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Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Perú
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... Sin duda, la importancia cultural ancestral de este tipo de material está dada por su naturaleza y utilización cromática, pues los pigmentos derivados de tierras coloreadas fueron extensamente conocidos en épocas prehispánicas, siendo la hematita tempranamente extraída, tratada y utilizada en los Andes centro-sur en distintos soportes (Vaughn et al., 2005;Brooks et al., 2008;Eerkens et al., 2009Eerkens et al., , 2014Petersen, 2010;Salazar et al., 2010Salazar et al., , 2011Salazar et al., , 2015Arriaza et al., 2012;López et al., 2012;Sepúlveda et al., 2013Sepúlveda et al., , 2014Sepúlveda et al., , 2015Ogalde et al., 2014Ogalde et al., , 2015Ogalde et al., , 2020Castelleti et al., 2015, entre otros). De hecho, la extracción de hematita es una de las primeras manifestaciones de minería en Sudamérica (Vaughn et al., 2007(Vaughn et al., , 2013, mientras que algunas de las fechas más tempranas asociadas al uso y explotación de este mineral han sido reportadas en el norte de Chile (Salazar et al., 2011). ...
... Luego, las tierras naturales rojas que consisten en uno o más óxidos ferrosos o férricos además de sílice, alúmina, arcillas y ocasionalmente óxidos de manganeso, se denominan ocres y se encuentran en depósitos geológicos de todo el mundo (Harben y Kužvart, 1996;Petersen, 2010). La variación del color del ocre -de rojo hasta amarillo-se debe a la presencia de diferentes óxidos e hidróxidos de hierro, como la hematita (α-Fe 2 O 3 ), la limonita (FeO (OH) * nH 2 O), la magnetita (Fe 3 O 4 ) y la goetita (FeOOH) (Harben y Kužvart, 1996;Goffer, 2007;Romero-Gómez et al., 2013;Cortell, 2016), variando también según los contenidos de arcilla (Solá et al., 2013;Cortell, 2016). ...
Aquí se presentan los resultados de los análisis de espectroscopía Raman e Infrarroja de pigmentos rojos provenientes de dos contextos fúnebres del cementerio de Topater-1, además de otras dos muestras, una del sector San Salvador y otra sin referencia como muestra de control. Todos los pigmentos fueron hallados en el área de Calama, norte de Chile (ca. 500 AC – 100 DC). El cromóforo rojo identificado en todos los casos fue hematita, además de distintos tipos de arcilla y cantidades variables de materia orgánica. Los contenidos de arcillas se relacionan con diversas fuentes de aprovisionamiento, mientras que la presencia de materia orgánica sugiere procesos tecnológicos. Luego, el contraste de estos resultados con la evidencia arqueológica local permite explorar prácticas tecnológicas donde es importante la relación individuo-paisaje o medio ambiente. Esta evidencia es significativa porque confluye con prácticas fúnebres donde se depositan estos pigmentos en valvas de Concholepas concholepas. La realización en la región de estudios de largo alcance bajo esta óptica permitiría: i) dar fundamento estadístico a estas nociones preliminares, ii) proponer acciones analítico-instrumentales posteriores, y iii) inferir sobre el manejo y la circulación local de la hematita y las prácticas asociadas.
... Hematite is a common chromophore with a strong color, good adherence, and opacity. It is easily powdered, and its extraction is among the first manifestations of mining in South America (Harben and Kužvart, 1996;Petersen, 2010;Vaughn et al., 2005Vaughn et al., , 2007Vaughn et al., , 2013. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed a complete transformation of limonite into goethite between 30 and 60 • C by the evaporation of the water retained chemically. ...
... In the South Central Andes, the treatment of red Fe oxides or hematite (as slip at ~900 • C) is widely known and used, as shown by archeometric studies carried out with vibrational spectroscopy and/or SEM-EDX (see Acevedo et al., 2015;Bertolino et al., 2009;Bugliani et al., 2012;Cortell, 2016;Eerkens et al., 2014;De la Fuente et al., 2010;Marte et al., 2012). Moreover, several studies have corroborated the use of hematite in various types of supports, areas, and chronological periods in the macro-area (Arriaza et al., 2012;Brooks et al., 2008;Castelleti et al., 2015;Eerkens et al., 2009Eerkens et al., , 2014Ogalde et al., 2015;Petersen, 2010;Salazar et al., 2010Salazar et al., , 2011Salazar et al., , 2015Sepúlveda et al., 2012Sepúlveda et al., , 2014Vaughn et al., 2005). Thus, the differences in the red color composition (with and without Mn) of the Cabuza ceramics (see Tables 3 and 4) are probably due to the different geochemical origins of the black chromophore. ...
We report the chemical characterization of 13 ceramic shreds of the Cabuza phase (900–1200 CE) from northern Chile. In this decorative pottery, the red chromophore was hematite, while the black pigment was jacobsite. We also identified important secondary chemical elements, including arsenic. The discussion of all this evidence allowed us to reflect on the relationship between the individual and the environment, using the ceramics as cultural material.
... This is partially due to the difficulty of identifying raw materials, even for semi-precious stone. As Petersen (35) states: "samples identified in archaeological samples as turquoise, topaz, lapis lazuli, and rose quartz may actually be chrysocolla, jade, citrine, dumortierite, garnet, sodalite, fluorite, or other possibilities." That is, a qualitative identification based upon appearance, feel, etc. is imprecise and quite possibly erroneous. ...
... Pyrite was well known to the northern cultural groups who took advantage of its reflective properties and used them as mirrors and decorative objects. Further, there is also evidence that pyrite was used as dust in funerary rituals (Petersen and Brooks, 2010). Thus, based on the materials known at the time, we propose an alternative method to obtain gilded copper objects, by changing the reaction principle from purely electrochemical replacement to a galvanic. ...
Around 150 BCE and 700 CE, pre-Columbian goldsmiths in the Peruvian northern coastline developed a method for gilding copper. The characteristics of the resulting pieces are substantially different from those obtained by hammering, embossing, and casting. We discuss two electrochemical gilding methods that were possibly developed by pre-Columbian goldsmiths. The first method consists of electrochemical replacement where copper is immersed in a solution containing dissolved gold. The second method utilizes the same solution but includes pyrite to form a galvanic cell with copper as the cathode and pyrite as the anode. Characterizations via X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersion spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) allowed a comparison of the results of the two methods with archaeological samples. The electrochemical replacement method does not reach thicknesses observed in archeological samples and delivers irregular gilding due to the formation of anodic spots on copper. Meanwhile, including pyrite as an anode in the electrochemical cell leads to a more homogeneous deposition of gold with layer thicknesses similar to those found in archaeological samples. This work contributes to understanding pre-Columbian techniques lost before the Inca Empire.
... The earliest recorded engagement of people with the geology of Nicaragua dates to at least the 16 th century, when Spanish colonists established gold and silver mining operations along the Rio San Juan in the southeast of the country and near Jicaro, Nueva Segovia in the northwest (Arengi & Hodgson, 2000). Mining in Central America, however, may date back further with examples of other pre-colonial indigenous artisanal mining of gold, copper, and hematite in the Americas (Vaughn et al., 2007;Petersen, 2010;Moreno, 2007;Aldenderfer et al., 2008). Nicaragua was the world's 15 th largest gold producer in the 1940s and 1950s, although truly little scientific progress was made due to this status. ...
The Chortís block of Central America is a cratonic-type peri-Gondwanan terrane and is commonly included in Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic paleogeographic reconstructions. Currently, most research has focused on the Mesozoic evolution of the Chortís Block, and as a result, its pre-Mesozoic tectonothermal development remains poorly constrained. As a result, there is considerable debate surrounding the definition of the Chortís block as a terrane as internal complexities of the Chortís block have not been established fully by geochronological and geochemical data. The Nueva Segovia Group crops out in Northern Nicaragua and is correlative to distinct metasedimentary formations in Palacagüina, Nicaragua and Cacagupa & Petén, Honduras. The Nueva Segovia Group in Nicaragua comprises primarily of polydeformed sequences of greenschist facies marine clastic and chemical sediments in conformable contact with felsic volcanics. These rocks are
collectively intruded by the composite Dipilto Batholith. LA-ICP-MS analysis of detrital zircon grains from the Nueva Segovia Group reveals the youngest age peak of ca. 250 Ma with other significant peaks at ca. 450 Ma, ca. 950 Ma and ca. 1.2 Ga. Hf-isotope data from igneous zircons of the Dipilto Batholith suggest an older source between 0.57-1.04 Ga. Whole-rock geochemical data from felsic volcanic units of the Nueva Segovia Group suggest a within-plate tectonic environment of emplacement which contrasts with that of the Dipilto Batholith. Together, these data suggest i) a protracted tectonic history for the Nueva Segovia Group, ii) The Nueva Segovia Group likely records, in part, the amalgamation of Pangea and iii) the basement of the Chortís block is likely of Precambrian age.
The extraction and processing of cinnabar (HgS) to create red pigment have a deep history across the Andes. From paint used to decorate the bodies of people living on the North Coast during the early second millennium BCE, to the vibrantly decorated qeros owned by Inka elites during the Colonial period, cinnabar has been sought after and employed by Andean peoples for millennia. In this paper, we explore spatial and temporal patterns of cinnabar use through a collection-based study at the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian. Applying the lens of technological choice to understand the mineral composition of pigments, we employ portable X-ray fluorescence and microscopy to record how, where, and when different Andean groups selected imported cinnabar over more common sources of red mineral pigment, such as iron oxides. Our results also hint at the possibility that ancient craftspeople intentionally combined different mineral pigments to produce desired hues and tints and/or other material and spiritual properties. By examining how cinnabar was deployed on pre-Hispanic Andean objects and images, we gain greater insight into the importance and meaning of this valued exchange material.
Like the Eastern Hemisphere, the cultures of the Americas developed a rich tradition of metallurgy millennia ago. The Andes were an independent center of innovation, arriving at the similar technologies and end products in the absence of direct or indirect contact. It is fascinating that human ingenuity and experimentation arrived at similar industrial processes in at least two areas of the world. In this paper we review the great metallurgy traditions in the Pre-Columbian Andes with an emphasis on copper.KeywordsAndesMetallurgyCultural evolutionPyrotechnologyCopper
Why did the male nude come to occupy such an important place in ancient Greek culture? Despite extended debate, the answer to this question remains obscure. In this book, Sarah Murray demonstrates that evidence from the Early Iron Age Aegean has much to add to the discussion. Her research shows that aesthetics and practices involving male nudity in the Aegean had a complicated origin in prehistory. Murray offers a close analysis of the earliest male nudes from the late Bronze and Early Iron Ages, which mostly take the form of small bronze votive figurines deposited in rural sanctuaries. Datable to the end of the second millennium BCE, these figurines, she argues, enlighten the ritual and material contexts in which nude athletics originated, complicating the rationalizing accounts present in the earliest textual evidence for such practices. Murray's book breaks new ground by reconstructing a scenario for the ritual and ideological origins of nudity in Greek art and culture.
A common feature of successful ancient states was the role of elites in maintaining and regulating socioeconomic structures and, in particular, emphasising their own social difference. The Wari (AD 600–1000) are considered the earliest expansive state in South America, and excavations have demonstrated the rich variety of exotic goods imported from across the region into the polity's heartland. Here, the authors argue that the importation of raw materials, plants, animals and people from distant regions was crucial for defining and sustaining Wari social differentiation and ideology. They emphasise the importance of studying material provenance and their archaeological contexts in order to understand the role of exotic goods in legitimising ruling groups in ancient states.
The current research examined the relationship and relative importance of financial regressors on Peruvian gold mining companies´ stock prices from 2009 to 2018. Chosen regressors were earnings per share, dividend per share and dividend yield. Fixed effects analysis was employed for regression analysis and decomposition for the relative importance study. Assumptions of stationarity, independence, no-multicollinearity, homoscedasticity and specification were fulfilled. Also, the values of Owen and Shapley were employed for decomposing . It was found that earnings per share and dividend per share had a positive effect on the dependent variable; while dividend yield was found to be negatively related to stock price. Moreover, by the usage of decomposition it was noticed that the order of regressors importance was earnings per share, dividend per share and dividend yield. Then, it was stated that gold mining stock prices had a high dependence on profits and dividend payments in the analyzed period which can be related to the bearer’s expectations.
The Peruvian records indicate that the guano islands (Fig. 14) yielded, between 1826 and 1875, several thousand artifacts of pre-Conquest origin. These are probably only a fraction of the archaeological material actually discovered during the commercial destruction of guano caps. Most of it has been lost; several hundred specimens in the museums of Europe and America still retain some record of their origin; and a small group of pieces, with which this paper is principally concerned, are known to have been discovered under stratified and depth-recorded conditions.
Sequences of preceramic cultures or well-defined artifact assemblages are now known for the Ecuadorian highlands, the central and southern highlands of Peru, the entire coast of Peru, western and southwestern Bolivia, northern Chile, highland Argentina, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego. The known lithic industries of the area can be organized into a scheme of five periods, based on the long sequence at Lauricocha in the central Peruvian highlands and defined by the occurrence of widely diffused artifact types. Periods I and II, estimated at 10,000-8000 B.C. and 8000-6000 B.C., are known only from scattered finds of hunting camps. The earliest evidence of seed-grinding tools and field-stone house foundations is found in central Argentina and north Chile during Period III, 6000-3000 B.C. While nomadic hunters continued to occupy the southern part of the continent until historic times, agriculture was well established in Peru during Period IV (3000-1200 B.C.). Period V, from 1200 B.C. until the extinction of the stone-using Indians of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego in the 20th century, saw the introduction of ceramics to Peru and the southward spread of agriculture, pottery-making, and related activities to Chile and Argentina.
Examines the properties and applications of gold-copper alloys in ancient Central America. Keywords (Audience): General Public