Ancient wine: The search for the origins of viniculture
Abstract
The history of civilization is, in many ways, the history of wine. This book is the first comprehensive and up-to-date account of the earliest stages of vinicultural history and prehistory, which extends back into the Neolithic period and beyond. Elegantly written and richly illustrated, Ancient Wine opens up whole new chapters in the fascinating story of wine and the vine by drawing upon recent archaeological discoveries, molecular and DNA sleuthing, and the texts and art of long-forgotten peoples. Patrick McGovern takes us on a personal odyssey back to the beginnings of this consequential beverage when early hominids probably enjoyed a wild grape wine. We follow the course of human ingenuity in domesticating the Eurasian vine and learning how to make and preserve wine some 7,000 years ago. Early winemakers must have marveled at the seemingly miraculous process of fermentation. From success to success, viniculture stretched out its tentacles and entwined itself with one culture after another (whether Egyptian, Iranian, Israelite, or Greek) and laid the foundation for civilization itself. As medicine, social lubricant, mind-altering substance, and highly valued commodity, wine became the focus of religious cults, pharmacopoeias, cuisines, economies, and society. As an evocative symbol of blood, it was used in temple ceremonies and occupies the heart of the Eucharist. Kings celebrated their victories with wine and made certain that they had plenty for the afterlife. (Among the colorful examples in the book is McGovern's famous chemical reconstruction of the funerary feast--and mixed beverage--of "King Midas.") Some peoples truly became "wine cultures." When we sip a glass of wine today, we recapitulate this dynamic history in which a single grape species was harnessed to yield an almost infinite range of tastes and bouquets. Ancient Wine is a book that wine lovers and archaeological sleuths alike will raise their glasses to.
... sylvestris (Gmel.) Hegi (McGovern, 2003). Archaeological and historical studies evidenced that the primary center of domestication of the grapevine is located between the Near East (Zohary et al., 1996) and the Transcaucasian region (Olmo, 1976), then the grapevine spread around the Mediterranean, following the main civilizations (Carthaginians, Etruscans, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans) (McGovern, 2003). ...
... Hegi (McGovern, 2003). Archaeological and historical studies evidenced that the primary center of domestication of the grapevine is located between the Near East (Zohary et al., 1996) and the Transcaucasian region (Olmo, 1976), then the grapevine spread around the Mediterranean, following the main civilizations (Carthaginians, Etruscans, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans) (McGovern, 2003). During its spreading across the Western Mediterranean regions, the grapevine increased its genetic variability due to the contribution of multiple genetic pools and progressive human selection (Bacilieri et al., 2013). ...
Grapevine (Vitis vinifera ssp. sativa) is a perennial crop especially important for wine and fruit production. The species is highly polymorphic with thousands of different varieties selected by farmers and clonally propagated. However, it is still debated whether grapevine domestication from its wild ancestor (V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris) has been a single event or rather it occurred on multiple occasions during the diffusion of its cultivation across the Mediterranean. Located in the center of the Basin, Sicily is its largest island and has served as a hotspot for all civilizations that have crossed the Mediterranean throughout history. Hundreds of unique grapevine cultivars are still cultivated in Sicily and its surrounding minor islands, though most of them are menaced by extinction. Wild grapevine is also present with isolated populations thriving along riverbanks. With the aim to evaluate the phylogenetic relationships among Sicilian varieties, and to assess the possible contribution of indigenous wild populations to the genetic makeup of cultivated grapevine, we analyzed 170 domestic cultivars and 125 wild plants, collected from 10 different populations, with 23 SSR markers. We also compared our data with published dataset from Eurasia. Results show that Sicilian wild populations are related to the cultivated Sicilian and Italian germplasm, suggesting events of introgression and/or domestication of local varieties.
... vinifera ssp. sylvestris) of the Anatolia region, which is considered to be the center of origin of grapevine (McGovern, 2003), are highly diverse (Ekhvaia et al., 2014;Ergül et al., 2011). However, the genetic diversity of wild grapevines in the European region is lower (Di Vecchi-Staraz et al., 2009;Lopes et al., 2009), probably mirroring the human footprint on these populations. ...
In grafted plants, such as grapevine, increasing the diversity of rootstocks available to growers is an ideal strategy for helping plants to adapt to climate change. The rootstocks used for grapevine are hybrids of various American Vitis, including V. berlandieri. The rootstocks currently use in vineyards are derived from breeding programs involving very small numbers of parental individuals. We investigated the structure of a natural population of V. berlandieri and the association of genetic diversity with environmental variables. In this study, we collected seeds from 78 wild V. berlandieri plants in Texas after open fertilization. We genotyped 286 individuals to describe the structure of the population, and environmental information collected at the sampling site made it possible to perform genome–environment association analysis (GEA). De novo long‐read whole‐genome sequencing was performed on V. berlandieri and a STRUCTURE analysis was performed. We identified and filtered 104,378 SNPs. We found that there were two subpopulations associated with differences in elevation, temperature, and rainfall between sampling sites. GEA identified three QTL for elevation and 15 QTL for PCA coordinates based on environmental parameter variability. This original study is the first GEA study to be performed on a population of grapevines sampled in natural conditions. Our results shed new light on rootstock genetics and could open up possibilities for introducing greater diversity into genetic improvement programs for grapevine rootstocks.
... To date, evidence for wine in eastern Mediterranean funerary contexts has mainly been detected in Egypt (cf. Guasch-Jané et al., 2006;McGovern, 2003;McGovern et al., 2009). ...
Tel Megiddo is a major type‐site for the Middle Bronze in the Levant. During this period a new burial custom appeared in which the dead were interred beneath occupied houses. This tradition is well attested in Area K at the site. Area H, near the palatial complex, revealed a monumental masonry‐constructed chamber tomb. This article presents the results of residue analysis conducted on ceramic vessels placed in these tombs as burial offerings. Hundreds of intramural Middle Bronze tombs with ceramic offerings were excavated in the Levant, but this is the first time the content of the vessels is revealed.
... vinifera, subsp. sylvestris) in Southwest Asia over 6,000 y ago (1,2), it is been primarily grown for wine (3). Viticulture (grape growing) and viniculture (winemaking) evolved along multiple historical pathways in diverse wine regions and produced a myriad of legacy cultivars growing in their particular terroir. ...
Recent excavations of Late Antiquity settlements in the Negev Highlands of southern Israel uncovered a society that established commercial-scale viticulture in an arid environment [D. Fuks et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 117, 19780-19791 (2020)]. We applied target-enriched genome-wide sequencing and radiocarbon dating to examine grapevine pips that were excavated at three of these sites. Our analyses revealed centuries long and continuous grape cultivation in the Southern Levant. The genetically diverse pips also provided clues to ancient cultivation strategies aimed at improving agricultural productivity and ensuring food security. Applying genomic prediction analysis, a pip dated to the eighth century CE was determined to likely be from a white grape, to date the oldest to be identified. In a kinship analysis, another pip was found to be descendant from a modern Greek cultivar and was thus linked with several popular historic wines that were once traded across the Byzantine Empire. These findings shed light on historical Byzantine trading networks and on the genetic contribution of Levantine varieties to the classic Aegean landscape.
... The earliest evidence of consumption of wine was found to have its origin from China, rice was used as substrate with honey and some fruits ( McGovern & Patrick, 2003 ). In ancient Egypt both beer and wine were sanctified and offered to gods, Egyptian brewing history dates to 3400BC. ...
Consumption of fermented foods has been an integral part of the human food resource since the beginning of civilization. For generations, the practice of preparing fermented food have remained the same with a very little alterations in the techniques. Throughout the globe people with different ethnicity are known to produce fermented alcoholic beverages using variety of substrates depending upon the abundance and availability of the substrate in the region. Majority of the traditional fermented beverages have socio-cultural values amongst the tribal communities who consumes them, not only these fermented beverages have deep rooted link to rituals but also are consumed for nutritive and therapeutic purpose. These drinks are not only rich in its texture, flavor and nutrition but also fortified with the goodness of probiotic microflora which plays an imperative role in enhancing the overall dietary profile of the drinks. The high-altitude geographical regions of India are well-known for the rich diversity of ethno-medicinal plants, the tribal communities residing on the higher planes utilizes a variety of these ethnomedicinal plants for the preparation of ethnic fermented drinks which in turn augments the therapeutic value of the drinks. The present review exchanges insight on the preparation of some well-recognized drinks of the three regions of the North-West Indian Himalayan region i.e., Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
... It is located in the hills of Shulaveri Gora and Gadachrili Gora, dated back around 8,000 BP. Also, ceramic receptacles from that period, decorated by grape bunches (Chilashvili, 2004) and containing traces of wine, have been discovered in this region (McGovern, 2003;McGovern et al., 2017). ...
The present paper focuses on the presence of symptoms caused by parasitic species in samples of Eurasian grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) belonging to different herbaria from , and the . In the Spanish case herbaria were collected by Clemente at the beginning of the 19th century and preserved at the Royal Botanical Garden of Madrid. This material was used as the basis for the publication in 1807 of the famous book “Ensayo sobre las variedades de la vid común que vegetan en Andalucía” (Essay on the varieties of common grapevine that vegetate in ). The Georgian herbaria originated from three institutions: National Museum of Georgia, National Herbarium of Georgia and . The time period of the Georgian herbaria dates from mid-19th century. The herbaria came from Kew Royal Botanical Gardens and contain samples dated as of 1843. According to observations, in the Spanish herbarium, 98 samples out of 185 show erinea, symptoms caused by Colomerus vitis (Pagenstecher) (Acari, Eryophiidae), from a total of 185 samples there. Meanwhile in other herbaria its presence was detected in 3 samples, which also showed spots caused by powdery mildew, Erysiphe necator (Schweinitz). Symptoms caused by downy mildew, Plasmopara viticola Berl. & De Toni, were only detected in one sample collected in . Results attest the frequent presence of this monophagous mite pest on Southern Spanish cultivars and wild exemplars for more than two centuries.
... VV. 2006, AA.VV. 2015, Cita et al., 2001, 2003, Colacicchi, Parotto, 2006. ...
A bbiamo testimonianze fossili che il progetto biologico, di quelle particolari liane che porteranno alle viti, era già attivo circa trecento milioni di anni fa, quando la terra si presentava come un unico continente, la Pangea. La succes-siva frammentazione di Pangea porterà alla deriva di molte placche continenta-li, nelle quali evolveranno dalla famiglia delle Vitaceae o Ampelidaceae, già dal Miocene inferiore, le specie americane, asiatiche, e quelle euroasiatiche, come attestano numerose impronte foglia-ri fossili rinvenute in tutto il mondo: negli strati di tufo Paleocenico nel sito di Sézannes, in Francia; nel noto gia-cimento eocenico di Bolca, Veneto; in strati del Miocene dell'Ardèche (Fig. 1); Geodiversità dei paesaggi viti vinicoli italiani Geodiversity of Italian wine landscapes Parole chiave: viti geologiche, bioarcheologia, terroir, geodiversità nelle marne del Pleistocene inferiore nel Valdarno Superiore, Toscana. L'evolu-zione nelle zone temperate di Asia, Eu-ropa, Cina e America del nord selezio-nerà ben oltre cento specie di viti. Alla fine dell'ultima fase glaciale, ovverosia all'inizio dell'Olocene, in armonia con le altre piante termofile terziarie, una specie di vite tra quelle euroasiatiche, la Vitis vinifera L. subsp. Sylvevestris (Gmelin), verrà progressivamente ad-domestica e coltivata dando origine a più del 99% dell'ampia e molteplice (per nomi dei vitigni, varietà, colore, odore, sapore, aroma) produzione di vini. L'are-ale della vite selvatica circa 10.000 anni fa comprendeva le coste del mediterra-neo, soprattutto settentrionale, l'Egeo, le aree attorno al Mar Nero, ma anche le valli dei principali fiumi europei quali il Danubio, il Reno il Rodano ed anche le aree montagnose del Caucaso (Zohary e Hopf, 2000). Anche se tuttora dibattuto il "problema" di dove e quando per la prima volta sia stata praticata la para-domesticazione e la vinificazione (pro-blema di volta in volta aggiornato con il divenire delle scoperte archeologiche e bioarcheologiche) è certo che attorno a 6.000 anni fa, questo processo fosse or-mai alquanto avanzato e diffuso presso i Sumeri e gli Assiri, e come indiretta-mente ci informa l'Antico testamento ebraico che vede in Noè il primo viti-coltore. È ormai riconosciuto da molti studiosi supportati da dati bioarcheolo-gici e di genetica (Arroyo-Garcia, 2006; Ciacci et al., 2011; Failla, 2011; Negrul Figura 1. Eccezionale impronta fossile di una foglia di vite dagli strati del Miocene dell'Ardèche (Wikimedia Commons)
... Turpentine was widely used in Antiquity in winemaking, both as taste enhancer and conserving agent (8). Consequently, there was widespread exposure of the population to its effects. ...
... La domestication de la vigne s'est vraisemblablement produite il y a 6 000 à 10 000 ans (Levadoux, 1956;Zohary & Hopf, 2000;McGovern, 2003), dans les régions du Caucase, entre la mer Noire et la mer Caspienne. Cette zone géographique serait le berceau majeur de la domestication de la vigne. ...
Les variétés traditionnelles de vigne nécessitent de très nombreux traitements phytosanitaires pour lutter contre les maladies cryptogamiques qui touchent leurs parties herbacées, comme le mildiou et l’oïdium, causés par Plasmopara viticola et Erysiphe necator respectivement. Ces traitements, coûteux et préjudiciables pour l'environnement, pourraient être réduits par l’emploi de variétés résistantes. La vigne cultivée européenne (Vitis vinifera, 2n=38) est très sensible au mildiou et à l'oïdium. En conséquence, la résistance doit être introduite à partir d’autres Vitaceae ayant un niveau de résistance plus élevé à ces maladies. Plusieurs origines de résistance ont déjà été observées et inventoriées, en particulier chez l’espèce d’origine américaine Muscadinia rotundifolia (2n=40). Ces facteurs sont d'un intérêt majeur pour la sélection de variétés résistantes. Cependant, lors du processus d'introgression, des difficultés à obtenir des pépins viables en F1 ainsi que des anomalies phénotypiques dans les descendances en rétrocroisement ont été constatées. Afin d’optimiser la gestion des résistances provenant de cette espèce dans les programmes d’amélioration variétale, il est nécessaire de comprendre l’organisation génétique et génomique de M. rotundifolia, et de compléter la connaissance des facteurs de résistance issus de cette espèce. Dans ce contexte, les objectifs de la thèse sont : (i) de réaliser une analyse comparative des génomes de V. vinifera et M. rotundifolia et (ii) d’identifier de nouveaux facteurs de résistance chez M. rotundifolia utilisables à terme en sélection. Pour cela, une carte génétique de M. rotundifolia a été développée à partir d’une population de 200 individus issue de l’autofécondation de M. rotundifolia cv. Regale. Parallèlement, la même population a été testée pour son niveau de résistance au mildiou et à l’oïdium. Une carte génétique couvrant 950 cM a été réalisée. Elle comprend 191 marqueurs microsatellites répartis sur les 20 chromosomes de M. rotundifolia, et permet de conclure à un niveau de macrosynténie très élevé avec V. vinifera. Le groupe de liaison 20 de M. rotundifolia correspondrait à la partie inférieure du groupe de liaison 7 de V. vinifera. Par ailleurs, un QTL de résistance au mildiou a été détecté sur le groupe de liaison 18 de M. rotundifolia, au niveau d’une région riche en gènes de type NBS-LRR, et un nouveau QTL de résistance majeur à la l’oïdium a été mis en évidence sur le groupe de liaison 14 de M. rotundifolia. Ce QTL, nommé Ren5 pour ‘Resistance to Erysiphe necator 5’, montre une action précoce dans l’arrêt de la croissance du mycélium du pathogène, dès l’établissement des premiers stades de biotrophie du champignon. De plus, le QTL Ren5 a été confronté à deux souches supplémentaires d’E. necator, appartenant aux deux groupes d’oïdium retrouvés dans vignobles européens, contre lesquelles il reste efficace. Les données de cartographie génétique générées pour M. rotundifolia dans ce travail, ainsi que la mise en évidence de Ren5 et de son mode d’action, permettront d’améliorer la gestion des facteurs de résistance issus de cette espèce pour la sélection de variétés résistantes au mildiou et à l’oïdium.
... Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is an important cash crop grown worldwide (McGovern, 2003). Being a clonally propagated crop, grapevine is amenable for coinfection by different viruses and viroids (Jo et al., 2018). ...
Next-generation sequencing (NGS) based virome analyses of mRNA and sRNA have recently become a routine approach for reliable detection of plant viruses and viroids. In the present study we identified the viral/viroidal spectrum of several Indian grapevine cultivars and reconstructed their whole genomes using the publically available mRNAome and sRNAome datasets. Twenty three viruses and viroids (including two variants of grapevine leafroll associated virus 4) were identified from two tissues (fruit peels and young leaves) of three cultivars among which nine unique grapevine viruses and viroids were identified for the first time in India. Irrespective of the assemblers and tissues used, the mRNA based approach identified more acellular pathogens than the sRNA based approach across cultivars. Further, the mRNAome was on par with the whole transcriptome in viral identification. Through de novo assembly of transcriptomes followed by mapping against reference genome, we reconstructed 19 complete/near complete genomes of identified viruses and viroids. The reconstructed viral genomes included four larger RNA genomes (>13 kb), a DNA genome (RG grapevine geminivirus A), a divergent genome (RG grapevine virus B) and a genome for which no reference is available (RG grapevine virus L). A large number of SNPs detected in this study ascertained the quasispecies nature of viruses. Detection of three recombination events and phylogenetic analyses using reconstructed genomes suggested the possible introduction of viruses and viroids into India from several continents through the planting material. The whole genome sequences generated in this study can serve as a resource for reliable indexing of grapevine viruses and viroids in quarantine stations and certification programs.
... Feral yeast originating in honey, or on acorn shells, was the most likely catalyst for early fermentation (Hayden et al. 2013). Early fermented beverages included honey for three possible reasons: the honey introduced the yeast, the honey provided the microorganisms necessary to attract the yeast and thus kick-start the fermentation process, or both (McGovern 2003). ...
In this paper I present the results of a fermentation experiment in which alcohol is produced by combining honey, water and moerwortel (Glia prolifera). The procedure and combination of ingredients follows an indigenous method, as was conveyed to the botanist Carl Thunberg by KhoeSan informants in the 18th century. Results of this experiment are contextualized using ethnohistorical and early traveller testimonies that suggest widespread use of honey-alcohol combined with plant material for psychotropic and medicinal purposes. This included kanna (Sceletium tortuosum), which produced a 'spiked' honey drink known as khadi. Controlled fermentation may have emerged as early as the MSA, together with manifestations of complex behaviour and mental processing that was cognisant and capable of using a suite of complementary botanical, technical and chemical methods for various applications, such as making arrow poison and the synthesis of compound materials for the manufacture of mastics, adhesives and pigment. An explanatory framework encompassing an MSA and deep-time perspective helps to explain the related themes of honey bees in southern San mythology, pictorial expression and fermentation practices.
Published Online:13 Dec 2020. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-1e2a35c417
... sylvestris, grape was already a major fruit crop in the Mediterranean area. Moreover, the archeological record suggests that grape has been a source of food and wine 6000-8000 years ago in the Near East (McGovern et al., 2017;McGovern, 2019). Till now, several significant morphological shifts as a result of domestication have been reported, such as larger berry and bunch sizes (Cabezas et al., 2006), higher sugar content, increased variation in berry color and a shift from dioecy to a hermaphroditic mating system (Carmona et al., 2007). ...
Grapevine (Vitis vinifera) is one of the most important fruit species in the Classical Mediterranean world. It is thought to have been domesticated 6,000–8,000 years ago in the Near East. However, the domestication of its wild relative into wine grapes or table grapes remains largely unknown. In this study, we analyzed 30 table grapes, 30 wine grapes, 30 dual-purpose grape accessions, as well as 30 wild relatives (Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris). The phenotypic comparison showed striking differences in berry weight, acidity and the content of aroma. Based on a total of 7,522,958 single-nucleotide polymorphisms, we identified several significant selective sweep regions for table and wine grapes. Besides the well-known sex-determination locus on chromosome 2, the other four highest signals shared by table and wine grapes could not be linked to the known QTLs. The identification of these genomic regions under selection sweep may reveal agronomically important traits that have been selected during grape domestication. This information not only sheds light on the mechanisms of adaptions and diversification, but also guide the genetic improvement in breeding programs.
... El segundo, al asombro o que supuso el descubrimiento de ciertos hábitos de consumo muy semejantes a los practicados históricamente por griegos (symposion) 1 y romanos (commissatio). 2 Finalmente, las excavaciones realizadas por un equipo internacional de arqueólogos durante las campañas de 2012-2013 y 2015-2016 en los yacimientos de Gadachrili y Shulaveris Gora (McGovern et al., 2017;Maghradze, 2016), enclavados en la provincia de Kvemo Kartli, al sureste de la capital del país, han confirmado lo que ya se sospechaba desde hace algo más de una década: que Georgia era la principal candidata a convertirse en la cuna del vino y de la Vitis vinifera sp. vinifera (McGovern, 2003). Tal hipótesis ha sido corroborada al analizar muestras de los residuos adheridos a las paredes de varios recipientes de arcilla y descubrir que contuvieron vino y, lo que es más importante, que su datación se remonta al 6000-5800 antes de Cristo. ...
Amongst all the republics that once belonged to the former Soviet Union, there is one that, despite its geographical remoteness and its immediate socialist past, preserves socio-cultural practices close or very similar to the westernized countries. We refer to Georgia (Sakartvelo). The practices that we will discuss below revolve around the production and consumption of wine, and are part of a tradition deeply rooted in Georgian character and identity. The objective of this article is to describe and explain some of these manifestations with special emphasis on the ritual consumption of wine that is carried out in what is considered the maximum and best expression of its national spirit: the supra or banquet.
... Grapevine domestication occurred about 8000 years ago during the Neolithic Age, in the Near East and the area of northern Mesopotamia and central Asian countries, from the wild grapevine Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sylvestris (Levadoux, 1956;McGovern, 2003;This et al., 2006;Forni, 2012;Bacilieri et al., 2013). The domesticated grapevines were disseminated from the primary domestication center toward Mesopotamia, the Balkans and the east Mediterranean Basin (at the end of the fifth millenium BC), and toward Sicily and western Europe. ...
Wild grapevine, Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sylvestris (Gmelin, Hegi) is spontaneous to Europe and common in Tuscany. In this study, wild grapevines were identified in 22 populations from eight locations in Tuscan Maremma (Grosseto and Siena province). The plants were propagated by cuttings, collected in a vineyard, genotyped by nuclear simple sequence repeats (SSRs), chloroplast SSRs and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and compared to locally cultivated varieties (Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sativa) and to non-vinifera and non-vitis genotypes. The identity analysis revealed that some individuals were redundant genotypes, suggesting natural vegetative propagation. In addition, four of the supposed V.v. sylvestris were in fact naturalized V.v. sativa. The majority of putative sylvestris genotypes had chlorotype A, while the remainder had chlorotype D, as the majority of Vitis vinifera subsp. sativa cultivated in Italy. Some of the recovered sylvestris genotypes appeared to be natural crosses with cultivated grapevine varieties in Tuscany, and their chlorotype suggests a higher pollen flow from sativa to the sylvestris genotypes than in the opposite direction. In addition, other genotypes appeared to be crosses within sylvestris, sylvestris-sativa or sylvestris-sylvestris siblings, or equivalent relationships. These relationships suggest a noticeably level of sexual reproductive activities among sylvestris and sylvestris-sativa genotypes. A cluster and structure analysis clearly differentiated the true sylvestris from the sativa, and the non-vinifera or non-vitis genotypes, and also highlighted a possible introgression of sylvestris into some Italian and French cultivated varieties. The results therefore suggest that, in addition to the primary ancient center of domestication from the Near East to Central Asia, the introgression among cultivated and wild grapevine occurred in other centers of diversification along the migration routes, contributing to the domestication processes, and suggesting that these processes are still ongoing despite the reduction in populations of sylvestris. The results also highlight that the GrapeReSeq 18K Vitis genotyping chip are suitable for non-vitis genotyping and that the range of SNPs heterozygosity in sylvestris appears to be up to 6% less and does not overlap the heterozygosity range of sativa genotypes.
... Evidence was also provided that the yeast S. cerevisiae was responsible for wine fermentation in Egypt by at least 3150 BCE (76). Wine fermentation technologies expanded from Mesopotamia toward Europe and subsequently spread to the New World (77). ...
... Several excavation sites around the globe unearthed jarsdating it back to 7000-6600 BCE Northern China (McGovern, 2013), 5400-5000 BCE in Hajjin Firuz in Iran (Gately, 2008), 4000 BCE in ancient Egypt (Lucia, 1963), 2700 BCE in Babylonians (Hyams, 1965), 1000 BCE in Mexico (Gately, 2008), and 700 BCE in Greece (Hanson, 2013)-that were used for storing alcoholic beverages that were prepared form grapes, berries, rice, honey, wheat, and barley. With the commencement of the second and first centuries BCE, alcohol intoxication was no longer rare among the common people. ...
Excessive alcohol consumption is the cause of several diseases and thus is of a major concern for society. Worldwide alcohol consumption has increased by many folds over the past decades. This urgently calls for intervention and relapse counteract measures. Modern pharmacological solutions induce complete alcohol self-restraint and prevent relapse, but they have many side effects. Natural products are most promising as they cause fewer adverse effects. Here we discuss in detail the medicinal plants used in various traditional/folklore medicine systems for targeting alcohol abuse. We also comprehensively describe preclinical and clinical studies done on some of these plants along with the possible mechanisms of action.
... Recently, in Morocco, it is estimated the size of vineyards specifically for wine grapes:10000 hectares, it dwarfed by both major European and New World producers alike Morocco is however a country with potential for quality winemaking, even the prominent religious and political difficulties. The country is still coming to terms with its colonial past and it is this legacy which continues to influence wine-making within Morocco as significantly now as it has done for the last hundred years.The first cultivated grapes were probably introduced to Morocco by Phoenicians and Carthaginians [19,20]. Those introductions, and their putative derivatives resulting from hybridization among cultivated and wild forms, could represent the oldest cultivated vines in the region, truly commercial viticulture was introduced to the country in the early twentieth century with the arrival of French colonists in 1912 [21]. ...
This work aims to assessing the environmental quality of agricultural soils under vine and wheat cultivation in the area of Mohammadia-Benslimane (Morocco). 80 soil samples were collected and studied. The results have been studied and recorded on the agronomic parameters; show that the soil’s textures contain clay andthe values of pH are neutral to slightly acid in all stations. The electrical conductivity values are clearly higher in soils under wheat than in those under vine. The CaCO3 contents within the different studied soils are generally similar in all stations. Moreover, the organic substance rate seems to be more important in the soils under the wheat crops (2%) than in those under the vine crops (1, 7%). For the four analyzed elements: Cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn), the lead and the zinc present a high concentration in the vine yard Plots compared to those of the wheat. The concentrations of the Cadmium in a few stations exceed the standards (2 ppm) and can reach 10,37 ppm. The order of the average’s contents with the lead and the zinc are 20,12 ppm and 148,60 ppm, respectively. They are inadequate with the concentration standards for a normal soil, ie 100 ppm for pb and 300 ppm for zinc. As regards metallic pollution, its index increases, for the soil under the vine (it takes the values from 0.281 to 2.203).
... Throughout the fourth and third millennia bc, wine production and consumption intensified in Mesopotamia, the Levant, Egypt, and the Aegean, as suggested by archaeobotanical finds of grape pressings, chemical residue analyses on storage vessels and drinking cups, archaeological remains of winemaking installations and drinking equipment, and iconographic depictions (Sherratt, 1995: 17-20;McGovern et al., 1996a;McGovern, 2003). Clear proof of the large volume of production and of the industrial nature of winemaking processes, something that may be glimpsed in the administrative records on clay tablets (Chambon, 2009), are the large storage vessels-the capacity of some of which may reach 100 litres-placed in the store rooms of the palace centres (Palmer, 1994). ...
The taste for alcohol is not exclusive to humans, as some other animal species are attracted to ripe fruits and nectar due to the natural occurrence of ethanol. However, what makes Homo sapiens different is their capacity to produce alcoholic beverages. From the Neolithic, if not earlier, the production of alcoholic drinks is documented, and this production ensured the supply of alcohol. Consequently, alcohol consumption was no longer sporadic and occasional. This process ran in parallel to the development of specific alcohol-related equipment, and organized drinking patterns gradually became more and more formalized. Its use has depended not only on its effects, mainly its capacity to enhance sociability, but also on historical, economic, and religious factors. The aim of this chapter is to search for the origins of this dynamic in prehistoric Europe from an archaeological perspective in order to explore the foundations of the cultural construction of alcohol.
... vinifera) was domesticated from V. vinifera subsp. sylvestris around~6000-8000 years ago 9,10 and is among the most important horticultural crops in the world 11 . Many grape breeders introgress desirable traits, including abiotic stress tolerance and disease resistance [12][13][14] , from wild species within the genus. ...
Transferable DNA markers are essential for breeding and genetics. Grapevine (Vitis) breeders utilize disease resistance alleles from congeneric species ~20 million years divergent, but existing Vitis marker platforms have cross-species transfer rates as low as 2%. Here, we apply a marker strategy targeting the inferred Vitis core genome. Incorporating seven linked-read de novo assemblies and three existing assemblies, the Vitis collinear core genome is estimated to converge at 39.8 Mb (8.67% of the genome). Adding shotgun genome sequences from 40 accessions enables identification of conserved core PCR primer binding sites flanking polymorphic haplotypes with high information content. From these target regions, we develop 2,000 rhAmpSeq markers as a PCR multiplex and validate the panel in four biparental populations spanning the diversity of the Vitis genus, showing transferability increases to 91.9%. This marker development strategy should be widely applicable for genetic studies in many taxa, particularly those ~20 million years divergent. Trait introgression requires universal markers, but cross-species transferability of current SNP markers can be as low as 2%. Here, the authors use an AmpSeq haplotype strategy targeting the collinear core genome for marker development and show transferability increases to 91.4% in the Vitis genus.
... 1500 BC Hearst Papyrus -c. 1500 BC Papyrus from London -1350-1100 BC Papyrus from Berlin -1350-1100 BC Brugsch Papyrus -1350-1100 BC The curative wines of ancient Egypt were made mainly from grapes, but some were obtained from dates or palms (15,16). Apart from data on the beneficial properties of wine, Egyptian medical papyri are an important source of information about the development of Egyptian medical practice as a whole. ...
... Technological maturity parameters and dry mass carbon isotope discrimination (δ 13 C) for the three grapevine age groups (n = 4) over the growing seasons 2014 to 2017 (means ± sd). δ 13 List of figures Wine is a unique commodity that has been produced even before history was recorded (Bisson et al., 2002;McGovern, 2013). As noted by Phillips (2000), "it is perhaps the most historically charged and culturally symbolic of the foods and beverages with which we regularly have contact". ...
Vine age and its relation to the quality of the wine are topics of recurring interest, both scientific and economic. Consumers and actors in the wine sector seem to agree on the ability of old vines to produce wines of superior character. Despite ongoing research, the validity of this point of view remains debated and questions about the mechanisms through which old vines would end up with superior quality wines remain numerous. To try to answer them, the impact vine age on physiology, tolerance to water stress, and berry and wine quality were studied in an experimental vineyard planted with Vitis vinifera L. cv. of identical genetic material (Riesling Gm 239 grafted on 5C Teleki) but planted in different years.In 2014 and 2015, the vines planted in 2012 had not yet reached their full potential and had a significantly lower vegetative productivity and yield than the vines planted in 1995 and 1971. Moreover, the vines planted in 2012 were not subjected to the same grass treatment as older vines during this period to prevent excessive competition during establishment. The lower capacity of these vines and the absence of cover crop led to greater exposure of clusters to light and greater nitrogen accumulation, which resulted in a higher concentration of amino acids, monoterpenes, norisoprenoids, and flavonols in 2014 and 2015. In the following years (2016 and 2017), the yield and pruning weight of these vines, as well as their berry composition, were comparable to those of the older vines. The parameters of technological maturity (° Brix, total acidity and must pH) were not significantly affected by vine age.Vines planted in 1995 and 1971 showed similar physiological characteristics throughout the study with the exception of a higher incidence of esca syndrome in the older group. This disease was responsible for the decline in the total yield of vines planted in 1971, but individual yield per vine was equivalent for both groups.Sensory and chemical analyzes were conducted in 2017 on wines from previous vintages. The wines of the youngest vines were associated with aromas of ripe fruit and the kerosene aroma that is typical of Riesling. These wines were also identified by higher concentrations of potential monoterpenes and norisoprenoids and volatile sulfur compounds in 2014 and 2015 only. The sensory and chemical profiles of wines from vineyards planted in 1995 and 1971 were dependent on the vintage but not on the age of the vines. The wine profiles produced in 2016 were overlapping for the three age groups.The works described in this thesis manuscript are unique, particularly because the vineyard in which they were conducted was designed specifically to study the effect of the age of the vine under comparable environmental conditions. Once the youngest vines reached their fruiting potential and were conducted in the same way as the older vines, their productivity, the composition of their berries and the quality of the wines they produce converged with those of the two other groups. More interestingly, vines aged 19 and 43 years behaved similarly throughout the study and resulted in wines comparable in terms of sensory analysis, which goes against the an idea that the older vines produce wines of a different profile.Previous studies have shown that the productivity of the vines, whatever their age, could be explained by the wood reserves and the size of the trunk. To have a better idea of differences linked to reserves, the structure-from-motion with multi-view stereo-photogrammetry (SfM-MVS) method was tested to measure trunk thickness and volume. The technique, which allows the creation of scaled, georeferenced 3D models based on photographs, was able to produce accurate models of field-grown grapevine trunks.
... Often characterized among one of the world's healthiest foods, grapes have been cultivated for nearly 8000 years, and grape-derived wine has been deemed a highly valued commodity in many ancient cultures [49]. Grapes have been extensively used in many cultures for their medicinal value. ...
Skin is arguably the largest organ of the body and is continuously subjected to intrinsic, extrinsic, and environmental stresses. Therefore, skin developed elaborate mechanisms to maintain homeostasis, including antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and DNA damage repair capabilities. However, repeated and excessive stresses can overwhelm these systems, causing serious cutaneous damages, including skin carcinogenesis. Phytonutrients present in the diet possess a myriad of health-promoting effects by protecting skin from damaging free radicals as well as by other mechanisms. Although many chemoprotective phytonutrients have been shown to be efficacious individually, a combination of multiple agents could have synergistic response in curtailing or preventing cutaneous damages. Here, we discuss the benefits of natural amalgamation of phytonutrients in select fruits against skin damage including carcinogenesis. However, a majority of these studies have been done in preclinical models. Therefore, clinical studies are needed to determine the human relevance of the available preclinical data, especially in the human population who are at higher risk for skin cancers (e.g., organ transplant patients). In addition, detailed well-structured preclinical animal studies in the models of high-risk skin carcinogenesis could also be useful toward informing the design for human trials.
... Crabtree positive microbes are beneficial in the production of alcoholic beverages which have been produced for at least 9,000 years, and the earliest known recording of Japanese sake is mentioned ca. 285 AD in an ancient Chinese document called Gishiwajinden [21][22][23]. Sake is the alcoholic drink generated by fermenting rice and beer is that of barley, making their development specific to regions dominated by these grains. Rice and barley diverged 50 million years ago and rice was introduced to Japan from the Chinese Yangzi region around 400 BC, many differences exist between these two grains [24,25]. ...
The use of interspecific hybrids during the industrial fermentation process has been well established, positioning the frontier of advancement in brewing to capitalize on the potential of Saccharomyces hybridization. Interspecific yeast hybrids used in modern monoculture inoculations benefit from a wide range of volatile metabolites that broaden the organoleptic complexity. This is the first report of sake brewing by Saccharomyces arboricola and its hybrids. S. arboricola x S. cerevisiae direct-mating generated cryotolerant interspecific hybrids which increased yields of ethanol and ethyl hexanoate compared to parental strains, important flavor attributes of fine Japanese ginjo sake rice wine. We used hierarchical clustering heatmapping with principal component analysis for metabolic profiling and found that the low levels of endogenous amino/organic acids clustered S. arboricola apart from the S. cerevisiae industrial strains. In sake fermentations, hybrid strains showed a mosaic profile of parental strains, while metabolic analysis suggested S. arboricola had a lower amino acid net uptake than S. cerevisiae. Additionally, we found an increase in ethanolic fermentation from pyruvate and increased sulfur metabolism. Together, our results suggest S. arboricola is poised for in-depth metabolomic exploration in sake fermentation.
... The oldest trace of wine making is estimated to have occurred approximately 8000 years ago (6000 years BC) in Georgia (McGovern, 2003). Since that time, wine has been produced worldwide and constitutes an industry with significance in economic terms, playing an important cultural and traditional role. ...
... vinifera sbs. sativa) was domesticated 8000 years ago in the Southern Caucasus region (McGovern, 2003) from its wild ancestor V. vinifera sbs. sylvestris. ...
Este livro tem por objetivo descrever os avanços ocorridos nas áreas de tecnologia de alimentos e de nutrição humana durante o século XX até os dias de hoje. Novos paradigmas e conceitos foram estabelecidos a partir da segunda metade do século passado, particularmente em nutrição humana, com descobertas nos alimentos de compostos bioativos, até então considerados “não nutrientes”. O primeiro capítulo é uma descrição histórica dos principais avanços ocorridos e da importância das descobertas no período supracitado. Nos capítulos seguintes, é descrito e conceituado o que se convencionou chamar de compostos bioativos e nutrição funcional. Os últimos capítulos tratam de inovações em pesquisas, nas quais os conceitos de dieta funcional, nutrigenômica e nutrição personalizada são introduzidos. Esses conceitos poderão conduzir o leitor à seguinte indagação: Dieta ideal é um desafio atingível ou uma utopia? Para os pesquisadores parece ser mais um desafio inatingível, por se tratar de alcançar uma fronteira que se move constantemente pela pressão evolutiva.
In the wine industry, the analysis of sugars in grapes, grape must, alcoholic fermentation, and final product are relevant information in the manufacture of wines. This chapter consists of the compilation and discussion of classical methods (refractometry, chemical, enzymatic, and liquid chromatography) and those of high analytical complexity such as infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), gas chromatography, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). In addition, the development of a methodology for glucose and fructose analysis by HPLC is described. This chapter contains information aimed at both the wine industry and alcohol beverage researchers.Key wordsGrape mustWineEnzymatic methodHPLCFTIRRMN
Grapevine is an economically important fruit crop with high secondary metabolite content. The stilbene contents in ripe berries were significantly higher in Vitis flexuosa than in ‘Pinot Noir’ (V. vinifera) and ‘Campbell Early’ (V. labruscana). A phylogenetic tree analysis of STS family showed high similarity between V. flexuosa and V. vinifera. The draft genome sequence of a heterozygous V. flexuosa, were assembled from ~ 172-fold sequencing data. The assembled genome has a total length of 511 Mb and contains 18,515 orthologous genes. Moreover, there was high structural variation in V. flexuosa compared to cultivated grapevines, which are contributed to genetic variation involved in expression of characteristics such as disease resistance and high content of stilbene compound in V. flexuosa. The V. flexuosa genome sequence will facilitate exploration of the biological discovery and breeding-related applications of this useful resource plant, Korea native wild grapevine V. flexuosa.
The Roman site of Torre dos Namorados (Fundão, Beiras region, central Portugal) is a rare find, identified as a Roman vicus (village), with evidence of making wine and olive oil. During the archaeological campaigns of 2006–2007, a rectangular Roman lacus musti (must, grape juice, settling vat) was found, built with tegulae (tiles) and bricks and containing thousands of charred grape pips and skins. By using a stepwise linear discriminant analysis method, a morphological comparison was made of these archaeological grape pips and with a reference collection of modern pips, both from cultivated Portuguese varieties of Vitis vinifera L. ssp. vinifera and from wild vines of Vitis vinifera L. ssp. sylvestris, to study similarities between them. The modern grape pips were charred in order to obtain suitable material to compare with the archaeological pips. The statistical analysis showed a clear association between the archaeological grape pips and wild grapes, suggesting that these were used for making wine in Roman times. The data presented here represent the first systematic study of Roman viticulture in the Lusitanian province of Iberia.
The archaeobotanical identification of Vitis pips, which is often based only on visual assessment of the finds or on morphometric methods, is problematic. The problem of distinguishing wild from domesticated strains arises especially in the differentiation of early cultivars. Correct identification often fails even when mathematical methods based on dimensional measurements are used. To verify the success of two classification methods commonly used in archaeology, their procedures were applied to modern pips of wild Vitis sylvestris grown in natura in Slovakia, coming from different localities and with different numbers of pips. The results of these measurements were concordant with archaeobotanical findings of grapevine pips from the Great Moravian site of Mikulčice-Valy situated in the region of South Moravia (Czech Republic). The results show that traditional methods have difficulty in correctly classifying pips from fruits with more than one pip and, to a lesser extent, pips of fruits from sun-bleached stands. These grape species tend to be classified as cultivated. Thanks to the results on the error rate of morphometric methods, it is also possible to characterize the archaeobotanical finds from Mikulčice, which were defined as cultivated.
The history of agricultural trade stretches back more than ten millennia, but it became more inter‐continental from the 17th century and much denser in the 19th century following the repeal of Britain's protective Corn Laws in 1846 and major declines in international trade costs. Trade was chaotic in the period bookended by the two world wars, but trade policy anarchy gave way to greater certainty after the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed in 1947. This paper seeks to identify the forces that shaped that history, and to re‐examine the case for continued openness to trade in farm and processed food products. It does so in the wake of uneven economic growth and structural transformation and as agri‐food systems respond to increased market and policy uncertainties this century—and to growing pressures for agricultural production to become more sustainable and for its food outputs to be safer and more nutritious. The paper points to better policy options than trade measures for achieving most national objectives—options that can simultaneously benefit the rest of the world. Areas for further economic research are noted before the paper concludes.
A Cultural History of Plants in Antiquity covers the period from 10,000 BCE to 500 CE. The period witnessed the transition from hunter-gatherer subsistence to the practice of agriculture in Mesopotamia and elsewhere, and culminated in the fall of the Roman Empire, the end of the Han Dynasty in China, the rise of Byzantium, and the first flowering of Mayan civilization. Human uses for and understanding of plants drove cultural evolution and were inextricably bound to all aspects of cultural practice. The growth of botanical knowledge was fundamental to the development of agriculture, technology, medicine, and science, as well as to the birth of cities, the rise of religions and mythologies, and the creation of works of literature and art.
The 6 volume set of the Cultural History of Plants presents the first comprehensive history of the uses and meanings of plants from prehistory to today. The themes covered in each volume are plants as staple foods; plants as luxury foods; trade and exploration; plant technology and science; plants and medicine; plants in culture; plants as natural ornaments; the representation of plants.
An adhesive is any substance that bonds different materials together. This broad definition includes materials used in everything from hafted stone tools to monumental architecture. In addition, the combination of bonding, plasticity, and insolubility meant that some adhesives were exploited for waterproofing and sealing of materials, as self-adhering inlays and putties, and as paints, varnishes, and inks. Adhesives have a history of at least 200,000 years. Throughout (pre)history and around the world, people used materials, including bitumen/asphalt, carbohydrate polymers such as starches and gums, natural rubbers, mortars, proteins (from casein, soy, blood, and animal connective tissue), insect and plant resins, and tars made from various barks and woods. Adhesives thus are very diverse and have widely varying properties: they can be tacky, pliable, elastic, brittle, water-resistant, fluid, viscous, clear, dark, and much more. They are a plastic avant la lettre. These properties can and were tweaked by mixing ingredients or by further processing. In the study of archaeological adhesives, their characterization is essential and this is best done with chemical and spectroscopic methods. When larger coherent samples as opposed to single finds are analyzed, adhesive studies can provide data on past technologies, socioeconomic organizations, and environments and raw material availability. Through sourcing and mapping of ingredients and adhesive end products, travel and transfer of materials and knowledge can be illuminated. Additionally, experimental reproductions provide data on technological aspects that otherwise are lost in the archaeological record. An archaeology of adhesives can reveal the transport networks, subsistence, mobility strategies, division of labor, and technological know-how that held societies together.
Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) diversity richness results from a complex domestication history over multiple historical periods. Here, we used whole-genome resequencing to elucidate different aspects of its recent evolutionary history. Our results support a model in which a central domestication event in grapevine was followed by postdomestication hybridization with local wild genotypes, leading to the presence of an introgression signature in modern wine varieties across Western Europe. The strongest signal was associated with a subset of Iberian grapevine varieties showing large introgression tracts. We targeted this study group for further analysis, demonstrating how regions under selection in wild populations from the Iberian Peninsula were preferentially passed on to the cultivated varieties by gene flow. Examination of underlying genes suggests that environmental adaptation played a fundamental role in both the evolution of wild genotypes and the outcome of hybridization with cultivated varieties, supporting a case of adaptive introgression in grapevine.
In the industry of fermented food and beverages, yeast cultures are often selected and standardized in order to ensure a better control of fermentation and a more stable product over time. Several studies have shown that the organoleptic characteristics of fermented products reflect geographic variations of the microbial community composition. Despite investigations of the worldwide distribution and genetic diversity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it is still unclear how and to what extent human intervention has shaped the brewer’s yeast population structure. The genotypic and phenotypic characterization of environmental yeast populations and their potential application in the fermentative processes can significantly enrich the industrial fermentation products. Social insects have proven to be closely associated to the yeasts ecology. The relationships between yeasts and insects represent a fundamental aspect for understanding the ecological and evolutionary forces shaping their adaptation to different niches. Studies on phylogenetic relationships of S. cerevisiae populations showed genetic differences among strains isolated from gut and non-gut environments (i.e., natural sources and fermentation). Recent evidences showed that insect’s gut is a reservoir and an evolutionary niche for Saccharomyces, contributing to its survival and evolution, favoring its dispersion, mating and improving the inter-specific hybrids production during hibernation. Here, we discuss the potential use of social insects for production of a wide range of hybrid yeasts from environmental Saccharomyces isolates suitable for industrial and biotechnological applications.
The necessity to adapt to climate change is even stronger for grapevine than for other crops, because grape berry composition—a key determinant of fruit and wine quality, typicity and market value— highly depends on “terroir” (complete natural environment), on vintage (annual climate variability), and on their interactions. In the same time, there is a strong demand to reduce the use of pesticides. Thus, the equation that breeders and grape growers must solve has three entries that cannot be dissociated: adaptation to climate change, reduction of pesticides, and maintenance of wine typicity. Although vineyard management may cope to some extent to the short–medium-term effects of climate change, genetic improvement is necessary to provide long-term sustainable solutions to these problems. Most vineyards over the world are planted using vines that harbor two grafted plants’ genomes. Although this makes the range of interactions (scion-atmosphere, rootstock-soil, scion-rootstock) more complex, it also opens up wider possibilities for the genetic improvement of either or both the grafted genotypes. Positive aspects related to grapevine breeding are as follows: (a) a wide genetic diversity of rootstocks and scions that has not been thoroughly explored yet; (b) progress in sequencing technologies that allows high-throughput sequencing of entire genomes, faster mapping of targeted traits and easier determination of genetic relationships; (c) progress in new breeding technologies that potentially permit precise modifications on resident genes; (d) automation of phenotyping that allows faster and more complete monitoring of many traits on relatively large plant populations; (e) functional characterization of an increasing number of genes involved in the control of development, berry metabolism, disease resistance, and adaptation to environment. Difficulties involve: (a) the perennial nature and the large size of the plant that makes field testing long and demanding in manpower; (b) the low efficiency of transformation, regeneration and small size of breeding populations; (c) the complexity of the adaptive traits and the need to define more clearly future ideotypes; (d) the lack of shared and integrative platforms allowing a complete appraisal of the genotype-phenotype-environmental links; (e) legal, market and consumer acceptance of new genotypes. The present chapter provides an overview of suitable strategies and challenges linked to the adaptation of viticulture to a changing environment.
The Anatolian peninsula otherwise known as Asia Minor is considered one of the centers that shaped grape (Vitis spp.) evolution and domestication. This region with diverse ecological conditions also has a long history of viticulture and growing grapes has been a part of the local culture since very old times. However, very little information is available on genetic analysis of Anatolian grape germplasm. This study reports on genetic analyses of 88 grapevine cultivars from Central Anatolia using 17 microsatellite (SSR) loci. The average number of alleles per locus was 9.18, ranging from 5 to 15. The highest heterozygosity rate was obtained for the SSR loci “VVS2” and “VMC2H4.” Genetic distances between populations ranged from 0.056 to 0.207 and two cases of identical, seven cases of homonymous, and nine cases of synonymous grape cultivar groups were identified. Based on comparisons with international Vitis databases, it has been determined that “Moldova-Coarna Neagra” cultivar is synonymous with some Anatolian cultivars. In addition, investigation of the genetic diversity of 20 genotypes of Anatolian wild germplasm revealed a higher level of genetic diversity in wild populations than in cultivated ones at the studied microsatellite loci. The results reported here should not only contribute towards better management of the grape germplasm of the region but also provide new insights into grape domestication.
Northeastern part of Turkey is rich in terms of autochthonous grape cultivars. In the region Yusufeli district has special importance for historical cultivation of grapevine. This small district has over fourteen local grape cultivars. Present study describe morphological and biochemical characteristics of nine autochthonous grape cultivars grown in Yusufeli district in Turkey. The standard Turkish grape cultivar ‘Cavus’ was also included experiment to make comparison with local ones. Bunch size, berry color, berry shape and usage are the searched main morphological characteristics. Phenolic compounds, organic acids, vitamin C and specific sugars were the main biochemical parameters. We found a wide variation among both morphological and biochemical characteristics. The cultivars showed low to medium bunch size. Chlorgenic acid (2.231–4.811 mg/L), syringic acid (1.027–5.426 mg/L) and rutin (1.013–1.129 mg/L) were found the highest content in berries of cultivars. As expected, tartaric acid that characteristic for grape berries was the dominant (ranged from 1.826 to 3.336 g/L) and followed by malic acid (ranged from 1.089 to 2.344 g/L). The all autochthonous grape cultivars had glucose the highest concentration as major sugar and followed by fructose. It can be concluded that morphological and biochemical characteristics analyzed could be useful to give information about selection of the promising grape cultivars for breeders.
The present study has resulted from a close reading of prescriptions for therapeutic wines inserted in book V of De materia medica by Pedanius Dioscorides, the eminent expert in materia medica of the 1st century A.D. The authors emphasise the role of wine varieties and selected flavourings (and especially of myrrh) in order to determine the social status of those to whom the formulas were addressed. This perspective gives the researchers ample opportunity for elaborating not only on the significance of wine in medical procedures but also for underscoring the importance of a number of aromatics in pharmacopoeia of antiquity and Byzantium. The analysis of seven selected formulas turns out to provide a fairly in-depth insight into Mediterranean society over a prolonged period of time, and leads the authors to draw the following conclusions. First, they suggest that medical doctors were social-inequality-conscious and that Dioscorides and his followers felt the obligation to treat both the poor and the rich. Second, they prove physicians’ expertise in materia medica, exemplifying how they were capable of adjusting market value of components used in their prescriptions to financial capacities of the patients. Third, the researchers circumstantiate the place of medical knowledge in ancient, and later on in Byzantine society. Last but not least, they demonstrate that medical treatises are an important source of knowledge, and therefore should be more often made use of by historians dealing with economic and social history of antiquity and Byzantium.
Abstract
This study aimed to find out the role of dietary dried red grape pomace (DRGP) with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SC) on the productive and biochemical traits, blood parameters, rumen fermentation in Awassi male lambs.
The experiment was performed on the animal farm of the Faculty of Agriculture of the University of Kufa, from the period 1/7/2018 to 1/11/2018. Twenty-five Awassi male lambs weighting 23.82 ± 0.16 Kg with 2-3 months of age were used, and they divided based on body weight equally. Dietary treatments for 4 month were as follow: G1 (control) was fed on concentrate diet at the rate of 3% body weight with wheat straw daily and considered as a control group, G2 was fed on the same diet as control group and was given5% DRGP daily with diet, G3 was fed on the same diet that was given in G2 with 5g/head of (SC), G4 was fed on the same diet in G1 with a 10% DRGP daily with diet, G5 was fed on the same diet in G4 with 5g/head of (SC). Water was freely offered for all groups of animals.
Lambs weight was taken monthly for some productive traits (live body weight, monthly weight gain). Blood and serum samples were taken each 21 days from all animals to estimate: hemoglobin, packed cell volume, red blood cell, white blood cell, and neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio, total cholesterol, triglyceride, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol, low density lipoprotein-cholesterol, very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol, Glutathione, Malondialdehyde, Alanine Aminotransferase, total Serum Protein, albumin, and globulin concentration. Rumen fluid was collected monthly at zero, 3, and 6 hours of feeding using stomach tube from all animals for assessment of rumen parameters such as pH, micro flora population count, Total volatile fatty acids, and ammonia- nitrogen.
The results showed: values of LBW showed that G5, G4 and G3 express significance exceed from the 3rd month to the end of experiment. Values of MWG significance exceed in G5 at the 2nd month, and the same in the total weight gain. Values of Hb showed G5 and G4 significance exceed from the 3rd period to the end of experiment, While G3, show significance exceed from the 5th period to the end of experiment. Values of PCV showed that G5 significance exceeds other groups from the 3rd to the end of experiment; G4, G2 and G3 significance exceed G1 from the 4th period to the end of the experiment. Values of RBCs showed that G5 and G4 significance exceed other groups from the 3rd to the end of experiment, while G3 significance exceed at the 6th and 7th periods, and G2 significance exceed at the 4th and 6th periods, while G1 significance exceed during the 7th period. Values of TG showed G1 and G2 significance exceed at the 6th period of the experiment. Values of HDL-C showed G3, G4, and G5 significance exceed during the 7th period of the experiment. Values of LDL-C, showed G1 and G2 significance exceed at the 6th and 7th periods. Values of GSH showed G3, G4 and G5 significance exceed at the 6th and 7th periods of the experiment. Values of MDA showed G1 and G2 significance exceed other groups in all experiment periods. Values of ALT showed G1 and G2 significance exceed at the 4th and 5th periods. And G4 and G5 significance exceed G3 at the same periods. Values of Total protein showed G3, G4 and G5 significance exceed other groups at the 6th and 7th periods. Values of Albumin showed G1 and G5 significance exceed at the 1st and 2nd periods of experiment, while G2 significance exceed G3 and G4 at the same periods. Values of Globulin showed G1 significance exceed G2 at the 1st period. Ruminal fermentation characteristics, Total pH means/ month values showed that G3 and G4 significance exceed during the 1st month, and G5 significance exceed during the 4th month of the experiment, while Total pH mean/ hour values showed G3 significance exceed at the zero time of feed. Total means of Total bacterial count / month values showed G5 significance exceed during the 2nd, 3rd and 4th months of experiments. Total NH3-N/ hour values showed G1 significance exceeds at the 3ed hours from feed and G5 significance exceed at the 6th hours from feed during the experiment.
It could be concluded from this study that supplementation of dried red grape pomace with Saccharomyces cerevisiae leads to improvement in blood biochemical, productive traits, and in rumen fermentation of Awassi male lambs.
Vitis is a relevant genus worldwide. The genome of a Vitis vinifera representative (PN40024) published in 2007 boosted grapevine related studies. While this reference genome is a suitable tool for the overall studies in the field, it lacks the ability to unveil changes accumulated during V. vinifera domestication. Considering that grapevines for wine production (V. v. vinifera, hereafter vinifera) have evolved from V. v. sylvestris (hereafter sylvestris), or from a shared no-longer existing ancestor, both subspecies are quite close, but sylvestris has not been domesticated and still exist nowadays, preserving wild characteristics, making it a good material to provide insights into vinifera domestication. The difference in the reproductive strategy between both subspecies is one of the characteristics that sets them apart. While vinifera flowers are hermaphrodite with functional male and female organs, sylvestris is mostly dioecious. Male plants present flowers lacking functional carpels unable to produce grapes and female individuals have flowers with reflexed stamens producing infertile pollen but able to exhibit small and acidic grapes.
In this paper, we describe the re-sequencing of the genomes from a male and a female individual of the wild sylvestris and its comparison against the reference vinifera genome.
Organic residue analysis of potshards excavated from the Iron Age archaeological site of Kani‐zirin, western Iran, was achieved through the acidified methanol extraction and gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC‐MS). The GC‐MS data showed plant and animal commodities incorporated in the shards. Also, our investigations confirmed the presence of plant resin together with tartrate ion within a group of the shards suggesting a probable use of grape‐related products. Evidence of resins from the Pinaceae family, as an exotic species in Iran, was evinced in a number of the shards.
The use of interspecific hybrids during the industrial fermentation process has been well established, positioning the frontier of advancement in brewing to capitalize on the potential of Saccharomyces hybridization. Interspecific yeast hybrids used in modern monoculture inoculations benefit from a wide range of volatile metabolites that broaden the organoleptic complexity. This is the first report of sake brewing by Saccharomyces arboricola and its hybrids. S. arboricola x S. cerevisiae direct-mating generated cryotolerant interspecific hybrids which increased yields of ethanol and ethyl hexanoate compared to parental strains, important flavor attributes of fine Japanese ginjo sake rice wine. Hierarchical clustering heatmapping with principal component analysis for metabolic profiling was used in finding low levels of endogenous amino/organic acids clustered S. arboricola apart from the S. cerevisiae industrial strains. In sake fermentations, hybrid strains showed a mosaic profile of parental strains, while metabolic analysis suggested S. arboricola had a lower amino acid net uptake than S. cerevisiae. Additionally, this research found an increase in ethanolic fermentation from pyruvate and increased sulfur metabolism. Together, these results suggest S. arboricola is poised for in-depth metabolomic exploration in sake fermentation.
The grape (Vitis vinifera L.) cultivars in the island of Crete, Greece represent one of the oldest populations of the species; nevertheless, very scarce information is available about its genetic structure. In this study, Vitis cultivars collected from the island of Crete were characterized using microsatellite markers. A broad germplasm collection representing 44 inferred Vitis cultivars, a total of 163 accessions, from the area of Crete including 37 wine and 7 table cultivars were fingerprinted employing thirteen (13) standardized simple sequence repeat (SSR, microsatellite) loci. SSR allelic analysis and a similarity dendrogram construction (cluster analysis) was followed by a hierarchical STRUCTURE analysis. The mean observed (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He) were 0.7372 and 0.7686, respectively. The cumulative probability of identity was very low with a value of 3.18 × 10e−15. According to the cluster analysis, twenty-nine of the 44 Vitis cultivars were presented in single clusters and five cultivars were presented as distinct single accessions. In addition, ten (10) cases of synonyms and ten (10) groups of homonyms were also identified. STRUCTURE analysis provided evidence for three genetic groups (putative ancestry groups). Hierarchical STRUCTURE analysis revealed further stratification within each of the three ancestry groups. This work provides the molecular fingerprinting of 44 Vitis cultivars and an initial proposal in their ancestry. In the future, molecular genetic information along with morphological (ampelographic) data will provide an intergraded characterization of existing diversity and will allow for its use in breeding efforts and in commercial viticulture.
Neutron Activation Analysis and selective organic contents analysis were carried out for a group of 50 Malkata wine, honey, 'ale', ben-oil, and meat ostraca, together with seven additional New Kingdom reference samples from Thebes. Most of the ostraca and all of the reference samples form a tight chemical group, indicating that they were most likely made of a Theban marl clay and thus produced locally, perhaps in a royal workshop. Although the contents of amphoras were generally stated to have been produced elsewhere, they were evidently imported, 'rebottled', and then sealed and registered at a central facility in Thebes. The uniform procedures that were followed and the fact that most vessels were used only once may reflect the special circumstances for which they were intended--the heb-sed. Organic analyses confirmed the presence of wine for the wine ostraca; a tree resin, either terebinth or myrrh, was also added as a preservative, besides masking any offensiveness.
The presence in S.E. Spain of Vitis vinifera L. seeds at prehistoric siites of the 3rd millennium B.C., and pollen at Quaternary stations, are considered in the light of conflicting views about the origins of cultivation of the grape and their relation to spontaneous and subspontaneous Vitis in Western Mediterranean Europe. It is proposed that new findings from Spain cast doubt on the widely-held view that Vitis exploitation there is no older than Classical times. Botanical as well as archaeological arguments are put forward to support a greater antiquity of exploitation of Vitis in Mediterranean prehistory, based on a critical review of the literature about both palaeobotanical finds of Vitis and the modern distribution of spontaneous Vitis in the Mediterranean basin and adjacent regions.
Transmission and diffuse-reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (DRIFTS) were used to examine acetone extracts of red deposits in a jar recovered from Godin Tepe, located in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran and dating approximately 3500-2900 BC (Period V, the late Uruk period). These spectra were compared with those obtained from the residue found in a Nubian wine amphora from Gebel Adda, and from naturally occurring tartaric acid. The close similarities among the three sets of spectra, as well as a positive reaction by all three sources to the Feigl spot test which is highly specific for tartaric acid, establish that the residue in the Godin Tepe jar contains tartaric acid which occurs in grapes and grape products. This finding and accompanying archaeological data indicate that the Godin Tepe jar very probably contained wine. Pale yellow deposits in incisions in the interior of a late Uruk double-handled jug from one of the same rooms containing the wine jars at Godin Tepe was shown to be an oxalate, most likely calcium oxalate. This compound is a principal component of beerstone and responded in a Feigl spot test for oxalate in the same manner as did scrapings from an Egyptian New Kingdom beer bottle and as did modern beerstone from a brewer's vat. Identification of oxalate in the Godin Tepe jug confirmed archaeological and pictographic evidence that the vessel was a beer container. Speculation is offered on the sources of the wine and beer once contained in these vessels.
Summary‘Mediterranean polyculture’(the systematic exploitation of olives and vines in addition to cereals from the beginning of the Bronze Age) has been considered as one of the main factors which led to the development of palatial institutions in Bronze Age Crete and mainland Greece. This paper reviews all the available, direct archaeological evidence for olive and vine exploitation and oil and wine production and use from Bronze Age Crete (microbotanical, macrobotanical, artefactual, epigraphic), discussing at the same time their taphonomic, analytical and interpretative problems. It is suggested that, at present, there is no reliable direct archaeological evidence to substantiate the ‘Mediterranean polyculture’model. More significantly, research on wine and oil, if disconnected from the discourse of subsistence and the cultural-evolutionary models such as that of subsistence-redistribution and viewed within the framework of the anthropology of consumption, can more fruitfully illuminate important issues related to the dialects of power such as establishment and legitimation of authority, exploitation of labour and factional competition.
Charred plant remains, 19,000 years old, were uncovered at Ohalo II on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Israel. The wild barley and other edible grasses and fruits found suggest, by their ripening seasons, that the site was occupied at least during spring and autumn. The species found provide insights into the subsistence strategy of the earliest known hunter-gatherer community of the Levantine Epipaleolithic period. In addition, the remains of barley rachis nodes provide new evidence distinguishing between domesticated and wild types in ancient archaeobotanical material.
The world's great wines are produced from a relatively small number of classic European cultivars of Vitis vinifera L Most are thought to be centuries old and their origins have long been the subject of speculation. Among the most prominent of these cultivars is Cabernet Sauvignon, described as "the world's most renowned grape variety for the production of fine red wine". Although now grown in many countries, Cabernet Sauvignon derives its fame from its long association with the Bordeaux region of France, where it has been grown at least since the 17th century. We present microsatellite DNA evidence for the hypothesis that Cabernet Sauvignon is the progeny of two other Bordeaux cultivars, Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc. Likelihood ratios support this hypothesis to a very high degree of probability. A close relationship between Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet franc has been suspected but the genetic contribution of Sauvignon blanc, despite its similar name, is a surprise.
A typology was established for more than 5000 ceramic artifacts at Dolni Vestonice, Czechoslovakia. Conjectured methods of
manufacture were confirmed by radiography. The compositions and mineralogy of the artifacts were identical to those of the
local soil, loess. A firing temperature range of 500° to 800° C was measured and compared with those of hearths and kilns.
The mechanism of sintering was impurity-initiated, liquid-phase sintering. Many fracture sections show evidence of thermal
shock, although thermal expansion of the loess is low. The making, firing, and sometimes exploding of the figurines may have
been the prime function of the ceramics at this site rather than being manufactured as permanent, portable objects.
The discovery of three bronze age cist burials at Ashgrove, Fife, was unusual in revealing highly decomposed macroscopic plant debris in cist I, which was excavated by Professor R. J. Adam, Mrs Mary Adam and Professor L. H. Butler. Miss A. Henshall (1964) states that the liberal clay luting of the side slabs and cover of cist I had been so effective as to keep the interior dry and free of soil. She also reports that 'Over the skeleton and cist floor there was a thin deposit of black crumbly matter which formed a deep deposit nearly I ft across in the area between the forearms and upper arms, i.e., in the vicinity of the chest' (p. 167) (PL. xva). Miss C. A. Lambert (now Mrs C. A. Dickson), in an appendix to Henshall's paper, found that 'The plant material consisted of abundant dicotyledonous leaf fragments, bark, twigs, wood charcoal (two tiny fragments), plant tissue with crystalline copper salts adhering to it and fairly abundant sphagnum moss. The leaf fragments were several layers thick but their poorly preserved condition prevented their separation and identification.
Excavation of a Late Bronze Age shipwreck, tentatively dated to the 14th century B. C., was begun by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Ulu Burun near Kaş, Turkey, in 1984. The ship carried a large cargo of raw goods: copper and tin ingots in the so-called "oxhide" shape, round glass ingots, unworked elephant and hippopotamus ivory, figs (or a fig product), myrrh or frankincense, orpiment, and probably olive oil and wine. Manufactured cargo comprised Cypriot pottery; it is not yet known if Mycenaean and Syro-Palestinian pottery on board was cargo or for shipboard use. The wreck also yielded gold and silver jewelry of Canaanite types, a Mycenaean seal, bronze tools and weapons, haematite weights, stone artifacts, and beads of glass, faience and amber. More than half a dozen stone anchors were carried. Hull construction is similar to that of later Graeco-Roman ships. Comparison of artifacts from the Ulu Burun wreck with those from land sites suggests that the ship was sailing from east to west.