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Animal assisted therapy in counseling, Second edition

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Abstract

Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling is the most comprehensive book available dedicated to training mental health practitioners in Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT). It explains the history and practice of AAT in counseling, discusses the latest empirical research, and provides an in-depth explanation of the psychodynamics of AAT within various theoretical frameworks. Readers will learn the proper way to select, train, and evaluate an animal for therapy. The use of a number of different therapy animals is considered, including dogs, cats, horses, birds, farm animals, rabbits and other small animals, and dolphins. Guidelines for implementing AAT in settings such as private practices, community agencies, schools, hospices, and prisons are covered, as well as ethical and legal considerations, risk management, diversity issues, and crisis and disaster response applications. Numerous case examples illustrate the use of AAT principles with clients, and forms, client handouts, and other resources provide valuable tools. This unique resource is an indispensable guide for any counselor looking to develop and implement AAT techniques in his or her practice.

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... First, the experience of trauma can significantly disrupt how individuals attach to and bond with other humans and create a need for a sense of safety and security in relationships [125]. Horse-human relationships may facilitate a safer form of attachment [126] as trauma survivors may trust a therapy animal more readily than a human [127,128]. Also, animals may provide direct social support through nonjudgmental support and unconditional positive regard [126]. It is thought that the development of human-animal attachment can facilitate a transition to feeling more security in human relationships [126] and facilitate human-human attachment. ...
... Additionally, given that animals do not have human biases, they may be perceived as being more genuine and non-judgmental than humans [129]. As stated above, trauma survivors may trust a therapy animal more readily than a human, which can serve as an antecedent to developing trust with a human therapist [127,128]. Further, animals may motivate participations by way of activation of implicit motives via the experiential human-animal interaction and thus promote intrinsic motivation [129]. Intrinsic motivation promotes task enjoyment and satisfaction rather than being related to reward or punishment. ...
... Most of the evidence in this area is from the general AAI literature. These studies suggest that AAIs enhance trust [127,128], and rapport-building between client and therapist [126,130], as well as support the formation of a therapeutic alliance [129]. Veteran-specific studies suggest that participants find EAS to be enjoyable [57,58], and that attrition rates compare favorably with studies of Veteran utilization of conventional psychotherapy [57,58]. ...
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Equine-assisted services (EAS) are being increasingly used as complementary interventions for military veterans who have experienced trauma. However, there is limited evidence of benefit for this population and almost no literature describing desired potential outcomes and possible mechanisms of action. The aim of this article is to address these gaps by reviewing the extant literature of animal-assisted interventions in general, and equine-assisted services in particular, with the goal of providing guidance for future investigations in the field. Currently, the field is in the early stage of scientific development, but published results are promising. Interventions that enhance treatment compliance and/or outcomes could benefit this population. Preliminary results, reviewed herein, indicate that EAS interventions might benefit the military veteran population by enhancing treatment engagement and therapeutic alliance, as well as contributing to symptom reduction and resulting in various transdiagnostic benefits. It is recommended that future studies include exploration of potential beneficial outcomes discussed herein as well as investigate suggested mechanisms of action.
... Animal-assisted therapy is the use of the human-animal bond in a goal-directed intervention. 30 Most often, AAT is used as an adjunctive or complementary intervention to enhance the influence on therapeutic outcome. The inclusion of nonhuman partners (i.e., therapy animals) into the counseling process has numerous benefits. ...
... Clients report that building a therapeutic relationship or rapport occurs quicker and with more ease with a therapy animal than with a human counselor, with client's expressing greater levels of trust with therapy animals. 30 Therapeutic alliance and trust are essential within the therapeutic relationship, as well as influential to clients' clinical outcomes. 31 This finding is especially important for the treatment of physiological, intrapersonal, and interpersonal psychosocial concerns due to a difficulty in forming a strong therapeutic alliance with their counselors in the early stages of treatment. ...
... Interventions such as this help increase confidence and comfort with engaging in social interactions, thus minimizing the likelihood of continued social avoidance. 30 ...
Article
Individuals with speech, language, and communication disorders often present with psychosocial concerns that span the physiological, intrapersonal, and interpersonal domains of functioning. Despite this fact, the provision of counseling service by speech-language pathologist (SLP) that directly addresses clients' psychosocial needs is sparse. Research shows the primary counseling strategy used by therapists is psychoeducation, failing to effectively address the psychosocial concerns. Integrating complementary approaches to traditional counseling in SLP can enhance both the quality of therapeutic intervention and client outcomes. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate the potential of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) as an adjunctive or complementary approach for counseling within SLP. A review of literature demonstrates a need for improved counseling service provision within SLP treatment, as well as the benefits of integrating AAT. A framework for how AAT intentions and techniques fit within SLP Scope of Practice counseling activities is presented, along with case examples to demonstrate how AAT can be integrated within SLP treatment. It is concluded that the integration of AAT as a complementary approach to traditional SLP counseling can enhance both the frequency of counseling services provided and clients' psychosocial outcomes.
... AAT is adaptive and can be integrated with a variety of therapeutic practices including psychodynamic, cognitive and behavioral models (Chandler 2017;Hunt and Chizkov 2014) in the treatment of a variety of conditions (Friedmann & Son, 2009). ...
... Although the welfare of therapy animals is always a primary consideration, to date there is little research on the animal's cognitive experience during these sessions. Most studies in animal-assisted therapy focus on work with dogs, cats, and other companion animals, or horses(Chandler, 2017; VanFleet & Faa-Thompson, 2017). Equine therapy is a wellestablished animal-assisted therapy model but other types of large farm animals are often neglected in this discussion. ...
Article
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Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is an integrative model frequently used in conjunction with other modalities such as psychodynamic psychotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy. The most common AAT model is when a companion animal, such as a dog or cat, is integrated into a therapeutic treatment plan. This model has been studied with a variety of populations and conditions, from treating substance abuse to autism, often with positive results. Organizations that certify therapy animals will sometimes certify several species of animals to work as a therapeutic partner, such as llamas, miniature horses, and rabbits. However, to date there has been little research addressing the therapeutic benefits of animal-assisted interventions with farm animals. Cows have special behavioral traits that allow them to bond with people in a way that is unique to their size and temperament. Using the Human-Animal Interaction Scale (HAIS) as a measurement tool, we examined the behavioral and cognitive traits of cattle who work as therapy animals. Special attention will be paid to the welfare and enrichment benefits of cattle involved in bovine-assisted therapy.
... Etkinlikler, motivasyon geliştirme, beceri geliştirme, eğitsel öğrenme ve/veya eğlence amaçlı atölye/oyun gibi herhangi bir amaca hizmet edebilmektedir. Aktiviteler, insan olmayan bir canlının sürece mevcut ve aktif olarak dâhil olmasını içerebildiği gibi, canlıların sadece gözlemlenmesini ya da hayvanlar hakkında çizim yapılmasını veya onlar hakkında konuşulmasını da içerebilmektedir (Chandler, 2012). Bu bağlamda hayvan destekli müdahale, insanların bağlanma düzeylerinin ve çevreleriyle olan ilişkilerinin (Rockett ve Carr, 2014;Wanser ve ark., 2019), biyo-psiko-sosyal bir çerçeveye (Miles, 2014) dayalı olarak değerlendirilmesi gerektiğini öne süren biyofili hipotezine yönelik bir müdahale olma özelliğini de taşımaktadır. ...
... Hayvanlar, ikincil terapötik hizmet sağlayıcı olarak uygulama ortamında yer alabilmektedirler (Chandler, 2012). Bu roldeki bir hayvan, müracaatçının duygulanımını ve davranışını yansıtarak bir sosyal hizmet uzmanına müracaatçı ile bağlantı kurmasında yardımcı olabilir. ...
... This evaluation simulates a crisis and is conducted simultaneously with multiple dogs. Teams are monitored and evaluated for stress signs as they react to loud noises and challenging conditions (Greenbaum, 2006;Chandler, 2012). ...
... Dogs providing AACR should be friendly, calm, obedient, and healthy. According to Chandler (2012), not all dogs are suitable for AACR, and they have to be highly tolerant and non-reactive to stress, chaos, and noise. Most importantly, they must be reliable and respond consistently to commands. ...
Article
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As we encounter many disasters and crises worldwide, various forms of crisis intervention are utilized to assist those who are impacted. In the United States, animal-assisted crisis response (AACR), the use of highly trained and experienced therapy dogs to provide comfort and support to those in need, is becoming an essential post-crisis modality. However, maintaining qualified volunteers is challenging and research on the characteristics of AACR teams has been narrowly developed. Therefore, there is a growing need to better understand these specialized volunteer teams, both handlers and their canine partners. This exploratory survey of 99 animal-assisted crisis responders investigated the qualities, backgrounds, perceptions, and experiences of these canine handlers and their dogs. Results from an online questionnaire showed that most handlers were women (88%), and the prevalent age range was 61–70 (45%). Most handlers were retired (46.46%) with an average volunteer experience in AACR of 5.7 years. The recognition of dominant organizations providing AACR was also studied in this research. Most volunteers were members of HOPE AACR (54.36%). Handlers shared their education, specific traits, and skills to provide effective AACR. The characteristics of the canine partners of AACR were also explored. The most common breeds for AACR teams were Golden retrievers (28.88%) and Labrador retrievers (18.88%). The authors additionally explored the handlers and the traits of their dogs, as well as their reason for volunteering in AACR. All participants viewed AACR as effective with most of the teams (80.68%) perceiving AACR as a highly effective intervention following crises and disasters. This research offers insights for AACR organizations on strategies to recruit and retain these specialized crisis providers.
... Some results suggest that animals have a social attractiveness to withdrawn children and may be beneficial to children with social deficits (Celani, 2002;Martin & Farnum, 2002;Prothmann et al., 2009). As Levinson (1972) (Chandler, 2011;Levinson, 1972;Melson, 2005;Redefer & Goodman, 1989). ...
... As explained by Chandler (2011), therapy dogs are different from toys or blankets because they are affectionate and responsive, and they are also different from most humans in that they convey direct and simple messages. These special qualities make it possible for therapy dogs to act as transitional objects in interventions for children with autism. ...
Article
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Despite evidence that Animal-Assisted Play Therapy increases the positive social behavior of children with autism, little is known about the mechanism of this treatment effect. In the present study, ten children with autism, aged 7-10, were randomized into two groups. One group attended 14 individual sessions of structured Animal-Assisted Play Therapy (AAPT) with a therapy dog, while the comparison group attended 14 individual sessions with a doll as the dog surrogate. Nonparametric tests showed that overall, children’s social behaviors were similar in the two treatments, with a trend toward more positive verbal behavior with AAPT. However, the AAPT group showed significantly less negative behavior toward the social object (the therapy dog) compared with the comparison group’s behavior toward the doll. The therapy dog’s unambiguous response to the children’s behavior and the dog’s role in modeling social behaviors are possible explanations for the more positive outcomes seen in AAPT.
... Regarding the role of culture in human-animal interaction and animalassisted intervention, certain facts are part of our current knowledge through their repeated emphasis in existing literature (e.g. Fujimura & Nommensen, 2017;Jegatheesan, 2015;Sheade & Chandler, 2014;Szucs,Geers, Jezierski, Sossidou,&Broom, 2012;Chandler, 2005;Serpell, 2004). These include-(a) An understanding that attitudes towards non-human animals and the conceptualization of the human-animal bond varies across cultures and population groups. ...
... Teams from the same organization were also part of the Green Chimneys conference and the NIH-Waltham workshop, 2015 as also the IAHAIO International Conference, 2013, engaging in active discussions on the changing contexts and attitudes towards animals in India and the challenges faced in the practice of AAT (M. Kavishwar, personal communication, April 21, 2015;Chandler, 2005; http://animalangels.org.in/). India's first equine therapy center-Healing Horses started in Bengaluru in the year 2000,led by Pushpa Bopaiah, á PATH International certified equine therapist, and offering services to children with disabilities, particularly autism and ADHD ("Healing with Horses", 2009). ...
... Non-hospital settings, such as schools, nursing homes, and libraries often also require certification, which can often be obtained from the same organizations that certify animals for hospital visiting programs (Anderson & Olson, 2010;Kirnan, Siminerio, & Wong, 2016). In a clinical practice setting, therapy animals play a different role and might be required to be more interactive with clients and respond to emotional cues (Chandler, 2005). Social workers must be aware of their animal's temperament and the settings in which the animal might best meet the needs of clients. ...
... Social workers may promote social justice by implementing AAI in work with clients who may be unable to have a pet due to socioeconomic status, disability or other form of disenfranchisement (Evans & Gray, 2012). AAI has been implemented in settings including psychiatric hospitals, juvenile justice centers, and domestic violence shelters (Chandler, 2005;Fine, 2015). This allows clients to benefit from the human-animal bond when pet ownership may not be possible or when an individual may be temporarily separated from their pet. ...
Article
Disability studies continues to grow as an emerging area of practice and theoretical research, branching out into sundry professions and frameworks. This expansion is leading to perpetual discussion of the more prominent individual (medical) and social models of disability as well as the development of more inconspicuous models. This paper reviews the dominant epistemologies attached to these models of disability with the support of an authentic case vignette from the author’s social work practice. It is argued that the supplementation and immersion of self-determination theory in established and future models of disability will enhance the models’ applicability to professional practice and better reflect the individual’s self. The integration of self-determination theory to models of disability is presented in multiple diagrams.
... Ayrıca terapide kullanılan atların bazıları danışan tarafından eğitilmiş, köpekler ise kendileri veya başkaları tarafından kurtarılmış olabilir. Böylece, danışan için bir görevi yerine getirmenin yanı sıra kendisi, ailesi ve hayvanın geleceği için toplumca kabul edilebilir değerli bir şey yapmak değerlilik hissini daha da güçlendirir (Chandler 2012). ...
... Parish-Plass (2008) ise, yaptığı bir araştırmada istismar ve ihmalden kaynaklanan güvensiz bağlanma gösteren çocuklar üzerinde uyguladığı hayvan destekli tedavide fare, hamster, papağan ve köpeklerden yararlanmış ve onların olumlu etkilerini vaka olarak paylaşmıştır. Chandler (2012) de kitabında HDT ile ilgili olarak çocuk ve ergenler üzerinde köpek ve yavruları, tavşanlar, ev kedileri, atlar, çiftlik hayvanları ile diğer küçük hayvan etkileşimlerinin yararlı olduğunu belirterek bu etkileşimin iyileştirici ve sosyal uyum sağlayıcı özelliklere sahip olduğunu bildirmiştir. Alanyazında atlar, kuşlar, yunus balıkları ve balıklarla da yapılan terapi vakalarının olduğu görülmektedir. ...
Article
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Animal assisted therapy is an alternative treatment method based on human-animal interaction, used as complementary to the main therapy in order to cure and enhance the living conditions in individuals affected by chronic diseases or mental disorders. Animal assisted therapy is known to be used as a complementary therapy in many illnesses and disorders such as widespread developmental disorder, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, dementia, loneliness, anxiety and depression. In various researches carried out abroad, duly conductedtherapies along with an expert and competent team has given positive results. In our country, the number of studies conducted in this area is limited. In this review which tries to study animal assisted therapy in multiple dimensions, the definition, history, areas of use of animal assisted therapy and the animal species used in the treatment have been presented, and the different lifestyle applications such as childhood and old age have been interpreted. Given the positive results of animal assisted therapy in the treatment of illnesses and mental disorders, it is believed that its implementation as a complementary therapy in our country, trials of varying animal species in the treatment and its practice in other mental disorders and illnesses will be of benefit.
... Although there are published standards and guidelines for including animals in services (IAHAIO, 2018;AAII, 2014AAII, , 2020AAII, , 2022 as well as competencies (ISAAT/ESAAT; IAAAP -Israeli Association of Animal-Assisted Psychotherapy, 2015;American Counseling Association, 2020;Chandler, 2017;VanFleet and Faa-Thompson, 2017;AAII, 2020); and ethics endorsed by national professional organizations (American Counseling Association, 2020; IAAAP -Israeli Association of Animal-Assisted Psychotherapy, 2016; American Psychological Association Human-Animal Interactions Section 13, 2020), there remains the challenge to reach consensus on specific training and qualifications that accommodate regional, national, and international differences in definitions (e.g., specialists) and qualifications. ...
Article
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Through the years, the range of services involving animals benefiting people, often described as “animal-assisted interventions” (AAIs), has been plagued with confusing and inconsistent taxonomy, terminology, and definitions. This has caused difficulties for the delineation of roles of service providers, for the recipients of services, as well as for the preparation, training, and expectations of the animals that work in different roles. It can be argued that these difficulties have compromised the development of the field in terms of establishing agreed standards of practice, qualifications, and competencies and adopting good animal welfare practices. It has also likely limited the base of evidence, as search terms used to access studies are not consistent, and study protocols are difficult to compare, lacking uniformity in terminology. Additionally, the current terminology cannot accommodate the expansion and diversification of programs in recent years, which is likely to continue as the field evolves. Establishing internationally agreed upon uniform taxonomy, terminology, and definitions is crucial to more accurately reflect the key features of different approaches, to define the scope and competencies for different service providers and their animals, to provide transparency about services for recipients, and to ensure the appropriate preparation, training, and support of the animals that work with them. The recommendations in this article are the result of an international work group that convened over the course of two years. The umbrella term animal-assisted services (AAS) is proposed, defined as services that are facilitated, guided or mediated by a health or human service provider or educator, who works with and maintains the welfare of a specially alongside a specially qualifying animal to provide therapeutic, educational, supportive and/or ameliorative processes aimed at enhancing the well-being of humans. AAS are further categorized into three main areas: treatment, education, and support programs. A recommendation for provider-specific terminology is also suggested. The aim of these proposals is to set clear expectations and boundaries for each specialty of practice, without compromising the richness and diversity of each approach. The adoption of this new umbrella term and its categories is intended to improve clarity for all involved in the receipt and delivery of services, as well as for those who study their effects.
... However, studies on AAT in Canadian prisons have found that therapy dogs can provide complete acceptance to individuals who are incarcerated (9,45,55,70). Chandler (71,72) shares how dogs can provide authentic and consistent positive regard to participants in therapeutic interventions due to being perceived as non-judgmental and bias-free. This is reflective of the warmth and acceptance that can be provided by a secure attachment figure (63,73). ...
Article
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Prisoners frequently experience chronic loneliness and lack social support, which can exacerbate their struggles with incarceration. According to attachment theory, individuals who are insecurely attached may be more likely to develop unstable relationships and engage in antisocial behavior as adults. In 2015 an animal-assisted therapy (AAT) program was implemented in a Canadian forensic psychiatric facility/prison, a “hybrid” facility that adheres to federal legislation regarding correctional services but follows provincial mental health legislation. The program centers on the development of a human-animal bond (HAB), which serves as a connection between the animals and prisoners. The HAB also addresses issues related to toxic masculinity, which are often present among men incarcerated in correctional facilities, including psychiatric prisons. An instrumental community case study design involving 6 prisoners at a forensic psychiatric facility/prison over 24 AAT sessions between 2015–2019 was undertaken. Interviews with the prisoners and their mental health clinicians were thematically analyzed to explore how the HAB was experienced as a form of attachment. Four themes emerged: safety, physical touch, reciprocity, and acceptance. These themes suggest that the therapy dogs have the potential to serve as a surrogate attachment figure for prisoners, mitigating their experiences of disconnection and fostering their development of interpersonal connections. This suggests attachment theory underpins the HAB and highlights the contribution of AAT practice and research in forensic psychiatric facilities/prisons. This study also suggests that the program's offering of prosocial support and nurturance/caring aligns with the specific criminogenic risks and needs identified within Correctional Service Canada's Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model for rehabilitation. Continued research and attention should be paid to AAT programs as a valuable addition to the range of support networks available to prisoners in psychiatric or non-psychiatric institutions.
... While benefits to people who access AAI are documented (Burke and Iannuzzi, 2014;Chandler, 2017;Chalmers, et al., 2020;Serpell, et al., 2020), and calls for greater standardization and availability of best practice education are at the forefront of AAI research (Fine, 2015;Stewart et al., 2016;Fine et al., 2019;Serpell et al., 2020), we assert they must incorporate the concepts of interconnectivity and sustainability as organizing principles. Interconnectivity manifests as interprofessionalism and shifts the notion of 'greater standardization' more towards relations away from regulation and uniformity. ...
Article
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Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) include and promote multisensory and somatic experiences in therapeutic, educational, and activity-based contexts. Sensory experiences, however, for animal co-workers and others in AAI practice, including the spaces in which AAI takes place, need further exploration not only to facilitate formalized animal and client safety in place-based contexts, but also to illuminate future directions for improved non-anthropocentric ‘animal-informed’ AAI. In Canada, where there is no coordinated professional AAI sector or ‘industry’ as it is referred in the USA, AAI is not a harmonized adjunct health service. Availability is linked to the locations of professional health and allied practitioners with AAI training and interested individuals who sustain the voluntarism needed to provide AAIs that a typically funded in ad hoc and limited capacities. Compared to related fields, like veterinarian medicine and zoology, there remains in general more to be known about the ways AAI relates to larger service contexts and the types of interactions (if any) with other health and mental health service providers. This article explores AAI locales within the Canadian province of Nova Scotia to highlight the occupational experiences of practitioners and their animal-companions/co-workers (from the perspective of practitioners). Through interviews and animal-informed critical theory, this study finds AAI locales boast opportunities despite challenges to access and delivery. We elucidate AAI’s potential of becoming a guide for collective interspecies (companionable-) relations. Some AAI locales are underutilized or mismanaged, others remote, all with untapped potential to contribute to their communities through more diverse (e.g. interspecies) interprofessional service environments and as part of local economies. Leveraged proactively with AAI practitioners as educators for universal relational well-being, AAI could potentially transform therapeutic practice, ideally fostering novel identities beyond the unsustainable humanized and bounded self.
... Chandler (2008) indicates that crisis response dogs help to unite people and create a more comfortable situation. Interacting with something familiar offers reassurance and grounding during a critical time (Chandler, 2006). In addition to firsthand accounts, one theoretical framework supports this benefit. ...
Article
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Psychological First Aid (PFA) is a well-established, evidence-informed behavioral health intervention designed for use by mental health and other disaster-relief responders to help support survivors following a disaster. Establishing connections, supporting adaptive coping, enhancing emotional and physical comfort, and providing practical assistance are some of the basic objectives of PFA. Animal Assisted Crisis Response (AACR) is another intervention frequently employed to help survivors following a disaster. AACR consists of teams of canines and their handlers specially trained and certified to provide comfort and support to those affected by disaster events. We suggest that AACR is an appropriate and useful supplement to PFA that can enhance the PFA-providers’ abilities to accomplish the objectives of PFA mentioned above. We combine supporting evidence of the benefits of canine intervention, along with specific case examples, with the eight modules of PFA to illustrate how they complement one another.
... On the other hand, AATs are characterized as goal-oriented, planned therapeutic interventions administered by mental health professionals for promoting socioemotional functioning of the human client. Animals act as a catalyst during AAT sessions to build the therapeutic alliance between the client and therapist in promoting therapeutic outcomes (Chandler, 2012). ...
Thesis
While there is increased involvement of animals in the clinical setting, studies investigating this form of complementary therapy suffer from methodological limitations that diminish the veracity of their findings. The involvement of horses in clinical settings for the improvement of mental health outcomes is known as Equine Assisted Psychotherapy (EAP), whereas participating in horsemanship activities with the horse without the involvement of a mental health professional is known as Equine-Assisted Activities (EAA). This study investigated the effectiveness of EAP and EAA on two strategies of emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal and emotional suppression. In a single-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial, 90 young adults (21 males, 69 females) were randomly assigned to the EAP (N = 31), EAA (N = 26), or Placebo-Control (N = 33) condition, and then followed up 1 week after the experimental session. While results found no significant differences between conditions for cognitive reappraisal, both EAP and EAA revealed significant reductions in emotional suppression compared to the Placebo-Control condition. Results provide experimental evidence for the human-horse bond component present in both EAP and EAA, and theoretical implications are discussed.
... Literature about AAI is grounded in constructs of attachment theory (Chandler, 2012;Fine, 2016). Although much of the pediatric dental literature does not explicitly employ theory, the focus has been on the mother/caregiver-child relationship in formative years of the child's development (Havener et al., 2001;Schwartz & Patronek, 2002). ...
Article
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Abstract Children often experience anticipatory anxiety and situational fear (AA&SF) as a common reaction to perceived environmental threats. Animal-assisted interventions (AAI) with certified therapy dogs have been increasing in commonality within social work and medical practice as a non-pharmaceutical intervention to increase relaxation. This pilot study explored the impact of certified therapy dogs on youth in a known AA&SF triggering experience – the dental office. Canine Support in Pediatric Dentistry was designed and evaluated as an innovative, non-pharmacological behavior management strategy to support children, ages 8–12, with known AA&SF of the dentist. A time-series design utilized a convenience sample (n = 18) for current patients with known AA&SF. Measures of survey, observation, and salivary analyte analysis assessed biopsychosocial changes, including a refined methodology for oxytocin. The intervention as deemed acceptability by guardians at a rate of 83%. Guardians further supported the intervention with 100% stating that the liked the therapy dog’s presence for their child. No safety issues were observed. Oxytocin trended positively from baseline across majority of sample; though not statistically significant. Cortisol tended to decreased over the three time points, while alpha-amylase appeared to follow the trend of oxytocin more than cortisol. The findings support that Canine Support in Pediatric Dentistry is a feasible AAI in the pediatric dental clinic, which provides a model generalizable to other medical environments and experiences that may provoke AA&SF in children. Collection and measurement of salivary analysis is a feasible and practical method to explore biopsychosocial change in social welfare research.
... [73] Most companion animals have not received formal training for this and respond consistently because of informal conditioning and reinforcement. [74] This is likewise identifi ed in the animal assisted intervention literature, [75] and more specifi cally among service animals trained with individuals diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder. [76] Physical contact with an animal can stimulate the release of anti-nociceptive hormones and neurochemicals (e.g., prolactin, dopamine). ...
Article
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The past decade has witnessed increased attention to the benefits of companion animals on human health, though little attention has been paid to the potential to support recovery from a substance use disorder. Amidst an opioid crisis in Canada, studying this overlooked source of support may be beneficial. This study explores how companion animals support the recovery of seven methadone maintenance treatment patients in a Canadian core neighborhood. Through semi-structured interviews and a thematic analysis, the findings demonstrate that individuals’ companion animals support their recovery in four areas of their lives: (i) social, (ii) health and wellbeing, (iii) home, and (iv) purpose and empowerment. These themes were found to align with and expand upon the four dimensions of a Life in Recovery outlined by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Structuring the paper by the expanded categories, this study introduces how companion animals fulfilled supportive roles that other humans could not or chose not to provide, while the human-animal bond encouraged a strengths-based approach to individuals’ recovery. This helped foster positive self-identity and a perceived choice over individuals’ recovery pathways.
... In fact, some researchers argue that dogs can affect each of the senses to lower cortisol levels and engender "physical benefits including a decrease in blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate." 35,100,101 For example, Nagasawa et al 102 found that owners merely looking at their dogs was enough to significantly increase urinary oxytocin concentrations in both species. Similarly, Rehn et al 103 found that the "mere reappearance of a person can elicit oxytocin release in dogs" that can last for a significant duration with physical affirmation. ...
Article
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Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) can improve patients’ quality of life as complementary medical treatments. Part I of this 2-paper systematic review focused on the methods and results of cancer-related AAIs; Part II discusses the theories of the field’s investigators. Researchers cite animal personality, physical touch, physical movement, distraction, and increased human interaction as sources of observed positive outcomes. These mechanisms then group under theoretical frameworks such as the social support hypothesis or the human-animal bond concept to fully explain AAI in oncology. The cognitive activation theory of stress, the science of unitary human beings, and the self-object hypothesis are additional frameworks mentioned by some researchers. We also discuss concepts of neurobiological transduction connecting mechanisms to AAI benefits. Future researchers should base study design on theories with testable hypotheses and use consistent terminology to report results. This review aids progress toward a unified theoretical framework and toward more holistic cancer treatments.
... AAP therapists of various clinical orientations and modalities have developed ways to incorporate animals into their therapy approach. Whereas Levinson worked with one animal in a classic therapy setting (although he did introduce the idea of expanding the setting by taking a walk with the dog and the client), today the AAP setting may include numerous animals and take place in one of various settings (Chandler, 2017;Parish-Plass, 2008VanFleet & Faa-Thompson, 2017). A very specialized form of AAP incorporates horses into the therapy process (Bachi, 2013a;Kirby, 2016;Lac, 2016;Trotter & Baggerly, 2019a). ...
Chapter
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The therapeutic value of animals, whether as pets in the family or as visitors in nursing homes, has been recognized for many decades and even centuries. However, only in the last 40 years has the field of animal-assisted psychotherapy (AAP) begun to develop and receive recognition. There is a great amount of confusion surrounding the field, even among those practicing it, as to the goals, approaches, and techniques of AAP. Yet, there is general agreement that AAP is a viable and meaningful therapy approach that can reach the inner emotional world of the client in unique and advantageous ways. This chapter covers the history and general background leading to the inclusion of animals in the psychotherapy setting. In order to understand more clearly the field of AAP and how it has a solid foundation as a subfield of psychotherapy, a general description of psychotherapy is provided, including theory and mechanisms that are especially relevant to the practice of AAP. AAP is then discussed in the context of the general field of psychotherapy, including a discussion of various mechanisms that are unique to AAP. Throughout the chapter, a special emphasis is placed on the relevance to psychotherapy in general, and specifically to AAP, of attachment theory and of the understanding of interpersonal neurobiology. Finally, four examples of psychotherapy modalities employing the integration of animals will be briefly described. Parish-Plass, N. & Bachi, K. (2020). Psychodynamic animal-assisted psychotherapy: Processing and healing through relationships. In C. Driscoll (Ed.), Animal-assisted interventions for health and human service professionals (pp. 361-405). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
... The general therapeutic benefits that dogs provide humans have been well-researched over the years (e.g., Barker et al. 2016;Damon and May 1986;Majić et al. 2013;Zimmer 2014), particularly for vulnerable people, including children (Daly and Morton 2006) and adults with cognitive impairments (Walsh et al. 1995), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Schuck et al. 2013), autism (O'Haire 2013), and depression and brain injuries (Stapleton 2016). For instance, research has consistently shown that dogs can help decrease anxiety and stress, increase confidence and self-esteem under various types of duress (Crenshaw 2011;Dellinger 2009), and integrate information in a more efficient and profound manner, allowing more effective communication (Chandler 2012). Dogs have also been shown to increase feelings of security and warmth, reduce feelings of isolation, and regain control in stressful situations (Wells 2009), thereby making people feel more comfortable and calm (McNicholas and Collis 2006). ...
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La majorité des recherches sur la médiation animale se sont concentrées sur la validation des bénéfices de cette pratique pour la santé humaine en excluant le potentiel impact négatif de ce travail pour les chiens impliqués. Au sein de plusieurs recherches abordant les caractéristiques de la médiation animale, les représentations des intervenants sur leur pratique et le bien-être de leur chien ainsi qu’une étude de terrain, nous avons étudié les facteurs de risque pour le bien-être des chiens en médiation animale. Le premier chapitre montre que la médiation animale est une pratique hétérogène en tant qu’approche interspécifique complémentaire à d’autres prises en charge, mais qu’il est possible d’en faire une première catégorisation entre une spécialisation de professionnels du soin et une profession à part entière. Le deuxième chapitre suggère une place centrale de l’intervenant dans la sélection et le bien-être de son chien. En outre, l’interrogation des intervenants souligne la nécessité d’une prise en compte du bien-être des chiens en médiation animale à travers : l’environnement de travail, les interactions avec les bénéficiaires et l’intervenant lui-même. Le troisième chapitre pointe la nécessité d’une attention particulière sur les interactions entre les chiens et les bénéficiaires mais aussi avec l’intervenant lors des séances de médiation animale. De futures études sont nécessaires pour étudier les facteurs de risque pour le bien-être des chien en médiation animale en adoptant de nouvelles méthodologies interdisciplinaires et collaboratives.
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This study investigated if and how HART constructs manifested in animal-assisted therapy in counseling (AAT-C). Using a constructivist, grounded-theory approach the following HART constructs were examined: relational moments, significant human-animal relational moments, human-animal relational processing, and human-animal relational therapeutic impact. From the iterative process of multiphasic coding and constant comparison it was determined that there was consistency between HART and counselor-client participants’ experiences of AAT-C.
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In this paper, we discuss the unique trauma experiences of victim-survivors of sex trafficking. In discussion of current counseling practices and the complex trauma endured by these victim survivors, we offer a suggestion to integrate therapy animals through the use of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) as a practical means of helping victim-survivors heal and repair their trauma bonds. The paper provides counselors with information on the mental and emotional impact of human sex trafficking on victim-survivors while also providing its implications for treatment.
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There are multiple modalities in which we have the opportunity to engage with animals through animal-assisted interventions (AAI)Animal-assisted interventions (AAI). These can range from assisting in nursing care or occupational therapy in a hospital setting or psychotherapy in a more controlled environment and with a particular goal in mind. One overarching theme is that, throughout the different AAI options, animals are used to improve the quality of life of humans. The presence of animals in a variety of settings has been shown to benefit humans greatly, and it behooves us to consider whether these interactions are mutually beneficial or whether they might result in potential negative consequences to the animals’ well-being. The present book offers an overview of the uses of animals in assisted interventions and therapy from the perspective of the animal. This chapter describes the present understanding of the science of animal welfare with a primary focus on how it applies to such interactions.
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This study examined therapists’ perceptions and experiences of equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP). Participants were 14 practising EAP therapists (females = 86%; male = 14%; age range 20 to 69 years) from across South Africa. They were interviewed utilising electronic interview media. Thematic analysis revealed therapists perceived effectiveness of EAP in providing emotional and interpersonal growth for clients. They also identified training, safety and ethical concerns with this therapeutic modality. Therapists’ experiences with EAP were influenced by their prior interaction with horses as horse owners or horse riders.
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Research studies report that animal-assisted therapy (AAT) may be an effective alternative method for treating autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the presence of many methodological weaknesses and the limited replication of such studies have resulted in divided opinion on the actual effectiveness of AAT for treating ASD, and much hesitancy surrounding its use. Reliable clinically based studies must be conducted if this uncertainty is to be put to rest. Because these studies require the participation of physicians who are often hesitant to participate, it is suggested that leadership interventions be used as tools to encourage their participation in AAT research. This chapter aims to discuss the necessity for physician participation, the reasons for the lack of clinician participation in such research, and recommendations for encouraging physician and policymaker participation in specifically targeted research studies.
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An increased understanding of integrated behavioral healthcare highlights the importance of mental and physical wellness anchored by person-centered interventions. Evidence is accumulating in support of non-traditional, empirically supported mental health interventions such as equine-facilitated psychotherapy (EFP). Historically and currently, insurance companies neglect to cover EFP as a prevention and treatment strategy for children, youth, and families. Without coverage, the cost of participating in EFP is a financial barrier to accessing the intervention. Not covering and not reimbursing costs for this non-traditional intervention represents a crucial misstep by the insurance industry. EFP’s strong history and professionalization, its comparable cost to talk therapy, a growing research base demonstrating EFP’s benefits for youth, and policy efforts toward increasing person-centered, innovative, integrated healthcare approaches suggest greater access to interventions such as EFP is needed. Because EFP may be more accessible to those who might not traditionally attend or respond positively to talk-therapy sessions, it should not be available only to those with the most privilege. Insurance coverage and reimbursement for EFP is necessary to advance the field, aid service standardization, integrate service tracking systems, and increase the research quality, all of which would ultimately benefit youth mental health. This paper aims to serve as a resource for social work practitioners looking to recommend, engage in, or advocate for EFP.
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Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can produce long-lasting effects for individuals. Mental health practitioners in clinical psychology and social work have utilized equine assisted psychotherapy (EAP) to treat trauma related to adverse experiences; however, few studies have centralized communication messages and processes in EAP. The current qualitative study included observations and interviews with 11 adolescents with ACEs and examined (a) equine communication as a mechanism for client awareness and emotion regulation, (b) the development of communication competencies for adolescents with ACEs, and (c) transference of communication competencies in other relational contexts. Adolescents cultivated altercentrism (e.g., ability to decode communication, to focus consciously on the other), communication composure (e.g., ability to deal with psychological stress, while engaging assertiveness), communication coordination (e.g., ability to effectively communicate, manage misunderstandings), and expressiveness (e.g., provide clarity and emotional control in one’s own communication). Finally, adolescents described how these communication competencies transferred to other relationships (e.g., family, peers, and teachers). Implications for understanding communication competence, the practitioner’s role in supporting communication skill development in EAP, and the unique role of equines in mitigating the negative effects of ACEs are discussed.
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Companion animals and pets can be helpful during the novel coronavirus-19 pandemic. Interactions with them and positive physical contact lead to a variety of physiological and psychological benefits. It also releases biochemicals which can further boost the immune system and enhance health and well-being. This perspective discusses the benefits of these interactions, the modes of interactions and the activities that can be used. It also highlights the individuals that should avoid this approach and the status of the animal’s health before engaging with them.
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This repeated measures quasi‐experimental study evaluated the effectiveness of 2 interventions, Seeking Safety and canine‐assisted therapy, with female prisoners with trauma histories on a mental health unit. Results indicate both are effective at reducing anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder.
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The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
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This study examined the effectiveness of hippotherapy versus traditional therapy for children with language-learning disabilities. Three boys, ages 9, 10, and 12 years, and their parents independently completed a satisfaction questionnaire at the end of traditional therapy (T1) and again at the end of hippotherapy (T2). A comparison of the responses from T1 and T2 indicated that both the parents and the children reported improvement in speech and language abilities after both therapies. Overall, responses were noticeably higher following hippotherapy, with additional benefits of improved motivation and attention also reported.
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In recent years, dolphin-assisted therapy has become very popular and an increasing number of facilities worldwide offer therapy programs with dolphins. In contrast to other animal-assisted therapy programs, dolphins are not domestic animals; they are mostly caught in the wild and there are still no studies on their behavior during these therapies. However, there is speculation that the behavior of dolphins toward people with mental and physical disabilities may play an important role in the success of the therapy. We observed 83 sessions with five untrained dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) at Dolphins Plus, a fenced area with ocean water in the Florida Keys, USA. Our detailed observations of contact and distance behavior between dolphins and different groups of swimmers (adults, children, and children with mental and physical disabilities) show that, in general, dolphins prefer small humans to adults. One dolphin showed a clear preference toward children with mental and physical disabilities, and we conclude that she showed assisting behavior.
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Humane education programs often target at-risk children and seek to teach empathy and gentleness with animals, but few of these have been assessed. This prospective, longitudinal study examined the effects of “Teaching Love and Compassion” (TLC), a humane education program employing educational group discussions and dog training for seventh-grade, inner city youth in Los Angeles, California. The TLC program is offered to groups of 10 to 12 students during their three-week vacation at the year-round school. Students for the experimental and control groups were selected from the pool of those scoring below the 25th percentile in reading and mathematics. The study, conducted over a two-year period, assessed four successive sessions, comprising an experimental group of 41 children and a control group of 42 children. In morning sessions, the experimental group had discussions focusing on interpersonal issues and conflict management. In the afternoons they were taught the proper care and obedience training of shelter dogs. Pre-, post-, and follow-up tests, specially developed to accommodate the children's reading ability and scheduling constraints, were given to both the experimental and control groups to assess their knowledge of animal care, conflict management skills, attitudes toward self and others, and fear of dogs. Members of the experimental group increased their understanding of pet care and the needs of animals and retained this information more than did the control group for all four TLC sessions, both at post-testing (F=58.4, p=0.0001) and follow-up testing (F=18.9, p=0.0001). At post-testing, the experimental group showed a trend toward a decreased fear of dogs (F=3.6, p=0.062), that was significant at follow-up testing (F=4.2, p=0.019). For these children who are exposed to daily violence and aggression to people and animals, these modest changes were associated with the three-week intervention.
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Although most human-animal bond research has focused on relationships between humans and pets, animals have been used for therapeutic purposes in a variety of settings. Therapeutic riding programs have demonstrated a positive impact on quality of life for people with disabilities. Equine-facilitated psychotherapy is a promising approach to address self-esteem, depression, and other emotional or psychological problems. Restoration of the trauma victim's capacity for recovery hinges on provision of safety and development of trust, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. Thus, recovery from trauma represents an ideal context for exploring the therapeutic impact of equine-human relationships. The six participants in this study recognized that their pre-existing relationships with horses were therapeutic during recovering from trauma, defined as sufficient to have caused significant change in the participant's life. Semi-structured interviews and video-tapes of horse-rider interaction were used to describe the nature of the equine-human bond and its contribution to recovery from trauma. The equine-human bonds described by participants have parallels both with important elements of therapeutic alliances between professionals and clients and with the positive impact of relationship factors on client outcome.
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Dolphin-Assisted Therapy (DAT) is an increasingly popular choice of treatment for illness and developmental disabilities by providing participants with the opportunity to swim or interact with live captive dolphins. Two reviews of DAT (Marino and Lilienfeld [1998] and Humphries [2003]) concluded that there is no credible scientific evidence for the effectiveness of this intervention. In this paper, we offer an update of the methodological status of DAT by reviewing five peer-reviewed DAT studies published in the last eight years. We found that all five studies were methodologically flawed and plagued by several threats to both internal and construct validity. We conclude that nearly a decade following our initial review, there remains no compelling evidence that DAT is a legitimate therapy or that it affords any more than fleeting improvements in mood.
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In this paper, the benefits of interactions between animals and the elderly, specifically long term care residents, are addressed. The paper presents clearly delineated steps needed to successfully introduce “live-in” animals, visiting animals and a human-animal team intervention program. Emphasis is placed on practical advice for staff and caretakers in residential settings to help promote positive, smooth transitions toward more animal-friendly and, therefore, human-friendly facilities.
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Animals have generally played a great role in human ecological adjustment. From the very beginning, animal-facilitated therapy (AFT) has paralleled the use of animals as pets, and many of the therapeutic uses are extensions of the health benefits now recognized for those who own or interact with companion animals. These included the early observations that people interacting with animals experienced a decrease in blood pressure to the more overt behaviors indicating a more relaxed state. There is now general acceptance that animals are therapeutic, and natural surroundings and contact with nature is good for people. Viewing nature in general has therapeutic value. Studies are beginning to look at the behavior and physiological indicators of relaxation in animals as they interact with people. It is known that most domestic animals actively try to be with people, presumably for the same reasons humans want to be with them-the comfort of the family, group, or pack. Remember that one requirement of the new Animal Welfare Act for research dogs is that the dogs have access to exercise and socialization, with people-human-facilitated therapy for institutionalized dogs. Reconciling the risks to the animals with their rehabilitation value is neither simple nor easy unless one follows the dictum that animals absolutely should not be used as means to an end. After a therapeutic session has ended, all involved-the recipient of the service, the therapist, and the animal-must have benefited from the experience. In this way, all society will benefit.
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The present study examined both human and horse heart rates (HRs) when humans stroked horses for 90 seconds; the subjective arousal levels of the humans were measured by the Tohoku Activation Deactivation Adjective Check List before and after stroking horses. Six male subjects with a positive attitude toward companion animals and 6 male subjects with a negative attitude were selected by their scores on the Pet Attitude Scale, and these two groups, together with a third group, of 6 subjects who were male members of the Doshisha University horse-riding club, participated in this experiment. The HRs of the human subjects during the first 10 seconds immediately after the stroking began were significantly higher than those obtained after that period, but these higher levels gradually returned to baseline levels. This tendency appears more clearly in the negative attitude group. The HRs of the horses increased during the first 20 seconds immediately after the human subjects of the NA group started stroking them, but gradually reduced as the stroking continued. The results of subjective arousal levels suggest a decrease in tension by stroking horses. These results suggest that a certain affectional interaction may exist between humans and companion animals.
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Horses emit many signals that convey information pertaining to their intentions, present activity, social status, or mood. Humans can learn to understand these signals and what they mean. Perhaps the most pronounced behaviors horses display are those that indicate agitation. A recent study conducted at Purdue University explored the level of rider experience - beginner, intermediate, and advanced - and its effect on agitation behaviors in horses.
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A pets as therapy (PAT) programme was initiated in a closed ward of a major psychiatric hospital. The effect of regular contact with a dog on a selected group of chronic ward-bound patients suffering from dementia was assessed over a 12 week period using a number of measures. These included global measures of daily functioning, physiological measures (blood pressure and heart rate) and a measure of general ward noise levels. A matched group from a similar closed ward was used as a control. Results indicated significant experimental group changes in heart rate and a substantial drop in noise levels in the experimental ward during the presence of the dog.
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There are few quantitative studies on the benefits of animal-assisted therapy (AAT). Information about this modality consists mainly of anecdotal statements, testimonials, and case reports. However, recent research has demonstrated that the use of therapy dogs, integrated with more traditional forms of therapy, can improve therapeutic results. This case report describes the treatment of a 10-year-old girl with posttraumatic stress disorder and a history of physical and sexual abuse. AAT was used as part of a broader cognitive-behavioral therapy intervention. The patient's behavior during therapy sessions was observed before and after the introduction of the therapy dog. There was a dramatic change in behavior and a subsequent report from her foster mother that behavior in the home improved.
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Pet Therapy reduces apprehension and is, therefore an important tool in working with children and adolescents. Treatment of animals by children is also indicative of their mental health and healthy development. Cruelty to animals may foretell later abuse to humans providing the link between child and animal abuse. Understanding the role of pets as indicators of individual and family problems enable therapists and other professionals to provide the proper counseling for the situation. This paper presents a describes a group work program cognitive behavioral approach with adolescents in pet therapy as an adjunct to treatment in anger management.
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Previous research has shown that the presence of a dog can positively impact the speed at which preschoolers perform motor skills tasks and also their ability to adhere to instructions. The current study focused on the execution of a cognitive task-object categorization-by developmentally delayed and typical preschool children in the presence of a real dog, a stuffed dog, or a human. The real dog involved in this study was a Miniature Poodle. The children (n = 12) were asked to complete a match-to-sample task in which they had to choose a picture of an object that "goes with" another. Three categories of object exemplars were used: taxonomic, thematic, and irrelevant. The presence of the real dog resulted in significantly fewer irrelevant choices than either the stuffed dog or the human conditions. Additionally, results in this experiment were consistent with previous research, showing a developmental shift where younger children were more likely to make taxonomic than thematic choices, with the reverse true of the older children. These results indicate that the presence of the real dog does not appear to alter typical performance patterns seen in object categorization, but the fact that fewer errors were made in the presence of the dog indicates that the presence of the dog does have a positive impact on performance of this cognitive task. The authors discuss several possible explanations for this outcome.
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Trained therapy dogs are becoming an increasingly common sight in many educational and health care settings. This article, coauthored by a college professor, a Therapy Dogs International, Inc., Evaluator and local program director, and a registered nurse reviews the research on using registered therapy dogs as adjuncts in school programs and health care treatment plans for children ages 5–8. It addresses to the most commonly raised objections to allowing dogs in classrooms and patient rooms and offers practical guidelines for maximizing the positive outcomes of animal-assisted activities and therapy (AAA/T).
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Interest is growing in establishing animal-facilitated programs in prisons. Although food animals have been maintained by prisons for years, few have looked at the benefits inmates derive from working with animals. Recently, prisons have started dog and horse training programs. Preliminary evidence indicates that inmates benefit, learning life-enhancing skills and lowering the recidivism rates. Shelter dogs and wild horses trained by the prisoners help people with physical and emotional needs. State and federal funds are needed to further study the benefits derived for prisoners, animals, and society.
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If correctional education aims to transform individuals and bring about change, we need to consider the whole person who comes with human needs, emotions and attitudes. In order to expand our approach, alternative programs should be explored. A somewhat unusual but very promising approach to address offenders' human needs is the use of animals in institutions. The majority of these programs have a vocational skills component: Inmates train dogs to become service dogs for the disabled, or they work with horses, either wild mustangs or retired race horses in need of rehabilitation. Although vocational training is certainly a major consideration, these programs are also highly therapeutic and rehabilitative. Suggested outcomes can benefit many: The inmate, the institution, other agencies, and the community. The purpose of this article is to raise awareness of selected animal-assisted programs in correctional institutions and their reported benefits.
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The aim of our study was to investigate the effects of a small therapeutic animal (TA, guinea pig) on the social behavior of nine autistic children. The social contacts of the autistic children were evaluated by a descriptive method of direct observation that was performed without (in period one) and with (in period two) the presence of a TA. In period one, contacts with an unfamiliar person (UP) and acquaintances (A) were registered; in period two, contacts with the acquaintances and the TA were registered. The frequency of contacts of autistic children with their acquaintances significantly increased in the presence of the TA (P < 0.001). The frequency of contacts with the TA was significantly higher than the frequency of contacts with the UP (P < 0.001). The form of the autistic children's contacts with A, with the UP, and with the TA was individually dependent, and the presence of the TA changed the characteristics of contacts with A. Our results indicate that the presence of a small TA can positively influence the quantity and quality of the social behavior of autistic children and that the characteristics of social contacts were dependent on the individual.
Article
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the presence of a therapy dog would affect the performance of a set of gross motor skills tasks for a mixed group of language-impaired and typical preschool children. The 14 children in the group were between four and six years old (four female and ten male); the two dogs were Miniature Poodles. The design was a two-way mixed model factorial, where a series of 10 gross motor skills tasks (e.g., long jump, high jump—labeled Type of Task) performed by the children served as one variable, and the presence or absence of the therapy dog (labeled Dog Presence) served as the other variable. In the dog-present conditions, the dog either performed the task immediately prior to, or at the same time as, the child. Time to complete each task and the accuracy of task performance as determined by a rating scale were determined from a review of experiment videotapes. The main effect of Dog Presence was significant (F(1,36) = 7.471, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.17). As predicted, the children completed the tasks faster when the dog was present (M = 10.88 s, SD = 9.84) than when the dog was absent (M = 13.86 s, SD = 12.64), but this effect was not present in the ratings data. This indicates that the presence of a therapy dog served as an effective motivator for the children, who performed faster, but without compromising accuracy, in all tasks but one. The interaction between dog presence and type of task was also significant (F(9,71) = 3.67, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.32) in the ratings data, indicating that the presence of the dog increased performance accuracy in some types of tasks, while decreasing it in others. Based on these results and the strong connection between motor skills and language development, the authors recommend a role for therapy dogs in speech and language development programs for preschool children.
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The purpose of this study was to examine preschoolers' (n = 11) ability to follow instructions in the presence or absence of a real dog while executing a variety of motor skills tasks. These tasks were divided into one of three general classifications: 1) Modeling Tasks: the children were asked to emulate the behavior of a model, 2) Competition Tasks: the children were asked to do the task faster than a competitor, and 3) Tandem Tasks: the children were asked to do the tasks at the same time as a co-performer. Typical and Identified (language impaired) preschool children were randomly assigned to perform five tasks of each general classification alone, with a human, with a real dog, and with a stuffed dog that was similar in size and appearance to the live dog. Two independent raters rated each child's adherence to instructions (interrater reliability = 0.99) on a 7-point scale. A significant interaction between task classification and type of co-performer revealed that in the Modeling Tasks the preschoolers adhered better to the instructions when the real dog was present relative to the other conditions. In the Tandem Tasks the children adhered to instructions best when they performed the task with a human, followed by the stuffed dog (as manipulated by a human), the real dog, and worst when they were asked to perform the tasks alone. The type of co-performer made no significant difference in the Competition Tasks. These results indicate the presence of a real dog tends to be beneficial for promoting preschoolers' compliance with instructions in motor skills tasks that require modeling behavior, but not in those tasks that stress competition or those performed in tandem.
Article
Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) has been shown to reduce the loneliness of residents in long-term care facilities (LTCFs). In this study, we determined the relative contribution of socialization (human-human bonding) and human-animal bonding as mechanisms by which AAT reduces loneliness. Residents in LTCFs volunteering for AAT were randomized to receive AAT as individuals (Individual) or in groups of two to four (Group). Individual AAT was used as a measure of animal-human bonding, and Group AAT was used as a measure of the combination of animal-human bonding and socialization. Any greater effect of Group AAT in comparison to Individual AAT would be ascribed to socialization. Thirty-seven residents of LTCFs, who were cognitively intact, volunteered for AAT, and scored as significantly lonely on the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3), were studied. Six weeks of AAT, one 30-minute session per week, in an individual or group setting was performed, with posttesting during week five. Two residents dropped out of each group, giving us group sizes of 17 (Individual) and 16 (Group). A two-way ANOVA showed a statistically significant effect of pretest vs. posttest scores (F 25.3, p < 0.001), with no effect of Group vs. Individual or of interaction. Newman Keuls post-hoc tests showed that the pretest scores for Individual and Group participants did not differ There was a significant difference between pretest and posttest scores for Individual participants (p < 0.05) but not for Group participants. There was no difference between the posttest values for Individual vs. Group. When the data from all 33 participants were combined, Delta scores (pretest minus posttest), correlated positively (P < 0.01) with pretest scores, showing that lonelier individuals benefited more from AAT In conclusion, AAT was more effective in improving loneliness in residents of LTCFs when given individually than in a group situation. Therefore, the main effect of AAT was not mediated by socialization.
Article
Orienting nonverbal responses and verbal responses of eight children with mental disabilities interacting in water with dolphins and in water with favorite toys away from dolphins were recorded and analyzed on videotape. Significant improvements in hierarchical cognitive responses occurred when interaction with dolphins was used as reinforcement compared with improvements made when the reinforcement used was a favorite toy. Water work with dolphins evoked a greater number of and higher level responses than without dolphins.
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Reviews of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) research suggest the need for better controlled and designed research studies to supplement the many case studies and anecdotal reports. This study reports the results of such an investigation where sixty-nine male and female psychiatric inpatients were randomized to either an AAT psychiatric rehabilitation group or a similarly conducted control group without AAT, to test if AAT can improve prosocial behaviors. The Social Behavior Scale was scored daily by an independent rater and patients were monitored for four weeks. A two-group by weeks repeated measure analysis of variance was conducted for each outcome measure. There were no baseline differences between the two groups on demographics or any of the measures, but by week four, patients in the AAT group were significantly more interactive with other patients, scored higher on measures of smiles and pleasure, were more sociable and helpful with others, and were more active and responsive to surroundings. These data suggest that AAT plays an important role in enhancing the benefits of conventional therapy, and demonstrates the benefit of including a non-AAT group for comparison. The study also demonstrates the importance of using longitudinal, repeated measure designs. Previous studies may have failed to find significant effects because they were restricted to shorter intervals for measuring outcomes.
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This study investigated the effects of animal-assisted therapy (A-AT) on self-reported depression in a college population. Forty-four participants were selected on the basis of scores on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). They then were assigned to one of three groups: A-AT in conjunction with psychotherapy (directive group), A-AT only (nondirective group), and control. Standardized regressed BDI posttest scores were used as dependent variables in one-way analysis of variance with treatment as the independent variable. Results revealed significant differences among groups, F(2,41)=3.69, p<.05. Duncan's Multiple Ranges Test indicated that standardized regressed BDI post-test scores differed significantly between nondirective (M=5.67) and control groups (M=10.18).
Article
Autism strongly affects the ability to establish social interactions. However, there is some suggestion that people with autism establish close social relationships with nonverbal communicating and intentionally acting animals (such as dogs). In this study, 14 children with autism (3 females, 11 males; mean age = 11.4 years) were observed when given the choice to interact with a person, dog (certified therapy dog) or objects (e.g., toys). The children interacted most frequently and for longest with the dog, followed by the person and then the objects. We suggest that animals, specifically dogs, communicate their intentions in a way more readily understandable to people with autism. We also suggest that autism affects predominantly interpersonal interactions.
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The study examines selected letters and poems of the poet Emily Dickinson to better understand the relationship between Dickinson and her Newfoundland dog Carlo. Citations from these sources indicate that Carlo helped Dickinson feel protected, that his presence soothed her anxiety, and that she used the dog as a go-between with other people. Eventually, the poet came to appreciate Carlo's silence as a witness to her creative process. The study also looks at their relationship from the deeper levels of psychology and myth. From a psychological perspective, Carlo is seen to function as a selfobject in Dickinson's inner life. In the myths from many cultures, dogs appear as guides, guardians, healers, and psychopomps. During their years together, Carlo embodied each of these roles for Dickinson. Together, the three approaches - primary source material, psychology and myth - reveal how Carlo's quiet presence helped Dickinson transform inner turmoil into poetry and suggest the transformative potential possible in any interspecies relationship.
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To test the idea that dogs have a positive influence on the social behavior of school children, one of three dogs was introduced alternately into a class at an elementary school in Vienna, attended by 24 children (mean age: 6.7 years). Most of the 14 boys and ten girls came from first-generation immigrant families. With parental consent, their behavior was videotaped for two hours every week, during “open teaching situations,” first during a one-month control period in the absence of dogs, followed by an experimental period of similar duration, when a dog was present in the classroom. Frequency and duration of all observable behaviors of individuals and their interactions were coded from these tapes. Although major individual differences were found in the children's interest in the dog and their behavioral responses, the group became socially more homogenous due to decreased behavioral extremes, such as aggressiveness and hyperactivity; also, formerly withdrawn individuals became socially more integrated. Effects were more pronounced in the boys than the girls. Even though the children spent considerable time watching and making contacting with the dog, they also paid more attention to the teacher. We conclude that the presence of a dog in a classroom could positively stimulate social cohesion in children and provide a relatively cheap and easy means of improving teaching conditions.
Article
Research has shown that the presence of a companion animal reduces anxiety, encourages interaction among humans and enhances the way in which people are perceived. These are all effects which would be useful in a psychotherapeutic setting. On this basis the current study investigated the effect of the presence of a dog on the way in which people perceive psychotherapists. The study utilized an experimental design in which participants viewed a videotape of one of two therapists who were either with or without a dog. It was hypothesized that people would respond more positively to the psychotherapists when accompanied by a dog; specifically, that they would be more generally satisfied and would be more willing to disclose personal information, and that these effects would be influenced by attitudes towards pets. The first two hypotheses were confirmed. The effect was most pronounced among those who were the least positive toward the psychotherapist, demonstrating a ceiling effect. Contrary to the last hypothesis, attitudes toward pets had no influence on the perceptions of psychotherapists. History of pet ownership had only minimal impact on the results. Practical applications and directions for further research are discussed.
Article
The history of the relationship between humans and their companion animals is long and more than a little complex. This is in large part due to the special status of these animals. Over the years these animals have evolved socially from that of an impersonal "object" to a "subject," i.e. a sentient being with a recognized mental and emotional life. Histories of this change in relationship are rare. This is due mainly to a lack of source material; little is available and what there is is rarely reflective of a general population. Recently, records of a 1796 English dog tax have become available and they provide a fairly complete overview of the status of the dog as a companion animal in late eighteenth-century London.The evidence indicates the dog was very popular as a companion animal in late eighteenth-century English urban society. While some of these creatures were former working-class canines others were what might be described as "professional companion animals" i.e. creatures who had no previous work history. The tax records further indicate that concern as to specific breed was still in the future. Dogs often received a generic title such as "yard dog" or "lapdog" or "housedog." What is particularly interesting from these records is the number of mixed breed creatures—animals with the title of either "mongrel" or "curr." (At least three Londoners kept foxes as pets.) There is also an almost total absence of kennels of hunting dogs in eighteenth-century London. Other historical records suggest this to be a recent phenomenon. Lastly, this outline appears to correlate strongly with the literary remarks, material accoutrements, and even religious practices of the late eighteenth-century urban dog population of England.
Article
The goal of this study was to test if dolphin-assisted therapy could be an effective therapeutic intervention for children with significant social and communication disabilities. Furthermore, it was crucial to determine the relative importance of the dolphin and the parent consultation factors implicit in the therapy. The method employed was a before-and-after comparison of three control groups and one experimental group. In the experimental group, all three aspects of the therapeutic intervention—interaction with dolphins, parent counseling and a curative, relaxed environment—were included. Control group 1 (outpatient therapy group) was limited to just interaction with dolphins. In control group 2 (farm animal group), the parents were counseled after the children interacted with farm animals (which replaced dolphins). Control group 3 received no treatment. The post-treatment parent questionnaire results revealed therapeutic success in the areas of both productive and receptive language, processing of non-verbal cues, social skills, and self-confidence. Observations of parent-child interaction indicated that after treatment in the experimental group, interactions of children could be interpreted more accurately, on a long-term basis. The discovered therapeutic effects occurred regardless of whether the children were in the water during therapy or not.
Article
A Pets as Therapy [PAT] program was initiated in a women's prison to train companion dogs for the elderly and individuals with disabilities. The effect on the trainers was studied using an established depression scale and a self-esteem inventory. Results showed significant group changes in both these areas.
Article
To assess the effects of human confidence levels on horse behavior, 40 veterinary students led the same mare around a fixed course. Multivariate analysis of human attitudes and behavior and horse behavior showed that a positive attitude towards horses related to infrequent ear movement in that horse (accounting for 46% of variance); positive attitude, together with low lead tension, related to a horse's forward ear position (47%); loose lead tension related to both a horse's low resistance (66%) and low head position (11%). Human attitudes towards at least one horse is shown to be associated with changes in human behavior, which leads to altered behavior in that horse.
Article
Older individuals may experience decreased quality of life and increased stress related to life transitions. These include change of residences, the loss of a spouse and/or personal possessions. With these transitions, a decline in physical and emotional health may occur due to social isolation, loss of independence, institutionalization, and family breakdown. Studies that use animal assisted activities were evaluated for the effectiveness of improving various parameters in the geriatric population undergoing these transitions. Interactions with animals decreased blood pressure and heart rate, decreased depression, and increased life satisfaction. Animal assisted activities appear to improve the quality of life of aging individuals. Future research should focus on outcomes of using different types of animals and the amount of time spent with the animals.
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This manuscript reports the use and implications of a Canine Companion within a rehabilitation model program for nursing home residents with dementia. Projected results included elimination of some restraints for wanderers, social interaction between the animal and individuals, between group members about the dog, and orientation of individuals to the present in the presence of the dog. Unexpected results included re-orientation of individuals who had withdrawn into themselves, and the use of the dog's presence to anchor orientation to the day of the week by residents. General and specific implications of these findings are discussed with recommendations for future research.
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Despite the widespread ownership of pet animals in American families, there is very little analysis of the role of pets in child development. This paper will examine the influence of pet animals on child development; the impact of pet loss and bereavement on children; the problem of child cruelty to animals and its relationship to child abuse; and the role of pets in both normal and disturbed families. The authors will also review their own research study of adult prisoners and juveniles in institutions in regard to their experiences with pet animals.
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Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) was developed to promote human social and emotional functioning as a day-care program for psychiatric patients. In this study, we determined which animals 481 schizophrenic patients liked and what they thought about AAT, using an original questionnaire. It was found that more than 80% of the present patients liked animals and that they thought contact with animals was useful as a novel therapy. They had much interest in, and many hopes, for AAT.
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Animal-assisted therapy has gained widespread support in a variety of health care settings, including critical care units. This article seeks to review some of the current animal-assisted therapy, define a structured program, and evaluate the potential ability of the therapy to enhance the progress and health of our patients.
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The present investigation aimed to explore the psychological effects for humans of swimming with dolphins as opposed to swimming in the ocean without dolphins. It was hypothesized that people swimming with dolphins would experience significantly greater levels of well-being and reduced levels of anxiety than those who swam without dolphins. Participants were sampled from Perth's UnderWater World marine park and at the Bunbury Dolphin Discovery Centre, Australia. Participants completed well-being and anxiety measures before and after their swim. Well-being was greater in participants who swam with dolphins than in those who did not, both before and after their swim. However, well-being increased to the same extent in both groups. In contrast, anxiety decreased for participants swimming with dolphins but not in those who swam without dolphins. The findings suggest that anticipation of a new and exciting experience, and swimming, itself increase well-being. In addition, swimming specifically with dolphins may lower anxiety. Whether these effects are responsible for the therapeutic benefits associated with human-dolphin interactions requires further investigation.
Article
1. Animal assisted therapy is an applied science using animals to solve a human problem. It is an interdisciplinary approach using animals as an adjunct to other therapies. 2. The major difference between animals as therapy and entertainment is the animal-human bond, a special relationship that develops when a person has strong feelings of psychological attachment to the animal. 3. It is essential that a complete nursing and activity assessment be made before implementation of individualized animal assisted therapy.
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According to Dr. Aaron Ketcher, Associate Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania, studies reveal that potential health values exist in use of pets in the rehabilitation process. Caution, however, must be taken. Animals are not a cure-all, but they can be urged as valuable complements to service offerings. As presented by AARP Board member Marion Waite, "Pets are good for your health." She goes on to state that pets help reduce stress and blood pressure and speed up recovery from traumatic incidents such as moves, illness, or the death of a loved one (AARP, 1987). Growing understanding of relationships between people and their pets suggests benefits that barely have been tapped. Some forecasters have predicted that one day patients may receive a prescription to obtain a pet as routinely as prescribed medication. Incorporating animals as a therapeutic approach for the development and rehabilitation of special population members can be unique and beneficial. Animal therapy can be a salutary form of rehabilitation if the program is organized, supervised, and implemented in a professional manner. Implementing this approach may result in promoting unconditional acceptance and enhancing the normalization process for special population members.