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Finding psi in the paranormal: Psychometric measures used in research in paranormal beliefs/experiences and in research on psi-ability

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... large numbers of items). Goulding and Parker (2001) found that the use of psychometric instruments to measure psi-related abilities, beliefs, and/or experiences ì i s steered to a large extent by the underlying model or ideology concerning what psychic experiences areî (p. 73). ...
... Terms with no associated definitions are regularly used in instruments (e.g., Van de Castle & White, 1955;Randall, 1997). For example, the Anomalous Experiences Inventory (AEI; Gallagher et al., 1994) includes the items ì I have had a psychic experience,î ì I believe in the unconscious,î and ì I believe that many paranormal occurrences are real.î Similarly, the Australian SheepñGoat Scale (ASGS; Thalbourne, 1995) uses the terms ESP, psychic, and telepathy without defining them (the term psychokinesis is defined within the ASGS). ...
... Often surveys involve an interdependence of items (e.g., Gallagher et al., 1994). For example, the ASGS (Thalbourne, 1995) includes the items ì I believe in life after deathî and ì I believe that some people can contact spirits of the deadî though the latter relies on the former being true. ...
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JSE 34:1 Spring 2020 whole issue PDF
... As such, this measure has most often been utilised by parapsychologists investigating the relationship between belief in the paranormal and performance on laboratory tasks. Such laboratory tasks have often documented the phenomenon known as the "sheep-goat effect" in which those who believe in psi tend to perform better on psi tasks that those who do not (Lawrence, 1993 (Goulding & Parker, 2001). Following factor analysis of the original pool of 61 items, Tobacyk and Milford (1983) suggested that the 25 item scale contained seven subscales which included traditional religious belief, psi, witchcraft, superstition, spiritualism, extraordinary life forms and precognition. ...
... Such measures have either been limited in their coverage of paranormal phenomena, or as with the AEI, have produced a rather 'diluted' measure of paranormal belief including items of questionable paranormality. Consequently, it is not surprising that in a review of the psychometric instruments used in research on paranormal beliefs/experiences published between 1993 and 1999, Goulding and Parker (2001) found that out of 29 different research groups, 16 groups utilised the PBS in 21 out of 76 studies. This is compared to just 4 research groups who utilised the ASGS, and 3 research groups who utilised the AEI, in 24 and 5 studies respectively. ...
... This is compared to just 4 research groups who utilised the ASGS, and 3 research groups who utilised the AEI, in 24 and 5 studies respectively. Therefore, despite the development of alternative measures, Goulding and Parker (2001) concluded that the Paranormal Belief Scale (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983;revised by Tobacyk, 1988) remains the most popular and widely used measure of paranormal belief. ...
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A review of some measures of paranormal belief.
... Such screening tests or tools-including short-form questionnaires-are commonly used in the biomedical (e.g., Aggarwal et al., 2022;Iragorri & Spackman, 2018) and social sciences (e.g., Gosling et al., 2003;Ziegler et al., 2014) to efficiently gauge people's psychometric or health profiles for research, diagnostic, or treatment purposes. However, their adoption within parapsychology, transpersonal psychology, or broader consciousness studies seems surprisingly sparse given that the empirical literature in these domains includes many psychometric studies (for overviews, see e.g., Goulding & Parker, 2001;Lange, 2017;MacDonald et al., 1995;Prugger et al., 2022). Beyond this immediate methodological goal, however, the development of an HP-S Screener (HPSS) using Modern Test Theory (MTT) methods should likewise yield important information about the validity of the HP-S construct itself (cf. ...
Article
Spirits or other supernatural entities are central to many religio-spiritual beliefs, transpersonal practices, and altered states of consciousness, yet empirical studies of purported encounter experiences and their psychological aftereffects are relatively sparse in the literature. Haunted People Syndrome (HP-S) describes recurrent 'ghostly episodes' as an interactionist phenomenon emerging from people with heightened somatic-sensory sensitivities that are stirred by disease states, contextualized with paranormal belief, and reinforced via perceptual contagion and threat-agency detection. Increasing evidence supports this biopsychosocial model, but a screening tool for the HP-S recognition patterns should provide many research and clinical benefits. We therefore collected relevant survey data via an online research panel (n ¼ 241, balanced for gender) to develop a user-friendly but robust Rasch-scaled instrument. The final six-item, Likert-based screener has excellent internal reliability (Rasch reliability ¼ .87) and shows no significant response biases for age, gender, or a general index of mental illness. Regarding construct validity, the probabilistic hierarchy of its items generally aligns with a posited description of the HP-S process and scaled scores strongly predict the diversity (or perceptual depth) of self-reported encounter experiences. We discuss this new tool in the context of easily identifying 'haunted people' for inclusion in academic research or to guide clinical support.
... La superstición esta inspirada en la necesidad fundamental de tener una sensación de control sobre la propia vida (Goulding y Parker, 2001). De hecho hay evidencias empíricas que señalan la posible relación entre la superstición y la necesidad de tener una sensación de control. ...
Thesis
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This thesis consist of two distinct parts. In the first one, from the anthropology of beliefs perspective, a compilation and analysis of magical beliefs in general is done, specially focusing on the history, tradition and fundamentals of belief in astrology. As a result of this work and contributions made by interviewees and discussion groups, hypotheses and research questions that were served to guide the study were raised. The second part focuses on the methodology, analysis of both quantitative and qualitative results and discussion of them. The aim of this research has been to provide information that allows us to understand and analyze the magical and astrological beliefs of young Spaniards. In addition, to study the influence of sociodemographic variables on those beliefs. Hypotheses and research questions. The assumptions raised refer to the negative influence of the scientific background and religion on magical beliefs. We also considered the negative relationship between a person's confidence on himself and magical beliefs. Finally, we refer to the assumptions relating to the influence of sociodemographic variables on those beliefs. Regarding the research questions, we question whether it influences science education, religiosity and degree of confidence of a person believing in astrology. Also, if there is an influence of the branch of knowledge of the degrees of young university students and the ratings of their magical and astrological beliefs. Finally we consider three questions: the first refers to the belief in horoscopes and superstition. The second relates the belief in astrology with spirituality and sense of transcendence. Finally, the third question refers to how is valued the belief in horoscopes in relation to the rest of magical beliefs. Methodology. The main methodological contributions of this study are two. The first is to have created a scale to measure the astrological belief (ECA), which has had two dimensions. One has allowed to measure the belief in horoscopes, and the other the belief in astrology. The second contribution has been to develop a quantitative and qualitative research. A personal survey with a cross-sectional design 800 young people aged between 20 and 24 years was used for the quantitative phase. 400 of the interviewees were studying third and fourth year in different degrees and universities. Subsequently, the qualitative phase was developed through focus groups, where the results of the quantitative study were discussed and implemented. Therefore, the most common limitations of previous studies were overcome: where there was not a scale to measure the astrological belief and where research on magical beliefs was done only by qualitative or quantitative methods, but not by using both simultaneously. Results. Overall, the conclusions of the hypotheses and research questions of this study are, in some way, consistent with previous studies that have shown that education has a great importance in magical beliefs of the people, not the gender and religion. In addition, the results of the study show that for young people, especially the university students, the belief in horoscopes is very underrated, as they consider it as if it was a superstition. However, the belief in astrology is better valued, as it is considered to be a knowledge that has history and foundation.
... The Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) (Tobacyk, 1988(Tobacyk, , 2004Tobacyk & Milford, 1983) is the most widely used measure of belief in the paranormal (K. Drinkwater et al., 2017;Goulding & Parker, 2001). The 26-item self-report measure comprises items from seven paranormal subscales: Spiritualism, Psi, Traditional Religious Belief, Witchcraft, Precognition, Superstition, and Extraordinary Life Forms. ...
Article
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This study investigated the degree to which cognitive bias mediated the relationship between thinking style and belief in the paranormal. A sample of 496 participants completed the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS), the Belief in Science Scale (BISS), the Cognitive Biases Questionnaire for Psychosis, and the reality testing subscale of the Inventory of Personality Organization (IPO-RT). The BISS and IPO-RT served as proxy indices of preferred thinking style; the BISS assessed rational-analytical (objective) processing, and the IPO-RT intuitive-experiential (subjective) processing. Cognitive biases (Jumping to Conclusions, Intentionalising, Catastrophising, Emotional Reasoning, and dichotomous thinking) correlated positively with belief in the paranormal. Mediation using path analysis indicated that Emotional Reasoning and Catastrophising exerted indirect effects in relation to BISS, IPO-RT and RPBS. Direct relationships existed between IPO-RT and RPBS, and BISS and RPBS. Of the biases, only Emotional Reasoning and Catastrophising predicted RPBS. The contribution of Emotional Reasoning and Catastrophising to belief in the paranormal were consistent with previous research and the cognitive model of psychosis, which asserts that there are strong relationships between defective reality testing, emotional reasoning and delusional beliefs.
... The Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS) was developed in the mid-1980s, as psychologists try to explain the origins and functions of superstitious beliefs (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983). Although there has been some debate over its factorial structure (Lawrence & Tobacyk, 1995;Tobacyk & Thomas, 1997) and internal validity (Lange et al., 2000), as the first measure of paranormal belief to be psychometrically evaluated, it continues to be the most widely-used measure of paranormal belief (Goulding & Parker, 2001;Kaur & Zinta, 2017). The PBS provides a separate score on each of seven factorially derived subscales, with each subscale reflecting a major dimension of paranormal belief. ...
Article
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The effects of superstitious beliefs in economics have attracted both of psychologists and economists over decades. To date, most studies focus on those beliefs with certain superstitious (religious, mystic, etc.) background stories (sometimes just brief sayings). However, superstitious beliefs without background stories may also exist and affect people’s decisions consequently. These beliefs are often performed as beliefs in a nonexistent inherent relationship. In this research, we introduced a model, based on people’s adjustment in expected utility upon receiving new information, to mathematize the effect of beliefs in nonexistent inherent relationships. This new model reviews such phenomenon in an economical and mathematical view, which could be applied to some unexplained irrational decisions.
... Researchers have employed a wide range of measures to assess belief in the paranormal. Although the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS, Tobacyk, 2004) is the most widely used (Goulding and Parker, 2001), there is an ongoing debate regarding its validity and factorial solutions (e.g., Drinkwater et al., 2017). The content, scope, and prevalence of paranormal subjects change over time and differ between cultures, even among Western countries (Sen and Yesilyurt, 2014). ...
Article
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In a sample of 599 participants (60% female, 18–81 years), we tested the hypotheses that cognitive ability and the big-six personality traits suffice to explain the individual-difference component of paranormal beliefs (belief in magic, astrology, esoterism, supernatural beings, and spirituality). Additionally, we measured 14 other potential predictors that were found to correlate with paranormal beliefs in prior research (e.g., ontological confusion). Although cognitive ability and the big-six explained 10% of the variance in individual belief, ontological confusion and causality understanding also were significant predictors in regression analyses. The resulting model, explaining 19 % of variance, consists of ontological confusion, cognitive ability (negative correlation), openness to new experiences, emotionality, conscientiousness (neg. corr.) and causality understanding (neg. corr.). We discuss the findings with reference to two hypothetical factors that drive individuals' acceptance of paranormal beliefs, inclination for story-telling, and tendency to evaluate belief content in terms of reason and conscientious evaluation.
... large numbers of items). Goulding and Parker (2001) found that the use of psychometric instruments to measure psi-related abilities, beliefs, and/or experiences "is steered to a large extent by the underlying model or ideology concerning what psychic experiences are" (p. 73). ...
Article
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Surveys regarding anomalous beliefs and exceptional experiences are an important methodology in sociology and psi-related research. Previously published questionnaires, however, contain various limitations in their philosophy, language, and usefulness. This study aimed to develop a psi survey and collect data from an experience-centered perspective. Established survey development and piloting methods were used to create the Windbridge Psi and Related Phenomena Awareness Scale (WPRPAS), a novel 10-item web-based instrument which phenomenologically describes experiential phenomena without using problematic terms and asks respondents to signify whether they are aware of the phenomena or not and, if so, what experience they have had with them. For analysis, WPRPAS items were categorized as bidirectional which involve two or more people and can be given and/or received (energy healing, mediumship, and telepathy) or unidirectional which generally involve only the experiencer/respondent [clairvoyance, micro- and macropsychokinesis (PK), out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences, children’s memories of previous lives, and precognition]. Online survey response data were collected from self-identified mediums (n=316) and non-mediums (n=1,030) with no demographic statistical differences: 53.2 ± 10.1 and 53.9 ± 11.9 years of age, respectively; 89.5% and 85.5% female, respectively; both roughly 95% white. More than 80% of each participant sample reported being aware of all 10 phenomena. The portion of mediums who reported awareness of microPK and macroPK was significantly larger than the portion of non-mediums for those phenomena (each p<.00001). A significantly larger portion of mediums than non-mediums reported experiencing each of the 10 phenomena (all p<.0001). Ideally, the WPRPAS can be used by other researchers to assess awareness of psi and related phenomena and the prevalence of those experiences in other populations.
... large numbers of items). Goulding and Parker (2001) found that the use of psychometric instruments to measure psi-related abilities, beliefs, and/or experiences "is steered to a large extent by the underlying model or ideology concerning what psychic experiences are" (p. 73). ...
Research
Full-text available
Surveys regarding anomalous beliefs and exceptional experiences are an important methodology in sociology and psi-related research. Previously published questionnaires, however, contain various limitations in their philosophy, language, and usefulness. This study aimed to develop a psi survey and collect data from an experience-centered perspective. Established survey development and piloting methods were used to create the Windbridge Psi and Related Phenomena Awareness Questionnaire (WPRPAQ), a novel, 10-item, web-based instrument which phenomenologically describes experiential phenomena without using problematic terms and asks respondents to signify whether they are aware of the phenomena or not and, if so, what experience they have had with them. For analysis, WPRPAQ items were categorized as bidirectional which involve two or more people and can be given and/ or received (energy healing, mediumship, and telepathy) or unidirectional which generally involve only the experiencer/respondent (clairvoyance, micropsychokinesis [microPK] and macropsychokinesis [macroPK], out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences, children's memories of previous lives, and precognition). Online survey response data were collected from self identified mediums (n = 316) and non-mediums (n = 1,030) with no demographic statistical differences: 53.2 ± 10.1 and 53.9 ± 11.9 years of age, respectively; 89.5% and 85.5% female, respectively; both roughly 95% white. More than 80% of each participant sample reported being aware of all 10 phenomena. The portion of mediums who reported
... This line of research was stimulated by the publication of the Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS) in the mid-1980s (Tobacyk and Milford 1983;Tobacyk 2004). The PBS was the first measure of paranormal belief to be psychometrically evaluated and, although there has been some considerable debate over its factorial structure (Lawrence 1995;Tobacyk and Thomas 1997) and internal validity (Lange et al. 2000), it continues to be the most widely-used measure of paranormal belief (Goulding and Parker 2001). A significant amount of this research has centered around just one of the seven PBS subscales, namely, belief in superstition. ...
Article
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There is evidence that superstitious beliefs are different across cultures. Yet, very little attention has been allocated to psychological research on culture-specific superstitions, particularly in non-Western societies. The present study examined magical thinking and superstitious beliefs in Iran, developing a culture-specific measure named Iranian Superstitious Beliefs Questionnaire (ISBQ). Following a comprehensive study on folklore superstitions in Iran, we developed a 10-item measure. Women scored higher than men in all items, but the magnitude of the gender effect was small to moderate. Exploratory factor analysis suggested that two factors can be extracted: magical thinking (5 items) and superstitious beliefs (5 items). These two factors were moderately correlated (r = 0.35, p < 0.01). Reliability and convergent validity of the ISBQ were shown to be satisfactory. Therefore, the 10-item ISBQ can be used as a valid and reliable measure of Iranian superstitious beliefs.
... As a first step we propose conceptual replications across independent samples and using different measures of anomalous experiences and paranormal beliefs (for listings of pertinent instruments, see, e.g., Goulding & Parker, 2001;Irwin, 2009, Appendix). These efforts should also include clinical measures of delusional ideations, since the concepts related to the formation and labeling of anomalous experiences in the general population are arguably germane to cognitive theories of delusions Irwin et al., 2012;Ross et al., 2017). ...
Article
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Research on the psychology of paranormal, religious, and delusional belief has been stifled by a lack of careful distinction between anomalous experiences and their corresponding attributions. The Survey of Anomalous Experience (SAE; Irwin, Dagnall, & Drinkwater, 2013) addresses this nuance by measuring proneness to anomalous experience (PAE) and proneness to paranormal attribution (PPA). Using data (351 men, 1,026 women) from 7 previously published studies, we examined the SAE's internal validity via Rasch scaling and differential item functioning analyses. PPA showed good Rasch model fit and no item bias, but it lacked adequate reliability. Several PAE items showed misfit to the Rasch model or gender bias, though deleting 5 items produced a scale with acceptable reliability. Finally, we failed to validate a 3-category rating scale version with the goal of improving the SAE's psychometric properties. All 3 formulations revealed a secondary factor related to the items' extremity rather than contents, suggesting that future research should consider the intensity of respondents' anomalous experiences and paranormal attributions.
... By way of a conclusion to this paper I now survey some issues that warrant consideration in the construction of an improved measure of superstitiousness as an element of paranormal belief. For over two decades the Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS; and its subsequent version the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS; have been the most widely used multidimensional measures of paranormal belief (Goulding& Parker, 2001). The scales' three-item Superstition factor has been used as an index of superstitiousness both in its own right (e.g., Dudley, 1999) and for comparative purposes in multidimensional investigations of paranormal belief. ...
Article
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This study investigated Wiseman and Watt’s (2004) finding that negative and positive superstitious beliefs were underpinned by different psychological mechanisms. 321 participants completed a self-report measure of neuroticism, the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale(R-PBS), negative and positive superstition scales, and the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS). Median splits were conducted on neuroticism, negative and positive affect. Endorsement of negative and positive superstitions was then compared across each variable. Positive superstitious belief items were endorsed more strongly than negative superstitious belief items across all measures. Main effects were observed for gender (women endorsed superstitious beliefs to a greater extent than men), neuroticism (high neuroticism group endorsed superstitious beliefs to a greater extent than the low neuroticism group) and affect (high negative and positive affect groups endorsed superstitious beliefs to a greater extent than low negative and positive affect groups). Crucially, this study failed to replicate the interactions reported by Wiseman and Watt (2004); where differences between groups narrowed for superstitious belief type. Correlations were found between: negative and positive superstitious belief items, the superstition sub-scale of the PBS and each measure of superstitious belief, and neuroticism. This pattern of results provided no support for Wiseman and Watt’s (2004) findings.
... ESP refers to some of the process as precognition, premonition, telepathy, and clairvoyance that take place via channelling other sensory system. Goulding and Parker (2001) claims that 25-45% of the western population have reported some form of ESP or other psi experiences. Moreover, new-age oriented psychologists do not agree that a psi experience is caused by mental disorder (Hui, 2010). ...
Article
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This paper is an initial survey that was conducted to map Psychical Experiences (psi) in the Arabic countries. In this paper, I explained how psi experience can be an essential part of our psychological system. A previous studies shows that paranormal activities is normal and is an important among social, clinical psychologists and sociologists. This research is quantitatively designed. Survey tools were used to collect data from 35 respondents. Amongst them were 16 male and 19 females. The data was analysed by using SPSS version 13 software. The results showed that the correlations between some personal, demographical variables are positive, while some of psi experiences showed significant correlations among psi aspects. The way we believe in psi aspect does affect how we perceive these experiences. Educational level is the most significant variable that affects the psi belief. Precognitive dreams and telepathy are the most psi experience that happens at unconsciousness level or between consciousness and unconsciousness status. The more we study psi, the more we spot on our unconscious hidden realm and its unlimited abilities.
... Belief in the paranormal. The Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (Tobacyk, 1988;Tobacyk & Milford, 1983) is the most commonly used measure of paranormal belief (Goulding & Parker, 2001). It assesses belief in the paranormal via completion of 26 self-report items. ...
Article
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248 participants recruited through convenience sampling, completed measures assessing PRS, statistical bias, emotion-based reasoning (EBR), and belief in the paranormal. Structural equation modeling revealed differential relationships existed between components of statistical bias, EBR, and belief endorsement (PRS and paranormal).
... The RPBS due to its breadth and multidimensionality features in a range of empirical research. Indeed, the RPBS is the most widely used measure of paranormal belief within psychology (Goulding and Parker, 2001). Conversely, parapsychologists tend to use the ASGS because it focuses on fundamental paranormal concepts (extra-sensory perception, PK and LAD). ...
Article
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The Australian Sheep-Goat Scale (ASGS) is a commonly used measure of belief in the paranormal. The scale contains items that index extrasensory perception (ESP), psychokinesis (PK), and life after death (LAD). Although, research employs the ASGS as both a general (unidimensional) and factorial (multidimensional) measure, few studies have examined the appropriateness of these solutions. Accordingly, the present paper tested the psychometric integrity of the ASGS via two studies. Study 1 assessed ASGS factorial structure using confirmatory factor analysis. To achieve this, merging of ASGS data from previously published studies and ongoing work created a heterogeneous sample of 1,601 responses. Analysis revealed that a two-factor bifactor model best explained ASGS organization. This comprised a general overarching factor incorporating two subfactors (ESP and PK). Factor loadings and omega reliability supported a unidimensional structure for the most part. Removal of LAD items improved model fit because the factor added unnecessary complexity and undermined scale psychometric integrity. Study 2, using a supplementary composite sample of 320 respondents, assessed the convergent validity of the emergent ASGS model against a recently published Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) bifactor solution. Comparison revealed high convergent validity. The general ASGS factor, despite deriving from only psi-related dimensions (ESP and PK) predicted RPBS scores. This finding indicated that ASGS brevity relative to the RPBS is advantageous when assessing general belief in the paranormal. The ASGS, notwithstanding limited construct content, functions as an effective measure of paranormal belief. Additionally, Study 2 replicated the bifactor structure identified in Study 1 and invariance testing supported invariance of form, factor loadings and item intercepts for this solution across Studies 1 and 2.
... Belief in the paranormal. The Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (Tobacyk, 1988;Tobacyk & Milford, 1983) is the most commonly used measure of paranormal belief (Goulding & Parker, 2001). It assesses belief in the paranormal via completion of 26 self-report items. ...
Article
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Major conspiracy theorists propose that problem–reaction–solution (PRS) functions as a mechanism for constructing and exaggerating social problems to garner populist support for the implementation (imposition) of laws that society would normally deem unacceptable. To evaluate this supposition, 248 participants recruited through convenience sampling, completed measures assessing PRS, statistical bias, emotion-based reasoning (EBR), and belief in the paranormal. Structural equation modeling revealed differential relationships existed between components of statistical bias, EBR, and belief endorsement (PRS and paranormal). Specifically, proneness to conjunction error predicted PRS, whereas misperception of randomness and to an extent EBR best explained belief in the paranormal. These results indicated that respondents were willing to accept PRS scenarios as legitimate and validate PRS-proposed solutions based on rational rather than emotional appeal.
... The RPBS (Tobacyk and Milford, 1983) assesses belief in the paranormal and is the most widely used self-report measure of its type (Goulding and Parker, 2001). The scale contains 26-items, which index seven belief dimensions: spiritualism, witchcraft, precognition, superstition, psi, traditional religious beliefs and extraordinary life forms. ...
Article
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This study assessed the extent to which within-individual variation in schizotypy and paranormal belief influenced performance on probabilistic reasoning tasks. A convenience sample of 725 non-clinical adults completed measures assessing schizotypy (Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences; O-Life brief), belief in the paranormal (Revised Paranormal Belief Scale; RPBS) and probabilistic reasoning (perception of randomness, conjunction fallacy, paranormal perception of randomness, and paranormal conjunction fallacy). Latent profile analysis (LPA) identified four distinct groups: class 1, low schizotypy and low paranormal belief (43.9% of sample); class 2, moderate schizotypy and moderate paranormal belief (18.2%); class 3, moderate schizotypy (high cognitive disorganization) and low paranormal belief (29%); and class 4, moderate schizotypy and high paranormal belief (8.9%). Identification of homogeneous classes provided a nuanced understanding of the relative contribution of schizotypy and paranormal belief to differences in probabilistic reasoning performance. Multivariate analysis of covariance revealed that groups with lower levels of paranormal belief (classes 1 and 3) performed significantly better on perception of randomness, but not conjunction problems. Schizotypy had only a negligible effect on performance. Further analysis indicated that framing perception of randomness and conjunction problems in a paranormal context facilitated performance for all groups but class 4.
... The RPBS because of its breadth, multidimensionality and preponderance in general psychological literature is the focus of the present paper. Indeed, the RPBS is the most widely used measure of paranormal belief (Goulding and Parker, 2001). ...
Article
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Since its introduction, the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) has developed into a principal measure of belief in the paranormal. Accordingly, the RPBS regularly appears within parapsychological research. Despite common usage, academic debates continue to focus on the factorial structure of the RPBS and its psychometric integrity. Using an aggregated heterogeneous sample (N = 3,764), the present study tested the fit of 10 factorial models encompassing variants of the most commonly proposed solutions (seven, five, two, and one-factor) plus new bifactor alternatives. A comparison of competing models revealed a seven-factor bifactor solution possessed superior data-model fit (CFI = 0.945, TLI = 0.933, IFI = 0.945, SRMR = 0.046, RMSEA = 0.058), containing strong factor loadings for a general factor and weaker, albeit acceptable, factor loadings for seven subfactors. This indicated that belief in the paranormal, as measured by the RPBS, is best characterized as a single overarching construct, comprising several related, but conceptually independent subfactors. Furthermore, women reported significantly higher paranormal belief scores than men, and tests of invariance indicated that mean differences in gender are unlikely to reflect measurement bias. Results indicate that despite concerns about the content and psychometric integrity of the RPBS the measure functions well at both a global and seven-factor level. Indeed, the original seven-factors contaminate alternative solutions.
... Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (Tobacyk, 1988;Tobacyk & Milford, 1983) The RPBS is a self-report measure, which contains 26 items and assesses PB. It is the most widely used measure of paranormal belief (Goulding & Parker, 2001). Within the RPBS, questions appear as statements (e.g. ...
Article
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Previous research proposes that endorsement of anomalous beliefs is associated with proneness to conjunction error. This supposition ignores important differences between belief types. Correspondingly, the present study examined the degree to which components of statistical bias predicted conspiratorial ideation and belief in the paranormal. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling revealed that conjunction error was associated with conspiratorial ideation, whilst perception of randomness most strongly predicted belief in the paranormal. These findings opposed the notion that anomalous beliefs, by virtue of possession of common characteristics, relate similarly to conjunction error. With regard to conspiracy, conjunction-framing manipulations produced only minor variations in relationship strength. This supported the notion that conspiratorial ideation was associated with a domain-general susceptibility to conjunction error. Framing, however, did influence the relationship between belief in the paranormal and conjunction; whilst, paranormal conjunctions were generally easier to solve, performance declined as level of paranormal belief increased.
... The index of paranormal belief was the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS; Tobacyk, 2004), a refined form of the scale originally developed by Tobacyk and Milford (1983). In its various versions the RPBS has been the most widely used self-report measure of paranormal beliefs for three decades (see also Goulding & Parker, 2001) and it is notable for its broad view of the scope of "the paranormal". Further, the RPBS is the one of the few currently available comprehensive inventories of paranormal beliefs that guarantees interval-level measurement. ...
Article
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An earlier study by Irwin, Dagnall, and Drinkwater (2012a) found a relationship between the intensity of paranormal beliefs and a self-reported proneness to jump to conclusions. This relationship was statistically significant for the factor of Traditional Paranormal Beliefs but was only of borderline significance for the other major factor of paranormal beliefs, New Age Philosophy. The project reported here aimed to replicate the relationship using an additional self-report measure of jumping to conclusions, plus a standard performance measure of this construct. A convenience sample of 124 people completed three measures of proneness to jump to conclusions and a questionnaire surveying paranormal beliefs. A relationship between intensity of paranormal beliefs and proneness to jump to conclusions was confirmed, but the pattern of findings across the various indices of jumping to conclusions raises several issues for further empirical clarification.
... Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) (Tobacyk and Milford, 1983;Tobacyk, 2004) The RPBS is a 26-item self-report measure, which assesses belief in the paranormal. The RPBS is the most widely used measure of paranormal belief (Goulding and Parker, 2001). Questions are presented as statements (e.g., 'There is a devil') and respondents rate items on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). ...
Article
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The present paper examined relationships between schizotypy (measured by the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experience; O-LIFE scale brief), belief in the paranormal (assessed via the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale; RPBS) and proneness to statistical bias (i.e., perception of randomness and susceptibility to conjunction fallacy). Participants were 254 volunteers recruited via convenience sampling. Probabilistic reasoning problems appeared framed within both standard and paranormal contexts. Analysis revealed positive correlations between the Unusual Experience (UnExp) subscale of O-LIFE and paranormal belief measures [RPBS full scale, traditional paranormal beliefs (TPB) and new age philosophy]. Performance on standard problems correlated negatively with UnExp and belief in the paranormal (particularly the TPB dimension of the RPBS). Consideration of specific problem types revealed that perception of randomness associated more strongly with belief in the paranormal than conjunction; both problem types related similarly to UnExp. Structural equation modeling specified that belief in the paranormal mediated the indirect relationship between UnExp and statistical bias. For problems presented in a paranormal context a framing effect occurred. Whilst UnExp correlated positively with conjunction proneness (controlling for perception of randomness), there was no association between UnExp and perception of randomness (controlling for conjunction).
... The index of paranormal belief was the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS-R; Tobacyk, 2004), an amended form of the scale originally developed by Tobacyk and Milford (1983). In its various versions the RPBS has been the most widely used questionnaire measure of paranormal beliefs for three decades (see also Goulding & Parker, 2001) and it is notable for its broad view of the scope of 'the paranormal'. Further, the RPBS is the only currently available comprehensive inventory of paranormal beliefs that guarantees interval-level measurement. ...
Article
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Recent research suggests that paranormal beliefs and delusional beliefs may have similar cognitive foundations. In order to explore this link further a survey was conducted to investigate the relationship between paranormal beliefs and cognitive dysfunctions known to be associated with the development of clinically defined delusions. A convenience sample of 207 people completed an online inventory of questionnaires measuring paranormal beliefs, inferential confusion, confirmation bias, and metacognitive beliefs. Both dimensions of paranormal belief surveyed here were found to be predicted by these cognitive factors. The construction of paranormal beliefs as delusions is critically discussed.
... NAP scores range from 6.85 to 47.72 and TPB 11.16 to 43.24 (Andrich, 1988). The R-PBS is the most widely used measure of paranormal belief (Goulding & Parker, 2001). Despite, concerns about the factorial structure of the R-PBS (Lawrence, 1995a(Lawrence, , 1995b, the measure demonstrates adequate validity (Tobacyk, 2004). ...
Article
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Studies exploring relationships between belief in the paranormal and vulnerability to cognitive bias suggest that believers are liable to misperception of chance and conjunction fallacy. Research investigating misperception of chance has produced consistent findings, whilst work on conjunction fallacy is less compelling. Evidence indicates also that framing biases within a paranormal context can increase believers' susceptibility. The present study, using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling, examined the contribution of each bias to belief in the paranormal and assessed the merits of previous research. Alongside, the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale, participants completed standard and paranormal framed perception of randomness and conjunction problems. Perception of randomness was more strongly associated with belief in the paranormal than conjunction fallacy. Inherent methodological issues limited the usefulness of framing manipulations; presenting problems within a paranormal context weakened their predictive power.Copyright
... Por otra parte, la mayoría de los investigaciones que pretenden acercarse al estudio del pensamiento mágico procuran utilizar la Escala de Creencias Paranormales (Paranormal Belief Scale, PBS), la cual es uno de los instrumentos más utilizados en la investigación social, clínica y cognitiva para medir pensamiento mágico (Goulding & Parker, 2001). La PBS fue creada por Tobacyk en Estados Unidos en 1982 y fue revisada por el autor en 1988. ...
Article
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El objetivo de este estudio fue identificar los niveles de pensamiento mágico en una población de 265 estudiantes de la carrera de Psicología de una institución de educación superior del estado de Jalisco. Se analizaron las diferencias en los niveles de pensamiento mágico respecto al sexo y el lugar de procedencia de los estudiantes, además de su relación con el avance en el programa educativo de la carrera. Para medir la variable de interés del estudio se utilizó la Escala de Pensamiento Mágico (EPM24) desarrollada por Moral de la Rubia (2009), la cual está constituida por dos factores relacionados de 24 reactivos en escalamiento tipo Likert con 7 opciones de respuesta [tres negativas, tres positivas (graduales) y una opción neutra]. Los resultados encontrados ilustran que los estudiantes de Psicología obtienen un nivel neutro-moderado en pensamiento mágico, además de encontrar diferencias significativas en la variable de sexo y una correlación baja respecto al avance en el programa de estudios.
... This can best be illustrated by reference to the Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS, Tobacyk & Milford, 1983; later revised by Tobacyk, 1988, R-PBS), which is the most widely used measure of paranormal belief (Goulding & Parker, 2001). The R-PBS includes a range of phenomena that extend beyond the traditional domain of parapsychology (traditional religious belief, psi, witchcraft, superstition, spiritualism, extraordinary life forms, and precognition). ...
Article
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Several measures of paranormal belief have been developed and employed by researchers of published work. Despite this, there is considerable debate about the nature and structure of paranormal belief. Particularly, authors remain uncertain about which belief subsets should be included within paranormal scales. The current study extended existing research by exploring shared variance across different paranormal measures. An extensive literature review was undertaken in order to identify measures of paranormal belief. The independent scale items were then combined to produce a 124item composite measure. This was distributed in paper form and electronically via the Internet. Respondents were recruited face to face, by email, and by post. In total, 1,481 respondents completed the measure: 548 the paper version and 933 online. Exploratory factor analysis (principal components analysis) was performed, and a nine-factor structure emerged. This contained item clusters measuring belief in: Hauntings, Other Life, Superstition, Religious Belief, Alien Visitation, Extrasensory Perception (ESP), Psychokinesis (PK), Astrology, and Witchcraft. Keywords: paranormal beliefs—Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS)—R-PBS— Paranormal Short Inventory (PSI) —Australian Sheep–Goat Scale (ASGS)—Anomalous Experiences Inventory (AEI)
... Pertinently, schizotypal personality disorder has been found to be associated with cognitive and perceptual distortions, including odd beliefs or magical thinking (Goulding & Parker, 2001). Magical thinking in this context is defined as the belief in forms of causation which by conventional standards are considered to be invalid (Eckblad & Chapman, 1983). ...
Article
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The current study investigated the relationship between paranormal belief and cognitive-perceptual personality measures. Participants completed a questionnaire battery containing a paranormal belief measure, the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ-B), and the Revised Transliminality Scale (RTS). Scores on the SPQ-B and RTS were found to be positively correlated with overall paranormal belief. Differences in level of paranormal belief for participants scoring high and low on each cognitive-perceptual measure were assessed. Participants above the median demonstrated higher levels of endorsement across all paranormal belief subscales (hauntings, aliens, superstition, other life, religion, PK, ESP, astrology, and witchcraft) than those scoring below the median. Partial correlation and hierarchical regression revealed the majority of the variance was explained by the cognitive-perceptual factor of the SPQ-B. In addition to this, within the regression model, the RTS was found to explain additional variance to that accounted for by the cognitive-perceptual factor of the SPQ-B.
... The applications of this instrument or its earlier version and reports of its psychometric properties appeared in many reputable journals across multiple disciplines (i.e., Aarnio & Lindeman, 2007;Watt et al., 2007). In a search of studies published between 1993 and 1999, Goulding and Parker (2001) reported a total of 43 different instruments claiming to measure paranormal beliefs and experiences, with Tobacyk's Paranormal Belief Scale being the most widely used instrument. In this study, the Chinese version of Tobacyk's RPBS as adapted by Shiah, Tam, Wu, and Chang (2010) for local application was used as a basis for measuring paranormal beliefs. ...
Article
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The measurement of religiosity in current health-related literature is mostly based on the traditional Christian belief system. It has been argued that such a measurement approach may misrepresent the true degree of religiosity in Taiwanese people. In this study, religiosity was measured in two ways: self-reported religion type and a qualitatively derived index of religious piety based on principles as suggested by Gries, Su, and Schak to be used in the Taiwanese context. Their effects on dissociation, paranormal belief, and quality of life were juxtaposed for comparison. In addition, the beneficial effect of religious piety was examined in the framework of McClenon’s ritual healing theory. A total of 266 healthy older adults across Taiwan were interviewed by four trained assistants over a 4-month period. Factor scores were used to represent the dissociative tendencies (depersonalization/derealization, forgetfulness, amnesia, and psychological absorption) and paranormal belief facets (precognition, psi power, other forms of life, traditional religious belief, superstition, and telepathy). The results showed that older people of high religious piety display better quality of life profiles than their counterparts in the low religious piety group. The effects of self-reported religion type were mainly seen with paranormal beliefs compatible with their religious beliefs, whereas the effects of religious piety were more pronounced in relation to quality of life than dissociation and paranormal belief. The beneficial advantage of dissociation hypothesized by ritual healing theory did not receive empirical support in the nonclinical sample of this study.
... Firstly, the measure is conceptually and psychometrically satisfactory (Tobacyk, 2004). Secondly, the R-PBS is the most widely used instrument of paranormal belief (Goulding & Parker, 2001). Our findings, however, suggest that specific haunt-related beliefs rather than general belief in the paranormal increases haunt-related expectations. ...
Article
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The present study investigated whether suggestion, level of belief in the paranormal, and proneness to reality testing deficits influenced participants' expectation of haunt-related phenomena. Participants watched a short slideshow outlining the history of a fictitious, abandoned hospital. Suggestion occurred in the final sentence of the presentation narration and stated that the hospital administrative building had either a history of ghostly activity or structural problems. Following the slideshow, to ensure participants attended to the suggestion, they read a transcript of the presentation narration. The experimenter then informed participants that they would see the internal features of the administrative building via a soundless, black and white video tour. On conclusion of the filmed sequence, participants completed measures assessing environmental perceptions and phenomena, haunt-related opinions and feelings, belief in the paranormal (Revised Paranormal Belief Scale), and proneness to reality testing deficits (Inventory of Personality Organization). Within the experimental phase, only level of paranormal belief and proneness to reality testing deficits affected haunt-related ratings; suggestion had no effect. Second phase inquiry, using path analysis, revealed that haunting history (the extent to which participants believed the administrative building had a history of being haunted) mediated the relationship between paranormal belief and expectation of haunt-related phenomena.
... RPBS. The RPBS (Tobacyk, 2004;Tobacyk & Milford, 1983) is the most widely used instrument for measuring paranormal beliefs (Goulding & Parker, 2001). The 26-item scale assesses traditional Western religious beliefs, psychic phenomena, witchcraft, superstition, and anomalous natural phenomena such as Big Foot and the Abominable Snowman. ...
Article
This study compared changes in psychology and philosophy classes in two distinct components of critical thinking (CT): general skills and personal beliefs. Participants were 128 undergraduates enrolled in CT in psychology, other psychology courses, or philosophy courses. CT and philosophy students significantly reduced beliefs in paranormal phenomena at the end of the semester compared to other psychology students. Only philosophy students improved on the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. The Watson-Glaser may not fully measure CT emphasized in psychology, but psychology instructors can still effectively teach students to examine their own beliefs and think differently in their daily lives. Differentiated assessment of CT is important as instructors evaluate student learning against specific goals.
... Although there has been considerable debate regarding the factorial structure of the R-PBS, the scale is generally regarded as valid (Houran et al., 2001;Lange et al., 2000). Indeed, the R-PBS remains the most widely used instrument for measuring paranormal belief (Goulding & Parker, 2001). Presumably because of these concerns, Rogers et al. (2009) preferred the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale (ASGS) (Thalbourne & Delin, 1993). ...
Article
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The present study examined the degree to which specific probabilistic biases (misperception of chance and conjunction fallacy) were associated with belief in the paranormal and proneness to reality testing (RT) deficits. Participants completed measures assessing probabilistic reasoning, belief in the paranormal and RT. Perception of randomness predicted the level of paranormal belief and proneness to RT deficits. These results provide support for the notion that paranormal believers demonstrate greater misrepresentation of chance. With regard to conjunction, a framing effect occurred. Problems presented in a paranormal context correlated negatively with the level of paranormal belief and proneness to RT deficits. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... For the purposes of this paper it is sufficient to focus on the contemporary context. Tobacyk's Paranormal Belief Scale or PBS (Tobacyk, 2004;Tobacyk & Milford, 1983) has been the most widely used index of paranormal beliefs over the past three decades (see also Goulding & Parker, 2001) and a remarkable portion of the empirical data on this topic can be attributed to researchers' general acceptance of this questionnaire. Techniques for psychometric test development nevertheless have advanced considerably during this period, and there is scope for a new measure of paranormal beliefs that reflects these developments. ...
Article
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This paper reports the psychometric development of new measure of paranormal and related beliefs. Based on a constructive review of the limitations of current self-report questionnaires several criteria were formulated for development of the new measure. One of the key criteria was that items had to meet an explicit definition of scientifically unaccepted beliefs, thereby allowing inclusion in the new measure of a broad range of paranormal beliefs, traditional religious beliefs, urban myths, and similar beliefs currently not accepted by the scientific mainstream. An initial pool of 92 items was administered to 1,180 Australian adults to rate in terms of the level of endorsement. The data of 600 of these participants were analysed under Item Response Theory using the Rasch model and WINSTEPS software, yielding a 20-item questionnaire with two dimensions, New Age Beliefs and Traditional Religious Beliefs, that were free from differential item functioning for age and gender and which featured interval-level measurement. Data from the remaining 580 participants were used for the purpose of confirmatory factor analysis; this analysis confirmed the previously identified psychometric structure. A second study using 236 Australian adults demonstrated the new measure possessed generally satisfactory psychometric characteristics, although further investigation of the scale's discriminant validity and of the convergent validity of the Traditional Religious Beliefs subscale is warranted. The new Survey of Scientifically Unaccepted Beliefs is commended to researchers for its distinctive conceptual perspective, its elegant psychometric structure, and its sophisticated psychometric properties. Keywords: cognate beliefs, paranormal beliefs, scientifically unaccepted beliefs. 1 The authors wish to express their profound gratitude to Prof. Jerome Tobacyk and Dr. Neil Dagnall for their diligence in undertaking a qualitative review of the items in the initial item pool for clarity of expression and conformance with the construct to be measured.
... 2. The Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS): Tobacyk and Milford (1983) constructed the Paranormal Scale, which was later revised and known as the RPBS (Tobacyk, 1988). It is the most widely used instrument for measuring paranormal belief (Goulding & Parker, 2001). Although Tobacyk (1988) proposed a seven-factor construct for the RPBS, other researchers have suggested a two-factor construct (e.g., Houran, Irwin & Lange, 2001;Lange, Irwin & Houran, 2000) or a fourfactor solution (e.g., Hartman, 1999). ...
Conference Paper
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Many studies have explored the relationship between paranormal belief and religiosity. Some studies have shown that paranormal belief correlates with religiosity, yet many studies have not supported this association.The first goal of the present investigation therefore was to replicate previous findings. It is also of interest to explore the relationship between paranormal belief and religiosity in Chinese society, since it has not been studied so far. Another interesting correlate with paranormal belief is general cognitive ability. General cognitive ability was found negatively correlated with belief in the paranormal. However, general cognitive ability correlates with education, which might appear to be related to cognitive complexity. The relationship between paranormal belief, religiosity and cognitive complexity was explored in this study. Therefore, this study has two purposes. First, the Chinese version of the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) was constructed. Second, the relationship among paranormal belief, religiosity and cognitive complexity was examined. Cognitive complexity was measured by the repertory grid including an 8X8 grid. Eight personal roles, such as self, grandparent, father, mother, sibling, classmate, friend, and boyfriend or girlfriend, and four constructs, including religious belief, religious activities, virtue vs. evil, and afterlife were preset. Each participant provided the other four constructs during the test. The task was to decide the importance of each construct with regard to the relationship between the individual and each personal role by using a 9-point Likert scale. The task sequence was generated randomly according to the computer program. The score generated by the OMNIGRID called the variability of intensity was a measurement of cognitive complexity of the participant. It was obtained as follows: (a) for each pair of constructs, the correlation (COR) and its variance (VAR = COR2 X 100%) were calculated, and (b) the variability of intensity was the standard deviation of all the VAR values obtained from each pair of constructs. Forty university students in Taiwan completed the RPBS, the Personal Religiosity Scale and the repertory grid individually. Results indicated that the Chinese version of the RPBS had a satisfactory reliability (Cronbach alpha = .88). The construct validity was confirmed from the correlation matrix between the factors of the RPBS and PRS as well. Paranormal belief and religiosity were two different constructs despite some possible overlap, such as scales of traditional religious belief, spiritualism, believing that nature/environment can affect individuals’ well-being and fortune, and afterlife (all these factors had five significant correlations with the other scale). There was a significant negative correlation between religious faithfulness and cognitive complexity. The limitations of this study include small sample size (N = 40) and lack of back-translation procedure of the Chinese version of the RPBS.
... By way of a conclusion to this paper I now survey some issues that warrant consideration in the construction of an improved measure of superstitiousness as an element of paranormal belief. For over two decades the Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS; Tobacyk & Milford, 1983) and its subsequent version the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS; Tobacyk, 1988 Tobacyk, , 2004) have been the most widely used multidimensional measures of paranormal belief (Goulding& Parker, 2001). The scales' three-item Superstition factor has been used as an index of superstitiousness both in its own right (e.g., Dudley, 1999) and for comparative purposes in multidimensional investigations of paranormal belief. ...
Article
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The assessment of superstitiousness as a component of paranormal belief has encountered many conceptual and psychometric difficul-ties. This paper surveys the history of the measurement of super-stitiousness, definitional issues, varieties of traditional superstitions evident in folkloric collections, and the relationship between super-stitiousness and a belief in luck. Suggestions are offered for the con-struction of a more effective index of superstitiousness in paranormal belief questionnaires.
... The index of paranormal belief was the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale, an amended form of the scale originally developed by Tobacyk and Milford (1983). In its various guises the RPBS has been the most widely used questionnaire measure of paranormal belief for almost two decades (Goulding & Parker, 2001) and it is especially notable for its extremely liberal view of the scope of " the paranormal " . Further, the RPBS is the only currently available index of paranormal belief that guarantees interval-level measurement. ...
Article
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Some recent research suggests that psychological processes underlying the formation of paranormal beliefs have much in common with those underlying delusional beliefs. On this ground a survey was conducted to investigate the relationship between paranormal beliefs and distortions in reasoning known to be associated with the development of psychotic delusions. A convenience sample of 250 people completed an online inventory of questionnaires measuring the intensity of paranormal beliefs, schizotypal biases in reasoning, and the need for closure. Both dimensions of paranormal belief surveyed here were found to be predicted by reasoning biases.
... The index of paranormal belief was the 26-item Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS -Tobacyk, 1988), an amended form of the scale originally developed by Tobacyk and Milford (1983). In its various guises the RPBS has been the most widely used questionnaire measure of paranormal belief for almost two decades (Goulding & Parker, 2001) and it is especially notable for its extremely liberal view of the scope of 'the paranormal'. Through a process of 'top-down purification' followed by factor analysis Lange et al. (2000) identified two facets of paranormal belief that are indexed free of differential item functioning (DIF) by selected items of the RPBS, that is, the actual measurement ofthese paranormal beliefs is not confounded by the extraneous factorsofgender and age. ...
Article
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This study investigated the role of reality testing deficits in the formation of belief in the paranormal. In the present context reality testing is taken to entail the person's inclination to test critically the logical plausibility of his or her beliefs. An earlier study of this relationship by the author (Irwin, in press) was partially compromised by the use of an index of reality testing deficits that was potentially contaminated by a small number of items implicating paranormal belief. The current research therefore constitutes a constructive replication of the original study in that it surveyed the relationship of facets of paranormal belief to a deficit in reality testing when the measure of the latter had no items concurrently incorporating specifically paranormal beliefs. A questionnaire survey of 161 adults from the general Australian population revealed that two fundamental facets of paranormal belief were predicted by reality testing deficits. The findings are discussed in relation to the cognitive bases of the formation of paranormal belief.
... Any of these potential measurement artifacts could influence outcomes. However, it should be noted that two of the most widely used measures of paranormal belief, Tobacyk's Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (Tobacyk and Milford, 1983) and the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale (Thalbourne and Haraldsson, 1980), have been found to correlate highly and are thought to measure a unitary concept (Goulding and Parker, 2001;Thalbourne, 1995;Thalbourne et al., 1995). ...
Article
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This study examined the effects of religious and professional beliefs on clinical judgment. Eighty-seven psychotherapists completed a religious belief survey and a professional belief survey, as well as a questionnaire concerning internal conflict between professional and religious beliefs. The subjects then read two brief vignettes, describing a religious and a non-religious patient, and rated the patients with regard to optimism or pessimism concerning responsiveness to treatment. The results showed that there was no significant relationship between religious and professional beliefs. However, the strength of religious beliefs predicted optimism for the religious patient. In addition, there was a significant interaction effect between strength of religious beliefs and strength of professional beliefs on clinical ratings.
... All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.07.015 lief, with the most commonly-used questionnaire (Goulding & Parker, 2001), the Paranormal Belief Scale (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983), having sub-scales for traditional religious belief, psi, witchcraft , superstition, spiritualism, extraordinary life forms, and precognition. A relatively large body of research has examined the functions and origins of such beliefs. ...
Article
One hundred and twenty seven adult volunteer participants completed questionnaire measures of paranormal belief and perceived childhood control. As predicted, paranormal belief correlated negatively with perceived childhood control, consistent with the theory that, for some, paranormal belief may arise as a psychological coping mechanism following early experiences of diminished control. These findings are discussed with reference to the broader literature on the cognitive and psychological factors that link childhood experience of diminished control and the development of adulthood anxiety and negative emotions.
... This line of enquiry was stim-ulated by the publication of the Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS) in the mid-1980s (Tobacyk, 1988;Tobacyk & Milford, 1983). The PBS was the first measure of paranormal belief to be psychometrically evaluated and, although there has been some recent debate over its factorial structure (e.g., Lawrence, 1995;Tobacyk & Thomas, 1997) and internal validity (Lange, Irwin, & Houran, 2000), it continues to be the most widely-used measure of paranormal belief (Goulding & Parker, 2001). ...
Article
A large body of research has attempted to develop theories about the function and origin of superstitious beliefs on the basis of the psychological correlates of such beliefs. Most of this work has measured superstitious belief using the Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS). However, this scale refers solely to negative superstitions (e.g., breaking a mirror will cause bad luck) and omits items referring to positive superstitions (e.g., carrying a lucky charm will bring good luck). The two studies reported here found significant interactions between belief in negative and positive superstitions, and several individual difference measures. These findings have important implications for theory development, demonstrate that the PBS is an incomplete measure of superstitious belief, and highlight the need for future measures to include items referring to positive superstitions.
... Los monstruos y seres de ficción no se consideraron -aunque constituyen productos del pensamiento mágico-debido a su escasa relación con los otros contenidos supersticiosos y de este tipo de pensamiento. Los monstruos definen el factor menos consistente y estable de la escala de creencias paranormales (Tobacyk, 1983(Tobacyk, , 1988; en otras escalas de creencias sobrenaturales suelen ser eliminados en su proceso de desarrollo (Goulding y Parker, 2001), y en las escalas elaboradas a partir de técnicas de entrevistas abiertas no surgen dichos contenidos (Huque y Huq Chowdhurry, 2007). Constituyen el contenido más infantil de las creencias y, por ende, el más ridiculizado, por lo que probablemente induzca más un sesgo de deseabilidad social en su rechazo. ...
Article
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El objetivo del presente trabajo fue presentar el desarrollo de una escala que mide el grado de conformidad con las creencias y manifestaciones propias del pensamiento mágico, centrándose en la estructura factorial, consistencia interna y validez de contenido. Se empleó una muestra aleatoria de población general adulta de 837 sujetos. De los 42 reactivos iniciales, se seleccionaron 24, con los que se definió una estructura de dos factores relacionados. La consistencia de la escala y sus factores fueron altas. Los índices de ajuste para el modelo de dos factores relacionados con 12 indicadores cada uno fueron de buenos a adecuados. El ajuste mejoraba con una simplificación a seis indicadores por factor, aunque se perdía validez de contenido. Se concluye que es un instrumento fiable, válido estructuralmente y que cubre un contenido amplio de creencias propias del pensamiento mágico, ya sea en sus formatos de 24 o de 12 reactivos.
... Since one of the schizotypy models will be used as the point of reference when diagnosing, treating, and attempting to prevent psychoses and personality disorders, research concerning the schizotypy models is important. So far, research on paranormal beliefs and experiences has mainly focused on finding negative correlates for these beliefs and experiences (Goulding & Parker, 2001; Irwin, 1993). Only a few studies have used measures intended to tap the health end-point of the health -ill-health continuum (Kennedy & Kanthamani, 1995; Kennedy et al., 1994; McCreery & Claridge, 1995; 1996; 2002) and often these studies have been limited to one special kind of paranormal experience, the out-of-the-body experience (McCreery & Claridge, 1995; 1996;). ...
Article
Thesis (doctoral)--Göteborgs universitet, 2004 .
... Any of these potential measurement artifacts could influence outcomes. However, it should be noted that two of the most widely used measures of paranormal belief, Tobacyk's Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (Tobacyk and Milford, 1983) and the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale (Thalbourne and Haraldsson, 1980), have been found to correlate highly and are thought to measure a unitary concept (Goulding and Parker, 2001;Thalbourne, 1995;Thalbourne et al., 1995). ...
Article
This study compared paranormal belief systems in individuals with and without childhood physical abuse histories. The Revised Paranormal Belief Scale and the Assessing Environments III Questionnaire were completed by 107 University students. Psi, precognition, and spiritualism, which are thought to provide a sense of personal efficacy and control, were among the most strongly held beliefs in abused subjects, and were significantly higher in abused versus nonabused subjects. Superstition and extraordinary life forms, thought to have an inverse or no relation to felt control, were the least strongly held beliefs in abused subjects, and, along with religious beliefs, did not differ between the two abuse groups. Witchcraft was unexpectedly found to be the most strongly held belief among those with abuse histories. Results suggest that by providing a sense of control, certain paranormal beliefs may offer a powerful emotional refuge to individuals who endured the stress of physical abuse in childhood.
... Although some researchers have created their own measures of belief in such abilities (e.g. Blackmore & Moore, 1994; Sheils & Berg, 1977; Wiseman & Morris, 1995), most of the work in this area has employed either the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale 1 (ASGS) or the Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS) (Goulding & Parker, 2001). ...
Article
This paper explores the notion that people who believe in psychic ability possess various psychological attributes that increase the likelihood of them misattributing paranormal causation to experiences that have a normal explanation. The paper discusses the structure and measurement of belief in psychic ability, then reviews the considerable body of work exploring the relationship between belief in psychic ability, and academic performance, intelligence, critical thinking, probability misjudgement and reasoning, measures of fantasy proneness and the propensity to find correspondences in distantly related material. Finally, the paper proposes several possible directions for future research, including: the need to build a multi-causal model of belief; to address the issue of correlation versus causation; to resolve the inconsistent pattern of findings present in many areas; and to develop a more valid, reliable and fine-grained measure of belief in psychic ability.
Article
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هدفت الدراسة إلى معرفة مستوى التفكير الخرافي وعلاقته بالكفاءة الذاتية العامة لدى طلبة جامعة اليرموك، في ضوء بعض المتغيرات. تكونت عينة الدراسة من (218) طالبًا وطالبة، (48) طالبًا ، و(170) طالبة من طلبة تخصص الإرشاد النفسي في كلية التربية في جامعة اليرموك. استخدمت في الدراسة أداتان هما: مقياس التفكير الخرافي، ومقياس الكفاءة الذاتية العامة. أظهرت نتائج الدراسة أن مستوى التفكير الخرافي لدى الطلبة كان منخفضًا، ولم تكن هناك علاقة دالة إحصائيًا بين التفكير الخرافي والكفاءة الذاتية لديهم. كما أظهرت النتائج أن مستوى التفكير الخرافي لدى الذكور أعلى منه لدى الإناث، وأنه كان لدى الطلبة ذوي التحصيل الجيد جدًا أعلى مما هو لدى ذوي التحصيل المقبول. ولم تكشف النتائج عن وجود فروق دالة إحصائيًا في مستوى التفكير الخرافي تعزى إلى مستوى الدخل
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We applied latent class analysis (LCA) to derive a statistically reliable typology of religious and paranormal beliefs in a large, diverse sample of New Zealanders (N=4422). We identified five patterns of belief, which we call faith signatures, reflecting distinct combinations of high or low belief in different religious teachings and paranormal phenomena. Although conventional wisdom pits agnostics against religious believers, we found that undifferentiated skeptics (41%) and religious exclusives (12%) expressed similarly high levels of disbelief for most types of paranormal phenomena, with religious exclusives showing traditional religious beliefs only. Also, we found striking similarities between undifferentiated believers (9%), New Age spiritualists (13%), and moderate agnostics (25%), all of whom accorded belief to supernatural realities across a number of religious and paranormal phenomena. However, only undifferentiated believers committed to the truth of superstitions. Importantly, we also found that faith signatures are reliably associated with demographic variables and core psychological traits (anomie, trust, and happiness). Thus, LCA reveals that the classifications “religious” and “secular” obscure subtleties in distinct categories of supernatural orientations. Furthermore, by scratching the surface of what appears to be a highly secular society, our results challenge conventional distinctions between religious and secular orientations. The key distinction is not between belief and disbelief but rather between levels of discrimination in different types of belief.
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This article considers the extraordinary phenomena that have been central to unorthodox areas of psychological knowledge. It shows how even the agreed facts relating to mesmerism, spiritualism, psychical research, and parapsychology have been framed as evidence both for and against the reality of the phenomena. It argues that these disputes can be seen as a means through which beliefs have been formulated and maintained in the face of potentially challenging evidence. It also shows how these disputes appealed to different forms of expertise, and that both sides appealed to belief in various ways as part of the ongoing dispute about both the facts and expertise. Finally, it shows how, when a formal Psychology of paranormal belief emerged in the twentieth century, it took two different forms, each reflecting one side of the ongoing dispute about the reality of the phenomena.
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We assessed changes in paranormal beliefs and general critical thinking skills among students (n = 23) enrolled in an experimental course designed to teach distinguishing science from pseudoscience and a comparison group of students (n = 30) in an advanced research methods course. On average, both courses were successful in reducing paranormal beliefs and increasing both abstract and psychology-specific critical thinking skills. However, the only difference that emerged between the courses was that the experimental course was superior with regard to reducing specific paranormal beliefs.
Article
A cueing paradigm was employed to examine modulation of distraction due to a visual singleton. Subjects were required to make a saccade to a shape-singleton target. A predictive location cue indicated the hemifield where a target would appear. Older adults made more anticipatory saccades than younger adults, and were less accurate for making an eye movement in the vicinity of a target. However, younger and older adults likewise benefited from the cue; distraction was reduced when the distractor singleton appeared in an uncued hemisphere. The ability to compensate for problems with distraction in older and younger adults through use of the precue suggests that attention to a general region of space, rather than a specific location, may be enough to modulate distraction.
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