
... Following the above analysis, education, seen from a Foucauldian perspective, is not just about transmitting knowledge but is a crucial arena where power dynamics are replicated and challenged. Ball (2006) argues that educational institutions serve as Dispositifs, contributing significantly to forming subjectivities and social norms. These institutions employ various disciplinary techniques and knowledge regimes to shape individuals' behaviours and identities, aligning them with societal expectations and power structures. ...
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The proliferation of religious radicalism within Pakistani education has sparked increasing concern, with significant implications both locally and globally. Current scholarship has primarily focused on education policies and textbooks, often overlooking the complex entanglement between the political economy of defence, the influence of military and economic elites, and the particularisation of radical national and religious narratives. This article uses qualitative methods and purposive sampling to explore how these intertwined forces have radicalised education policies and school textbooks. The research reveals a deep historical nexus between the military apparatus, religious groups, and the state's educational agenda, fuelling radical ideologies among public schools and madrassah (religious school) teachers. The article elucidates how these power structures have shaped educational discourse in Pakistan by examining this entanglement through the lens of Foucauldian govern-mentality. The findings underscore the critical societal implications of understanding these dynamics, particularly given teachers' significant role in shaping students' worldviews. This study offers valuable insights for international policy analysts, educators, and scholars concerned with the intersection of defence, politics, and education. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Policy och forskning är ofta korresponderande kärl där policy både inbegriper och relaterar till forskning. Forskning i sin tur förhåller sig till gällande policy för bland annat vilka områden som beforskas och vilka perspektiv forskningen utgår från (Ball, 2005). När det gäller forskning om HU och UHU så är kopplingen mellan policy och forskning särskilt framträdande. ...
... L'ipotesi di ricerca si basa sull'idea che: a) La semplice disponibilità di infrastrutture tecnologiche non è sufficiente a garantire l'uso corretto delle tecnologie dell'apprendimento e della conoscenza, tra colleghi, studenti e gruppi di ricercatori (Capogna, 2020); b) Le politiche europee propendono per un modello di università digitale (Landri, 2018;Capano & Regini, 2015); c) L'emergenza pandemica ha portato a un processo di ibridazione dei modelli organizzativi e didattici. È importante a tal proposito notare che: 1) il cambiamento improvviso e inaspettato causato dalla pandemia si è verificato in un momento in cui le tecnologie digitali non erano ampiamente incorporate, nelle pratiche professionali e nei metodi di insegnamento, in particolare nelle università tradizionali (Capogna, 2014;Capogna et al., 2021;Ball, 2005); 2) le università stanno attualmente attraversando una trasformazione che altererà in modo permanente il loro stato pre-pandemico. ...
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Introduction: When considering future learning environments in formal, non-formal, and informal domains, it is crucial to acknowledge the influence of the infosphere in which we are deeply immersed. Methodology: This study is focused on the concept of "circularity" between theory and empirical research. It uses a combination of research methods to carry out an exploratory and comparative analysis among six case studies/universities from five European countries. The analysis takes a multi-perspective approach and applies the translation model to study the complex translation process in supranational, national, and local policy practices. Results: The research highlighted the similarities and differences between the analyzed cases, and subsequently provided valuable recommendations for political decision-makers and academic institutions to guide the digital transition. Conclusions: From the analysis of dimensions, it is clear that the university system needs to reassess its teaching methods, organizational structures, management strategies, assessment processes, relationships, and competence frameworks in the teaching and learning processes. Discussion: This process can be enhanced by exploring new research paths to propose guidelines and direct political planning, organizational strategies, and teaching practices in the future European Higher Education space.
... Home-educators navigate idiosyncratic decision-making processes influenced by the interplay of "push" and "pull" factors (Fensham-Smith, 2017Fields-Smith & Kisura, 2013;Hertzel, 1997; as cited in Murphy et al., 2017). This framework draws on concepts developed in the fields of migration theory (Lee, 1966) and school choice (Ball, 2002;Ball, 2006;Vincent & Ball, 2006) to illustrate the dynamic interaction of rationales that drive parents away from traditional school settings and attract them toward home education. For example, push factors may include concerns for child safety or dissatisfaction with school academics, while pull factors might involve the desire to provide religious instruction, fortify family bonds, or deliver tailored education for their children. ...
Article
Home education is a growing but relatively unknown and understudied phenomenon in Italy. This study offers an empirical contribution to surface the key familial characteristics, parental rationales, and pedagogic practice of home education in this national context. As part of a larger mixed-methods research project, the findings of a survey administered to 91 home-educating parents/carers (representing 142 home-educated students) are presented. The study reveals that over half of the respondents commenced home-educating in 2020 or later, following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. This resonates with trends observed nationally and internationally, showing a recent significant upsurge in home education. Despite the importance of the pandemic as a contingent factor, the decision to home-educate among these parents was mostly driven by pedagogical and social concerns. The desire to provide a more personalised, child-centred, and “better-quality” education was key among this study population. Also, they were attracted to home education to embrace a more flexible and family-first lifestyle. Remarkably, religious-based motivations exerted only a modest influence. Regarding pedagogical practices, nearly half of the participants opted for a collective educational arrangement, while the remaining half opted for a home-based or individual approach at the family level. Most participants reported a preference for a “semi-structured” approach in planning their educational activities. They drew inspiration from a broad and eclectic mix of philosophies and pedagogic practices, with Montessori and Steiner being the most prevalent. In discussing the implications of this study, the paper lays the groundwork for future research in this national context.
... Här definierades empirins grundläggande material, utbildningspolicy liksom uttalanden från makthavare som är avsedda att påverka praktik inom de organisationer som åsyftas i text (Ball, 1993). Dessa texter kan i sin tur vara av olika slag, alltifrån riksdagsmotioner, statliga rapporter och lagtexter till uttalanden i media, tal och statistik kan falla under policyn så länge den publiceras med avsikten att påverka verksamheterna (Bacchi & Goodwin, 2016). ...
Chapter
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The purpose of this chapter is to introduce qualitative content analysis as a methodological tool in education research. The chapter will initially briefly describe the basics of the method and then give more concrete descriptions of different approaches within it. The rest of the chapter will be dedicated to three different examples of my own use of qualitative content analysis in empirical research. The first example deals with empirically based and inductively driven content analysis in which searches for patterns and themes were made in exten- sive and unstructured empirical material, consisting of hundreds of free text responses to a questionnaire. Theoretical concepts were then used to explain the outcome of the analysis. The second example is theory-driven, critical analysis in which several policy texts, both public investigations and parliamentary propos- als, were analyzed using concepts from curriculum theory. Here, the material was approached with specific concepts that help to both continuously structure the reading and explain the results. The third example is based on Koselleck’s (1985) diachronic analysis in a historical review of a concept in an extensive text material from media, mainly columns, editorials and debate articles. Here, theoretical con- cepts of conspiracy theories were used to retrospectively explain the concept’s use, function, and rationality. In conclusion, I briefly summarize the differences and similarities of the different approaches, and draw a couple of conclusions about their scientific advantages and disadvantages. Finally, a discussion fol- lows about how the method can be applied to different kinds of policy texts, in particular for comparative purposes.
... First, there is a need to enhance contextual relevance and flexibility. In particular, policies should be instilled with improved flexibility and adaptability to allow for contextualised enactments that resonate with the unique cultural, societal, and educational landscapes [22]. A nurturing of context-sensitive policy frameworks can promote enriched and diverse educational pathways, responsive to local needs, aspirations, and challenges. ...
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This systematic review critically navigates the complex landscapes of educational policies and their pervasive influence on pedagogical practices and learning outcomes. Through a careful examination of global educational courses, the analysis uncovers comprehensive interplays between historical, socio-political, and economic dimensions, reflecting transformative shifts from state-centric paradigms towards neoliberal influences and global networks. The analytical study uncovers a convergence towards universal educational goals, alongside evident divergences marked by regional, contextual, and cultural variances, substantially influencing policy enactments and interpretations. Pedagogical dimensions resonate with the impacts of policy imprints, manifesting in instructional practices, curricular designs, and evaluative frameworks. Meanwhile, policies emerge as potent architects, influencing educational experiences, trajectories, and competencies. At the same time, the complex interplay between educators and policies unveils spheres of negotiations and enactments, positioning educators as critical conduits of policy transmission and enactment. Summarily, this analysis advocates for dynamic, responsive, and collaborative policy environments, enriched by contextual relevance, educator agency, and continuous evaluative reflexivities.
... This space is constantly tossed about by the winds of change that blow from the European community through the continuous process of building the cultural framework, and is limited by the national constraints that have to be observed, delineating the area of digital and HEA (meta-level). The micropolitical choices (Ball, 2005) implemented by the academic bodies (micro level) sits within this turbulent arena. This transformation inevitably pushes the national level to adapt, review, and innovate the regulatory-institutional system (macro level) which directs the meaningful action of all the different individual and collective, public and private actors (meso level), who for various reasons, are involved within this transformative flow. ...
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This practice-inspired working paper aims to present the preservice teachers' practicum conducted during their Initial Teacher Education programs of Early Childhood and Primary Education as a tool to address educational equity. The fourth goal of the UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals (2017) highlights the educators' role in working with social justice and diverse populations to create more fair and sustainable education systems. Thus, the authors relate this purpose with the practicum as an appropriate setting to determine what equity is for the first time. In this regard, we present the most up to date and relevant educational research with our professional experiences in the field. National and European projects are described as examples of working on these issues. Different studies are also included to analyse and strengthen the learning process to teach in intervention-needed areas. Our paper also points out the main barriers that preservice teachers find when working in social justice during field experiences. It is stressed that the practicum can be improved through reflecting together, (i.e., preservice teachers and mentors) since well-built relationships between the agents involved in the experience helps to develop a professional consciousness. Finally, conclusions and possible pathways are presented to guide 21st-century stakeholders in this endeavour.
... 137). Ball (2005) describes how testing and a culture of performativity in schools affect teachers' abilities to practice authentic pedagogies and authentic assessment and has also changed what it means to be a teacher. Authentic teaching practices are eroded when teaching is merely drill and skill practice for PAs. ...
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This ethnographic case study, situated in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, examined the effects of full-scale provincial testing on families, its influences on homework, and familial accountability for teaching and learning. Data were drawn from family interviews, as well as letters and documents regarding homework. Teachers sensed a significant degree of pressure on student performance on province-wide tests. This sometimes resulted in narrowing of curricula in favour of more test-taking practice. Additionally, teachers sent home sample test items for students to practice with their families to increase test scores. Keywords: homework, families, province-wide testing, teaching
... Johnson (2018) argues that, given the heterogeneity and multifariousness inherent in the interpretation of appropriation of educational policy by arbiters like teachers and administrators, LP research requires a combination of textual, discourse, and ethnographic methodologies to understand policy actions in a context. Policy, argue Fishman (1972), Schiffman (1996) andBall (2006), is more about discourse than texts (see also Hult, 2016). To bridge the gap between policy-as-text and policy-as-discourse, I draw on theoretical conceptualizations within linguistic anthropology including indexicality and (re)entextualization. ...
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Drawing on the methodological framework of nexus analysis and theoretical foundations regarding the reentextualization of language ideologies, this dissertation examines one US university writing center’s language statement as it seeks to decenter English-dominant standard language ideologies and to promote inclusive language practices in the center. In particular, this study highlights how four writing center consultants interpreted and appropriated the statement in diverse ways. Data sources included documents related to onboarding and training, extended semi-structured interviews about consultants’ prior experiences with language difference and consulting practices, audio-recorded observations and field notes of hour-long writing consultations, participant journals, and post-observation reflection interviews. A poststructural, multi-scalar discourse analysis revealed tensions between policy and practice, as well as several profiles of ideological negotiation within the consultants. Discourses valuing competition, excellence, and expertise at the university level came into tension with discourses of relationality and collaboration within the writing center. In response to requests to correct clients’ grammar, consultants developed and revised practices that reentextualized their past experiences with language diversity as well as the center’s policies about language.
... The link between future earnings and class has also been noticed by Bourdieu (1977) who explains that the fundamental link between education and an individual's social class is their access to resources including social, cultural, and economic capital. In modern contexts, middle-class families reproduce their profitable place in society by using their economic capital to invest in educational advantages (Ball 2005). The same cannot be said for working-class families, who are often victims of generational poverty. ...
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Background: Cultural dissonance and exclusion in schools persevere because of a lack of response to diversity. In South Africa, coloniality manifests itself in teaching and learning practices through promoting and privileging selective cultural norms in schools, often to the detriment of poor black children. Aim: Despite the availability of educational scholarships for poor children as a way to promote economic success, these opportunities are often laden with cultural and hegemonic expectations making them challenging to navigate, often rendering the experiences as traumatic rather than developmental. Setting: The article reflects on children’s schooling experiences in South Africa. Methods: This qualitative exposition presents insights from a primary school teacher about her own childhood experiences of exclusion, alienation, and cultural dissonance in South African schools. Results: It reveals the pervasiveness of coloniality and how social justice has still not fully permeated schools. The interplay between race and class remains salient. Conclusion: Schools should intensify efforts to promote inclusion by recognising diversity and avoiding normalising singular narratives in diverse contexts. Educational opportunities given to children from disadvantaged backgrounds should be accompanied by psycho-social support to ease the culture shock and alienation they feel when learning in new contexts that differ from their norm. Contribution: The article demonstrates that culture is more powerful than politics because, despite the democratic political context, the ‘cultural bomb’ of decoloniality is all-encompassing. Keywords: academic scholarships; cultural dissonance; coloniality; school children; exclusion; social justice; post-colonial; schooling
... The complete set of results is now on display. [57] analyzes how educational policies are created and implemented. It focuses on the ways that policies including those about international examinations such as PISA affect curriculum, instructional methods, and educational systems. ...
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The Philippines took part in PISA 2018 and 2022 conducted by OECD. Filipino students are still among the least proficient in math, reading, and science. Its performance did not significantly improve from the assessment in 2018. Through statistical analysis design, the PISA score (2018 and 2022) was compared to all countries' PISA scores and correlated to HDI in the Philippines, with the use of T-test and Pearson r. Results showed that there is a notable variation in the Philippines' PISA score compared to all countries participating in PISA. In addition, there is a robustly positive correlation between the PISA score and the HDI in the Philippines.
... Essa é outra influência do discurso neoliberal na educação que se reflete em uma ênfase maior na accountability e nos resultados quantificáveis, através de testes padronizados e processos de ranqueamento. Ball (2007; argumenta que a accountability na educação tem sido moldada por um conjunto de discursos e práticas que buscam responsabilizar os profissionais da educação e as escolas pelos resultados e desempenho dos estudantes. Ele Interritórios | Revista de Educação Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Caruaru, BRASIL | V.9 N.18 e259602 [2023] Dossiê (Re)visitando o Plano Nacional da Educação (2014-2024) e a gestão democrática das escolas https://doi.org/10.51359/2525-7668. ...
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Objetivamos analisar o sentido de democracia presente no modelo da Tecnologia de Gestão Educacional (TGE), que orienta a gestão das Escolas Cidadãs Integrais (ECI) no estado da Paraíba. Para tanto, utilizamos a abordagem qualitativa e o método documental, tendo como fonte os cadernos da Escola da Escolha, que tratam sobre o modelo de gestão das ECI. Teoricamente, utilizamos os conceitos expressos na Teoria do Discurso de Laclau e Mouffe (2015) e na Democracia Radical de Mouffe (1996; 2003; 2004; 2005; 2015) como principais referências teóricas. Os resultados desta investigação apontaram para a maneira como a TGE vem disputando a hegemonização de um modelo de gestão democrática cunhado nos princípios neoliberais, buscando esvaziar o conflito, a diferença e a pluralidade, ou seja, entendemos que o modelo analisado contribui para o enfraquecimento da democracia pluralista, minando os espaços de construções coletivas, e fortalecendo práticas de responsabilização e da burocratização.
... In addition, as stated by Ref. [51], the utility of multilingualism in internationalized higher education has generated a greater demand for a concentration on conflicts and possible solutions than ever before, despite an unclear paradigm of multilingual issues and an overwhelming emphasis on English. Meanwhile, power discourses continue to provoke a new conflict with the competition of other languages, which attribute opportunities to attain economic development and prosperity to the superiority of English-dominant education [52]. Although some studies have explored the current reality of multilingualism of higher education in China, mixed findings have been reported because of a vague framework of real language life in higher education institutions [53][54][55]. ...
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As preconditions and consequences of the globalization of higher education, multilingualism has reconfigured language ecology, language policy and planning, and multilingual management in the contemporary world. However, studies of multilingualism focusing on real-language scenarios in Sino-foreign cooperative education institutions (SCEIs) are rare. This study explores the multilingual ecology, language policy and planning, and language management of three leading SCEIs in China. It also investigates the attitudes of SCEIs' stakeholders toward language use and language policy in multilingual contexts. A case study was conducted by analyzing a significant number of language policy documents, semi-structured interviews with stakeholders, and partial participant observations. The research results reveal the main features of multilingual coexistence and intense competition in the three leading SCEIs by identifying the micro, meso, and macro issues of language management. The effects of language policy and planning mechanisms are also identified in SCEIs of higher education. Potential conflicts in multilingual environments are interpreted from the perspective of global cooperation. Last, recommendations are offered for the advancement of the language evolution of SCEIs in China.
... Individual teachers took initiative to build contacts with schools in other countries, but these initiatives did not appear to have any consequence within the ordinary core curriculum. Ball (2006) claims that policy documents are fabrications that hide as much as they reveal. The international profile can be viewed as a fabrication that is constructed to produce consensus on social and cultural diversity through the celebration of difference (Banks, 2008). ...
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Cultural reproduction of difference and disadvatages of urban youth through the curriculum and pedagogic practices that construct and maintain ideals of Swedishness and white normativity.
... PISA is a product of performativity, sometimes referred to as a technology of contemporary governance (Ball, 2006). Performativity is a "technology and a mode of regulation that employs judgments, comparisons, and displays as a means of incentives and control based on rewards and sanctions" (ibid., p. 144). ...
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The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has instigated educational changes and reforms globally, in particular, introducing and intensifying neoliberal logic and governance in test-taking countries and beyond. PISA outcome impacted upon the educational governance of South Korea as well, however, the changes deviated from what have been observed in other contexts. Framed by institutionalism, and drawing on research reports and literature published on Korea, the paper explores how PISA outcome was appropriated to sustain progressive educational agendas against conservative party’s turn to elitism and competition at a critical juncture. After reviewing the context, Korea’s responses to PISA outcome as captured in educational policies are presented, along with their shapers. The paper highlights how the policy responses parted ways with those of most countries by rehumanizing the curriculum, while acknowledging that its planned new relationship with PISA may turn their course.
... Limited by the documents and the gaps between policy and practice (e.g. Ball 2005;Cohen and Ball 1990;Ball, Maguire, and Braun 2012), the conclusion may be somewhat limited. Ball (1993) observed that 'policy is both text and action, words and deeds, it is what is enacted as well as what is intended' (10). ...
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Scholars have confirmed the diplomacy value and soft power influence of international alumni (IA), but the relationship between IA and knowledge diplomacy (KD) is under-researched. Meanwhile, there needs to be a change from the soft power framework to the knowledge diplomacy framework in international higher education studies to emphasise mutuality rather than dominance. This study explores the relationship and mechanism of IA and KD by document analysis of Australian governmental policies. This study examines and analyses the Australian international alumni engagement strategy and identifies it as a knowledge diplomacy approach rather than a soft power approach. This study also points out the mechanisms of IA and KD. This study informs the Australian government and other governments worldwide to better engage with their valuable IA groups.
... Yet, education has been criticised for its role in reproducing social inequalities (Bourdieu, 1977;Bowles & Gintis, 1976;Ball, 2006), with schools as active reproducers legitimising the transmission of social inequalities from one generation to the next. From this perspective, individuals' heterogeneities such as sex, particular phenotypes and family socio-economic status are turned into individuals with defined class, gender, and racial roles in society, being ascribed a position in the hierarchy ladder. ...
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This article details the development of the My-ID pedagogic method which aims to combat sexual and gender diversity discrimination in the wider context or promoting emotional intelligence.
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Introducción: La enseñanza del inglés es un tema de investigación muy estudiado y por ello es relevante analizar las políticas educativas que volvieron su enseñanza obligatoria en el contexto de cada país, tal es el caso de Honduras. Metodología: Los textos se analizaron en el marco de la Investigación Histórica y Archivo (Hurst, 2023). Entre ellos están; La Ley Fundamental de Educación (2012) y el Currículo Nacional Básico III ciclo (2002). Resultados: Desde la perspectiva de Foucault (1972) hay tres tipos acontecimientos; arqueológico, discursivo y lucha y relaciones de poder. Discusión: A finales de 1999 e inicios del 2000 Honduras inició el proceso de estandarización de la educación y la ampliación de la cobertura de la enseñanza del inglés como idioma extranjero. De esta manera, el contexto mundial estableció un nuevo orden a través de políticas educativas. El acontecimiento discursivo estableció que la educación hondureña debía está acorde a las exigencias del nuevo siglo y de las exigencias internacionales en el marco de la globalización. Así mismo, la transformación educativa es producto de lucha y relaciones de fuerza. Conclusiones: Desde la perspectiva de Foucault citado en Rodríguez Neira(1995) las instituciones educativas son los mecanismos que se utilizan para trasformar a los seres humanos (p.169).
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This chapter summarizes the transfer process of supranational policies regarding the creation of a European space for HE through the enhancement of ICTs to promote a culture of LLL and inclusion, by the reconstruction of the main steps which accompany the emergence of the “digital university” idea in practice. Furthermore, it tries to offer an overview of the idea of digital transformation, according to the lens of the institutional actors at the meso-level, and the related digital challenges from an organizational perspective at micro level.
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Some summary considerations aimed at reflecting on the most relevant results that emerged during the research process. It focuses primarily on the process of network stabilization and the main concepts that have characterized the 20 years of construction of the European space of HE and the transformations induced by the pervasiveness of digital technology in universities.
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Purpose This research explored the impact that the relatively new role of the Health and Wellbeing Lead upon the health and wellbeing of children and their families at this school. Design/methodology/approach This case study took place in a primary school (children aged 4–11) in the South-West of England. Data was collected through activities with children, semi-structured interviews with senior staff and parents and a “learning walk”. Findings Our data suggested that this role provided compassion, unconditional positive regard and respect for parents, factors that are frequently absent from research into parent partnerships in education. The role presented as invaluable in tackling the many mental and physical challenges that parents faced in rearing their children, and in providing their children with the best possible chance of success. Research limitations/implications This is a single Case Study and, as such, may or may not be representative of similar schools. We also question to what extent the findings demonstrated the strength of this role per se, or whether the impact could simply be the result of a uniquely caring and passionate individual. Practical implications We concluded that this was a role needed in all schools, recognising the key role that parents play in their child’s wellbeing, and the indirect impact that parent mental health can have upon their child’s success. Social implications It is vital that this role is not used as an excuse by the government to further reduce the already denuded Social Services landscape within communities. It is also important that this responsibility does not become yet another burden added to already overstretched teaching staff. Originality/value This research presents a fresh perspective on the multiple pressures that parents face and how these can impact upon their child's education.
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Humans are born differently and the matter of sadness is there is individual difference in physiological construction. Many people are born, having physically challenged. They depend upon others to do different general activities. For getting Education they are also facing a lot of difficulties. The present report is based on the movement towards the Education of differently able children. In the 18 th century, they were deprived of educational opportunities but after that evolution was created towards the Education of those children. Here; the concept, importance, recommendations of different committees and commissions in India before independence till now a date that is NEP 2020 and abroad have been discussed. Different teaching strategies and suggestions to improve the status of Inclusive Education have been reflected. In the context of education for the children with special needs and the normal ones various programs policies and strategies has been reflected.
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During outdoor activities, children have the freedom to shape circumstances and maintain their interest regarding their values, and learning entails the production of new ideas which enable us to comprehend the world from another perspective. Previous research underlines the intrinsic connection between children and nature which encourages them to be physically active. To develop intellectually, emotionally, socially and morally, the child also requires active participation in progressively more complex interactions with persons, objects and symbols in their immediate environment. This is the focus of bio-ecological theory which positions the child in the middle of the ecosystem. From the post-humanism perspective, nature is also seen as a place for people to be free from social regulations, therefore incorporating post-human and/or more-than-human frameworks in early years and early childhood education is an important and timely progression. This chapter will discuss bio-ecological and other theories focusing on the impact of the environment, nature as a key, and roles in nature-related activities of children.
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This paper advances Marxist Critical Policy Analysis (MCPA) - a particular form of Critical Policy Analysis. I contrast it with ‘Traditional Policy Analysis’ (TPA) and with ‘Critical Policy Analysis’ (CPA), generally, and, with respect to Education, work by Michael W. Apple, Stephen J. Ball, and wider reformist, postmodern and intersectional/identitarian analysis. Marxist Critical Policy Analysis is applicable to different areas of policy - for example, economic, fiscal, labour, foreign, immigration, defence, housing, transport, environmental, civil liberties, and human rights policies. MCPA can be applied at any level (local, regional, national or global). MCPA, what, in relation to education, I earlier termed ‘Critical Education Policy Analysis’ (Hill 2009a) centres on the question of ‘Who Wins, Who Loses?’ but, more precisely, which ‘raced’ and gendered social class, or class strata, or fractions or layers, win or lose? And what do they win or lose, when, where, and how. I critique, in particular, Critical (Education) Policy Analyses (CPA) and associated theoretical/ideological developments that deny the salience of class, occlude class consciousness, are reformist capitalist rather than revolutionary anti-capitalist Marxist and dismiss or disable revolutionary activism. I conclude by setting out what is specifically Marxist about Marxist Critical Policy Analysis (MCPA).
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ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article History Problem-oriented approach Problem-oriented approach, known as one of the bases of policy sciences, caused the policy problem to become a significant object of study in these sciences. This concept, like other concepts in policy sciences, has been contested by different epistemological approaches. Discourse analysis, as one of these approaches, has presented a different perspective to the study of the policy issue by proposing the idea of Problem-oriented approach. The literature review of discourse analysis in public policy studies shows that the ruling discourse makes things problematic by introducing objects into the game of right and wrong. This view to the policy problem is not only different from the competing approaches of discourse analysis, but also has subtle differences with the similar approaches of discourse analysis. In the present research, firstly, the position of the problem in policy studies has been examined, and then, with an outline of the concepts of discourse analysis, the problematic nature of the policy has been explained from the point of view of the discourse approach. Finally, by adopting a critical approach, steps are presented to understand the problematic nature of the policy. The result of these steps is the understanding of what is considered as a problem, the presuppositions, the lineage of the problem and the non-problems that have been rejected, and the determination of the factors involved in taking the problem for granted.
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This study critically examines Kazakhstan's Teacher Status Policy using Bell and Stevenson's (2006) framework. The policy, initiated in 2011 and extending to 2020, aims to enhance the prestige, qualification, and remuneration of teachers to address concerns over the low status of the profession. The analysis employs Bell and Stevenson's dimensions, including socio-political environment, strategic direction, organizational principles, and operational practices. Additionally, the study integrates historical context to provide a comprehensive understanding of policy development and implementation. Findings indicate a global interest in teacher policies, with Kazakhstan aligning strategies with UNESCO and OECD. The strategic direction targets prestige enhancement, professional development restructuring, and remuneration system change. Organizational principles involve talent attraction, improved development, and remuneration reform. Positive outcomes include increased salaries, improved development opportunities, and an augmented number of teaching personnel. The study contributes to policy analysis by utilizing a structured framework, emphasizing the global importance of teacher concerns, and highlighting the positive impact on teacher status in Kazakhstan. The government's role in funding and strategic direction is crucial for effective policy implementation, alongside the necessity for teachers' sense of ownership and continued public support.
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Urban labour markets are discussed here as a crucial link between the restructuring of economic actrivity (examined in earlier chapters) and distributional outcomes for different groups (addressed in following chapters). By the end of the 1980s the two cities had labour markets that a lot in common, notably in the form, degree of differentiation and access conditions of employment. In particular intensified competitive pressures, job instability and structural change had led to a polarisation of conditions. In both cities there was a growing underclass and racial discrimination. But in New York these tendencies had been exacerbated by acute economic crisis and the fact that a larger proportion of the workforce were exposed to negative discrimination.
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This paper explores Marx's brief analysis of social class at the end of 'Capital' volume III, just before 'the manuscript broke off'. It argues against reducing 'social class' to Weberian and mainstream sociological notions of stratification. An alternative is to see the labour-capital relation, a category of struggle within capitalist society, as constituting the class relation.
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This paper starts with two approaches to risk: the sociological approach of Ulrich Beck and the 'governmentality' account based on Michel Foucault's theses. Beck's approach is characterized as totalizing. realist, and relying on a uniform conception of risk. Moreover, his narrative of the emergence of risk society founders on the untenable binary, calculable/incalculable. Using Francois Ewald on social insurance, the paper argues that risk is better approached as a form of calculative rationality, a way of rendering the incalculable calculable. The governmental account allows us to analyse specific forms of risk rationality and technology, the types of agency and identity involved in practices of risk, and the political and social imaginaries to which these practices are linked. The governmental account, however, encounters difficulties in grasping the more general transformations of contemporary regimes of government. In this respect, Beck's notion of reflexivity is extremely useful. The paper then delineates various types of risk rationality (insurance, epidemiological, clinical, and case-management risk, and comprehensive risk management) and places them in an analytic of contemporary government. It concludes that one of the conditions of these new forms of government is the 'governmentalisation of government'. Rather than 'the death of the social', it is better to understand this analytic as charting a transformation of the liberal problematic of security and the emergence of 'reflexive government'.
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This book was initially designed for teaching purposes, to enable students of wsociology to become better equipped to cope with the pitfalls of sociological research. But it is not just a primer setting out the difficulties and risks of scientific work in sociology with the aid of illustrative texts drawn from the whole range of the human sciences; it is also a contribution in its own right to the epistemology of the social sciences. In accordance with the initial didactic intention, it was originally planned as the first part of a three-volume textbook, which was to deal not only with the epistemological foundations of the science of sociology but also with the major questions this science puts to itself and with the methodological resources of empirical sociological research. This original intention was not fulfilled, as is explained in the Preface to the second French edition and also in the interview with Pierre Bourdieu in this new edition.
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Introduction / Andrew Barry, Thomas Osborne, Nikolas Rose -- Liberal government and techniques of the self / Graham Burchell -- Governing "advanced" liberal democracies / Nikolas Rose -- Liberalism, socialism and democracy : variations on a governmental theme / Barry Hindess -- The promise of liberalism and the performance of freedom / Vikki Bell -- Security and vitality : drains, liberalism and power in the nineteenth century / Thomas Osborne -- Lines of communication
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This essay is founded in a specific pleasure, a double bemusement, and perhaps a certain orneriness. The pleasure began when I discovered New Wave music (at first, Brian Eno and Talking Heads); it was reformulated in the work of other musicians (The Gang of Four, Philip Glass), in performance art (Laurie Anderson), and even, to a limited extent, in prose fiction (Kathy Acker), the rather antiquated and provincial region of the culture industry in which I myself work. I came to these works haltingly, serendipitously. I behaved as the typical cultural consumer in late capitalism behaves, operating out of a typically serialized solitude, flying more or less blind. Only retrospectively, as I tried to analyze and account for my enjoyment, did I realize that the kind of aesthetic experience they create and offer—and thus the pleasure I was seeking to understand—had already been categorized as postmodern.
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Researchers are under increasing pressure to improve the quality and rate of their publications. Key to the effective communication of their work is its presentation in clear, concise and well-written prose. This second edition of Peter Woods' established guide discusses all aspects of translating research into writing, including:- getting started and keeping going; organising your work; traditional and alternative forms of writing; style and format; editing your writing; writing alone and writing in a team; approaching publishers and getting published. Now brought fully up-to-date to cover recent developments in representation and technology, and with many new examples, this well-respected book will help readers to write and publish the results of their research with maximum clarity and impact. New sections cover, among other aspects, the effective use of different writing implements..
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'International financial institutions' are more national than they seem. Robert Wade reveals how tightly the US Treasury monitors and controls the World Bank, and how quickly it will stamp out departures from its orthodoxy.
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This paper examines the relationship between education and gentrification in contemporary London. The paper draws on Stephen Ball's work on parental choice and educational markets in the context of empirical work that the authors have recently undertaken in five gentrified areas of inner London. The work of Mike Savage and Pierre Bourdieu is also referred to in the conception of a metropolitan habitus and how different middle-class groups operate within it. It is argued that parents pursue different educational strategies which are partly a consequence of their own economic capabilities and their 'consciences' but are also influenced by the nature of the 'circuits' of primary and secondary education in areas in which they live. Data are provided which confirm Ball's work on parental choice and it is suggested that education has now become a social 'field' alongside that of employment, housing and consumption in relation to the contemporary metropolitan habitus.
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Michel Foucault has become famous for a series of books that have permanently altered our understanding of many institutions of Western society. He analyzed mental institutions in the remarkable Madness and Civilization; hospitals in The Birth of the Clinic; prisons in Discipline and Punish; and schools and families in The History of Sexuality. But the general reader as well as the specialist is apt to miss the consistent purposes that lay behind these difficult individual studies, thus losing sight of the broad social vision and political aims that unified them.Now, in this superb set of essays and interviews, Foucault has provided a much-needed guide to Foucault. These pieces, ranging over the entire spectrum of his concerns, enabled Foucault, in his most intimate and accessible voice, to interpret the conclusions of his research in each area and to demonstrate the contribution of each to the magnificent -- and terrifying -- portrait of society that he was patiently compiling.For, as Foucault shows, what he was always describing was the nature of power in society; not the conventional treatment of power that concentrates on powerful individuals and repressive institutions, but the much more pervasive and insidious mechanisms by which power "reaches into the very grain of individuals, touches their bodies and inserts itself into their actions and attitudes, their discourses, learning processes and everyday lives"Foucault's investigations of prisons, schools, barracks, hospitals, factories, cities, lodgings, families, and other organized forms of social life are each a segment of one of the most astonishing intellectual enterprises of all time -- and, as this book proves, one which possesses profound implications for understanding the social control of our bodies and our minds.