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The Association of Latino Children's Kindergarten School Readiness Profiles With Grade 2-5 Literacy Achievement Trajectories
Abstract
This study utilized latent class analysis (LCA) to identify 5 discernible profiles of Latino children's (N = 1,253) social-emotional, physical, and cognitive school readiness at the time of kindergarten entry. In addition, a growth mixture modeling (GMM) approach was used to identify 3 unique literacy achievement trajectories, across Grades 2-5, for these students. A latent transition analysis (LTA) approach was used to examine how Latino children's readiness profiles at kindergarten entry were related to longitudinal literacy achievement trajectories in Grades 2-5. Results provided evidence that Latino students enter kindergarten with discernible readiness profiles and that these profiles predicted longitudinal literacy achievement trajectories through Grade 5. Specifically, children with higher levels of readiness at kindergarten entry had greater probabilities of following favorable literacy achievement patterns than those students who were rated with lower levels of readiness. Results also provided evidence suggesting that Latino children's cognitive readiness levels were particularly predictive of longitudinal literacy achievement patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record
... The aim of this study was to explore EY educators' and teachers' perceptions of school readiness in different countries and to contribute to international conversations concerning the important concept of school readiness. In this study, our focus was limited to considering certain child characteristics that help children adapt to the new learning environment when transitioning into formal school education, as these characteristics are central to the concept of school readiness (Quirk et al., 2016). This paper uses data from six different countries: Australia, Austria, Colombia, Germany, Nicaragua, and Slovenia. ...
... Nonetheless, subsequent research supports the importance of cognitive skills, and in particular basic literacy and numeracy skills, for children's academic success (e.g., Quirk et al., 2016;Quirk, Nylund-Gibson, & Furlong, 2013;Vidmar, Niklas et al., 2017). In our study, EY professionals regarded these abilities as far less important. ...
... However, in this study, we focussed only on child SRC. Whilst an important element of readiness for school (Quirk et al., 2016), considered in isolation, child school readiness characteristics do not provide a comprehensive picture of school readiness. This should be borne in mind when interpreting our findings. ...
The opinions of early years educators and primary school teachers regarding the school readiness characteristics (SRC) that best support a child’s positive transition to school differ. The aims of our study were to determine key elements of perceived SRC and to identify the priorities of pre-service and in-service early years professionals in six countries: Australia, Austria, Colombia, Germany, Nicaragua, and Slovenia. In total, 1198 early years professionals responded to a survey that investigated perceptions of child school readiness characteristics. Independence, social skills and concentration were reported to be very important. Academic precursors and physical development were reported to be the least important SRC. Findings for the total sample and specific
subgroups are presented and discussed.
... Given the diverse populations of students that are evaluated in terms of school readiness as they transition into kindergarten and the important educational decisions that are made based on these assessments, evidence of measurement invariance is particularly critical for these instruments. A recent study found evidence supporting measurement invariance for the two-factor structure of the KSEP across children's gender and parents' education levels (Quirk et al., 2015). The results of this study demonstrated that the KSEP functioned the same when used to rate the school readiness Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits of boys and girls and also when used to rate the readiness of children from households with varying levels of parent education (e.g., high school or less, some college or associate's degree, and college graduate or higher), which served as a proxy of families' socioeconomic status. ...
... for the cognitive subscale (Quirk et al., 2014). These and other studies have also yielded evidence supporting the validity of the KSEP, with results indicating that KSEP ratings were associated with known correlates of children's school readiness () and are also predictive of children's subsequent academic achievement (Nylund-Gibson, Grimm, Quirk, & Furlong, 2014; Quirk et al., 2015; Quirk et al., 2013 ). Findings from recent studies have also supported the twofactor structure of the KSEP, including both social-emotional and cognitive readiness subscales (Quirk et al., 2014) and that this factor structure is invariant across the variables of gender and parent education levels (Quirk et al., 2015). ...
... These and other studies have also yielded evidence supporting the validity of the KSEP, with results indicating that KSEP ratings were associated with known correlates of children's school readiness () and are also predictive of children's subsequent academic achievement (Nylund-Gibson, Grimm, Quirk, & Furlong, 2014; Quirk et al., 2015; Quirk et al., 2013 ). Findings from recent studies have also supported the twofactor structure of the KSEP, including both social-emotional and cognitive readiness subscales (Quirk et al., 2014) and that this factor structure is invariant across the variables of gender and parent education levels (Quirk et al., 2015). In the current study, for both S1 and S2, the overall internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) of the 13-item scale was .92, ...
... Socioeconomic status was reported in different ways based on various indicators, such as caregivers' jobs (semiskilled, unskilled/unemployed) (Woodward et al., 2016), average family income (Bernier, Mcmahon, & Perrier, 2016), and a composite of socioeconomic status, occupational prestige, and level of education (Fitzpatrick & Pagani, 2012). The proportion of lowincome families ranged between 12% and 44% of the sample, except one study, in which all children were from families of low socioeconomic status (Quirk et al., 2016). Less than half of the studies (n=5; 38%) had follow-up periods of longer than five years, and the longest follow-up period was ten years (Paschall, Gershoff, & Kuhfeld, 2018). ...
... Finally, to describe the components that are important or that contain the constructs of school readiness, we described in Table 3 the assessment of each measure. All studies used language and math skills as measures of the construct of readiness, except for one work (Quirk et al., 2016), which did not use math skills for the same purpose. Behavioral and emotional aspects, such as approaches to learning, social or socio emotional skills, and externalizing and internalizing symptoms, were present in approximately half of the articles (n= 7; 54%). ...
The association between specific school readiness skills and long-term school-related outcomes are still unclear and under debate. It is the first study to systematically review the literature on factors associated with school readiness evaluation about school-age achievement. This review included longitudinal studies with a minimum follow-up of five years; these studies performed the assessments during early childhood. The authors registered the study in the PROSPERO database (CRD42018089694). Five databases were searched (PubMed, Scielo, Scopus, ERIC, and Psyc Articles). Independent reviewers screened a total of 4,278 articles that were retrieved, and 13 were eligible for inclusion. Results showed that early language and math abilities at preschool age, middle to higher socioeconomic status, and socialemotional skills were the most significant variables in the promotion of positive school-age development. Preschool education and socioe motional or behavioral skills may compensate for academic difficulties in later school achievement.
... Very few studies examine longitudinal patterns of cognitive skills and associated outcomes. Those studies that have examined patterns of cognitive skills have either relied on cross-sectional cognitive data [14], focused on subgroups of children [17], or grouped cognition along with other domains of school readiness (e.g., health or gross motor skills) [18,19]. No prior studies have explored outcomes in early adolescence. ...
... The importance of health and health inequalities in early adolescence is underscored in studies showing that psychosocial well-being in childhood is consequential for a number of outcomes in adulthood, including welfare receipt and schooling attainment [34]. Second, in our study we focused on one dimension of development, that is, cognitive skills across childhood, whereas other researchers have consolidated multiple measures of child development (e.g., language, cognition, physical health, and others) when constructing profiles [18]. Multidimensional constructs can obscure understanding of how one particular aspect of child development, here cognitive skills, can influence adolescent health. ...
Purpose:
Engaging in exploratory risky behaviors and experiencing poor mental health during early adolescence are important markers for poor health during adulthood. Prior research suggests protective effects from cognition, but less is known about the associations between early childhood cognition and early adolescent psychosocial well-being, as identified by self-esteem, mental health, and exploratory risky behaviors. This article investigates the extent that early adolescent psychosocial well-being at the age of 11 years is associated with patterns of cognitive skills measured across the first decade of a child's life.
Methods:
We used data collected from the four follow-up sweeps of the UK Millennium Cohort Study and utilized latent profile analysis to identify three discernible cognitive profiles (n = 16,899).
Results:
We find cohort members in low-achieving profiles to be more likely to engage in exploratory risky behaviors-drinking, smoking, and antisocial conduct-and to have poor self-esteem and more problem behaviors, compared with their peers in high-achieving profiles. Socioeconomic and family psychosocial markers considerably attenuated these disadvantages.
Conclusions:
Understanding which adolescents have adverse psychosocial well-being has implications for the prevention of chronic diseases and for clinical care and policy.
... In particular, Latino students with low levels of school readiness have been shown to have substantially decreased odds of transitioning from a lower to a higher achievement trajectory (catching up with their peers) than students who enter kindergarten with higher level of school readiness (Quirk, Nylund-Gibson, & Furlong, 2013). Research has also shown that many Latino students enter school with low levels of readiness; that is, with elevated academic at-risk (Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, & Nylund-Gibson, 2015). In fact, in one study Latino students who enter kindergarten with high levels of readiness had an 88% chance of achieving at average or above levels in Grades 2-5 compared to only 39% of Latino students who entered kindergarten with lower levels of readiness (Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, & Nylund-Gibson, 2015). ...
... Research has also shown that many Latino students enter school with low levels of readiness; that is, with elevated academic at-risk (Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, & Nylund-Gibson, 2015). In fact, in one study Latino students who enter kindergarten with high levels of readiness had an 88% chance of achieving at average or above levels in Grades 2-5 compared to only 39% of Latino students who entered kindergarten with lower levels of readiness (Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, & Nylund-Gibson, 2015). ...
This study investigated associations between school-readiness patterns of Latino students and their subsequent academic achievement. After identifying a subgroup of students with academic risk at kindergarten entry who showed signs of later average or better academic skill development, academic data were gathered to explore how this group of “resilient” students (risk-catching up group) compared to their risk-lagging peers (those who entered kindergarten at high risk and continue to perform far below grade-level) and ready-proficient peers (those who entered kindergarten with low risk and continue to perform at a proficient level). Students were evaluated on individually administered measures that assessed cognitive and academic learning resources. A series of one-way MANOVAs identified that on academic measures of oral reading fluency (GORT-4) and verbal and nonverbal cognitive development (KBIT-2) students in the risk-catching up group performed consistent with their ready-proficient peers, and both groups scored significantly higher than the risk-lagging students. In contrast, scores on the California Standards Test ELA and math indicated that students in the risk-lagging group scored significantly lower than risk-catching up students who scored significantly lower than ready-proficient students. These findings provide evidence that the risk-catching up students made substantial progress to develop the academic skill base needed to support ongoing improvements in academic achievement; however, this growth was not fully discerned in the CST test results. Importantly, these results suggest that closing achievement gaps is an ongoing process, not an end point. The study highlights the importance of school readiness experiences for all students and that early and targeted interventions are needed to support a positive academic trajectory for all students.
... Finally, in line with previous PC studies (Hair et al., 2006;Halle et al., 2012;Quirk et al., 2016;Tavassolie et al., 2020), we found profiles that were characterized by a mixed pattern of school readiness skills in terms of performing below, at or above the sample average. While this could be an actual reflection of each child's relative strengths and weaknesses, an alternative explanation concerns the discontinuous nature of early childhood development, and warrants caution when relying on a cross-sectional design. ...
A promising approach for studying school readiness involves a person-centered approach, aimed at exploring how functioning in diverse developmental domains conjointly affects children’s school outcomes. Currently, however, a systematic understanding lacks of how motor skills, in conjunction with other school readiness skills, affect a child’s school outcomes. Additionally, little is known about longitudinal associations of school readiness with non-academic (e.g., socioemotional) school outcomes. Therefore, we examined the school readiness skills of a sample of Dutch children (N = 91) with a mean age of 3 years and 4 months (46% girls). We used a multi-informant test battery to assess children’s school readiness in terms of executive functions (EFs), language and emergent literacy, motor skills, and socioemotional behavior. During the spring term of a child’s first grade year, we collected academic and non-academic (i.e., EFs, motor skills, socioemotional- and classroom behavior, and creative thinking) school outcomes. A latent profile analysis revealed four distinct profiles. Children in the “Parent Positive” (29%) profile were rated positively by their parents, and performed variably on motor and language/emergent literacy skills tests. The second profile–“Multiple Strengths” (13%)–consisted of children showing strengths in multiple domains, especially with respect to motor skills. Children from the third profile–“Average Performers” (50%)–did not show any distinct strengths or weaknesses, rather displayed school readiness skill levels close to, or just below the sample mean. Finally, the “Parental Concern” (8%) profile was characterized by high levels of parental concerns, while displaying slightly above average performance on specific motor and language skills. Motor skills clearly distinguished between profiles, next to parent-rated EFs and socioemotional behavior, and to a lesser extent emergent literacy skills. School readiness profiles were found to differ in mean scores on first grade academic achievement, parent- and teacher-rated EFs, motor skills, parent-rated socioemotional functioning, and pre-requisite learning skills. The pattern of mean differences was complex, suggesting that profiles could not be ranked from low to high in terms of school outcomes. Longitudinal studies are needed to disentangle the interaction between emerging school readiness of the child and the surrounding context.
... Even though it is not the context of the present study, early literacy trajectory is considered an important research area, and it has typically been approached from a quantitative perspective given the impact it is thought to have on subsequent literacy achievement. Whether it is within L1 (Ogg et al., 2016), L2 (Quirk et al., 2016) or bilingual (Lonigan et al., 2013;Sparrow et al., 2014) Finally, in the Spanish-speaking world, Navarro's study is concerned about how effectively university teachers of degree programmes in humanities in Argentina include reading and writing instruction within the teaching of their own disciplines, which has an impact on undergraduate student trajectories and curriculum materials. ...
Online learning environments have been acknowledged as a promising option in higher education (Altbach, Reisberg and Rumbley, 2010; Kim and Bonk, 2006; Simpson, 2018). However, a major drawback in virtual communties is dropping out (Kim et al., 2017; Wladis, Conway and Hachey, 2017). The pressure of writing a dissertation in L2 to obtain a degree may increase this possibility of dropout. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to investigate the experiences of online students navigating academic writing practices in L2, especially when these determine if they complete their Higher Education studies or not. The present qualitative case study explores the academic digital literacy (ADL) trajectories of a group of three students of an online BA in English Language Teaching (ELT) as they write a research paper in L2 to obtain their degree in one major Mexican state university.
The study approaches students’ writing from an Academic Literacies Framework (Lea and Street, 1998; Lillis et al., 2015), which involves understanding literacy as a social practice (Barton and Hamilton, 2000), digital literacies also as a social practice (Mutta et al., 2014), and, to some extent, the concept of multiliteracies as embracing new challenges and affordances in reading and writing due to the virtual environment (Cope and Kalantzis, 2000; Street, 2000). By drawing on a virtual literacy ethnography and narrative inquiry in order to construct the students’ stories of their experiences in their research writing journey, the study brings together data from a wide variety of sources, such as digital academic records, informal talks with BA facilitators, online activity in the institutional platform, interaction with their Research seminar facilitator, supervisors and the researcher, artefacts (drafts and final versions), written feedback from facilitator, supervisors and examiners, and interviews.
Findings challenge the celebratory discourses around e-learning by shedding light on the complexities of the ADL practices that the students engage in while writing a dissertation in L2 and on how they experience them, validating their choices. Emotions emerged as more significant dimension in the pedagogical field than it already is. The study also demonstrates that, despite the great challenge they pose, dissertation writing practices remain highly significant in online undergraduate programmes. Empirically, the study highlights the value of narrative inquiry and reflexivity in linguistic ethnographic research.
... Latino children who demonstrate higher levels of school readiness at Kindergarten entry show higher levels of literacy attainment in later grades than those with lower levels of school readiness (Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, Nylund-Gibson, & Swami, 2016). Thus, children who demonstrate optimal pre-K to Kindergarten transition patterns will likely be on track for school success. ...
Guided by the sociocultural theory of human development, this study aims to mediate the monolithic categorization of young Latino boys' school readiness transition patterns using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) dataset. Three patterns of transitions were unveiled using a person-centered approach: (1) Consistent Learner, (2) Struggling Learner, and (3) Declining High Achiever. Findings showed variations in the nature of transitions and developmental competencies of young Latino boys. The contextual interstices of positive parenting practices and greater socioeconomic resources and center-based attendance are positive predictors of membership in transition patterns with optimal growth simultaneously in language, academic, and socio-emotional skills. We highlight societal implications and practice recommendations for applying culturally-sustaining and developmentally appropriate practices to support Latino boys' transitions to Kindergarten. We also call for authentic measurement frameworks for school readiness and ethnic minority children's sociocultural contexts in future research.
... LCA is designed to take mean scores of individuals and create groups based on similarities (Quirk, Nylund-Gibson, & Furlong, 2013;Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, Nylund-Gibson, & Swami, 2016). LCA allows for us not only to capture mean differences but also variances and covariances among classes. ...
This dissertation explores the effects of proximal and distal influences on children’s early cognitive, literacy, mathematics, and social-emotional development. Specifically, it explores how child and family characteristics, collected across two systems (education and social services), provide a deeper understanding about which factors (administrative Head Start data) contribute to, or impede, kindergarten readiness. The sample comes from over five-years of administrative data collected by one Head Start (N = 1,094, M(age) = 5.2 years; 54% female). Half of the children in the sample are African American (50%), a majority are English speaking (84%), and 100% are considered low-income. The dissertation utilized multiple regression and latent class analyses to answer the following research questions: (1) Which child and family characteristics are associated with kindergarten readiness (cognitive, literacy, mathematics, and social-emotional development)? (2) What number and type of classes (based on Head Start administrative data) best describe the children in the sample? (3) To what extent does membership in these classes predict kindergarten readiness across cognitive, literacy, mathematics, and social-emotional development? Through the application of multiple regression analysis, findings suggest that if a child were homeless at intake, they were more likely to score lower than non-homeless children across literacy, mathematics and social-emotional development. Additionally, father involvement, enrollment in Medicaid, and passing the hearing screening at intake predicted higher scores on the cognitive assessment. Furthermore, results from the latent class analysis identified that children were best categorized into two classes: Class One. Family Risk and High Social Service Enrollment (49%) and Class Two. Family Strength and Low Social Service Enrollment (51%). Children in Class One were more likely to score lower across all developmental domains at kindergarten entry, except on the social-emotional kindergarten assessment. The findings from this study offer an important contribution to understanding the use of Head Start administrative data as one mechanism for identifying early risk and intervention opportunities across multiple ecological levels, prior to kindergarten.
... Researchers have defined school readiness as the -pre-kindergarten child characteristics and skills that have predicted positive academic and behavioral adjustment to school‖ (Bierman, Domitrovick, & Darling, 2013, p. 148). This concept of school readiness has been extensively documented in the previous literature, given its significance in children's learning (Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, Nylund-Gibson, & Swami, 2016;Farran, 2011;Quirk, Nylund-Gibson, & Furlong, 2013). However, these studies have tended not to focus on teachers' beliefs, with specific regards to math readiness, classroom practices, and children's learning. ...
This study investigates kindergarten children’s mathematics learning with a focus on the role of teachers’ mathematics education and readiness beliefs, and home learning environment. Using structural equation modeling to estimate the individual differences in early mathematics learning, data from 5,845 kindergarteners was evaluated. Findings show that teachers’ beliefs regarding what is important for children’s preparation in mathematics selectively influenced what they taught in the classrooms for mathematics education and what children experienced in kindergarten. The results also reveal that children who were provided ample experiences in reading and singing activities at home, and more frequent math learning practices, problem-solving activities, and arts or life-related materials within the classroom showed greater math thinking skills and higher math achievement scores than those who were not provided such experiences. More reading and singing activities at home, math learning practices, problem solving activities, and use of art or life-related materials during the kindergarten year are encouraged to highlight kindergarteners’ mathematics instruction and learning. What has a greater impact on mathematics learning in kindergarteners appears to be the kind of instruction that is planned and delivered, rather than teachers’ beliefs regarding mathematics readiness. © 2019 International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology. All rights reserved.
... School readiness refers to the behavioral, socioemotional, and academic preparedness of young children to learn in school and forecasts later academic success, employment, and health (Duncan et al., 2007;Quirk et al., 2016). Individual differences in children's skills emerge early in development and research indicates that this variability may be due to complex interactions between children and their surroundings (e.g., Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). ...
Isolating child attributes and familial characteristics that support school readiness in children on the upper half of the socioeconomic spectrum can complement existing research on lower-socioeconomic status (SES) children and facilitate a more complete understanding of how children's performance varies across the full SES spectrum. This study examined if relations between SES, two components of executive function (EF; set-shifting and inhibitory control), and school readiness vary as a function of household chaos in 564 four-year-old children, primarily from middle-to upper-middle class families in the Northeast Region of the United States. Structural equation modeling of direct and indirect effects revealed three major findings: (1) higher levels of EF were related to better school readiness regardless of level of household chaos; (2) SES had an indirect effect on school readiness through set-shifting; and (3) household chaos was negatively associated with school readiness.
... School readiness is an important notion, and researchers have investigated the influence of children's school entrance skills on their subsequent school-based outcomes from past to present (Cartlon&Wishler, 1999;Grissmer, Grimm, Aiyer, Murrah, & Steele, 2010;Porche, Costello, & Rosen-Reynoso, 2016;Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, Nylund-Gibson, & Swami, 2016). Previous studies have mainly focused on children's academic/cognitive competencies and their association with their later school achievement (Bradley et al., 1989;Tong et al., 2007). ...
... School readiness is an important notion, and researchers have investigated the influence of children's school entrance skills on their subsequent school-based outcomes from past to present (Cartlon&Wishler, 1999;Grissmer, Grimm, Aiyer, Murrah, & Steele, 2010;Porche, Costello, & Rosen-Reynoso, 2016;Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, Nylund-Gibson, & Swami, 2016). Previous studies have mainly focused on children's academic/cognitive competencies and their association with their later school achievement (Bradley et al., 1989;Tong et al., 2007). ...
... However, readiness assessments have traditionally focused on child-level characteristics related to future academic performance, including cognitive development, social-emotional competence, behavior, and physical/motor development (Quirk, Nylund-Gibson, & Furlong, 2013). Although previous studies have identified that all of these areas are associated with students' school readiness at kindergarten entry, which is in turn associated with subsequent achievement (Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, Nylund-Gibson, & Swami, 2015;Quirk et al., 2013), research has also suggested that school readiness alone may not be sufficient to predict children's later achievement with great accuracy (Duncan et al., 2007;La Paro & Pianta, 2000). ...
This study examined the relative contributions of Latino/a children’s (N = 102) school readiness and early literacy skills during kindergarten in predicting first grade reading achievement. By using discriminant function analyses, the current study identified a set of areas to assess that could be used to effectively screen children during kindergarten to distinguish those that might benefit most from early and targeted literacy supports. Results suggest that receptive vocabulary, phonological awareness, and word reading were the areas in kindergarten that provided strong predictive power for understanding children’s end of first grade reading achievement. These results provide important insights into an efficient assessment framework literacy educators can utilize to effectively monitor and support the early literacy development of Latino/a students.
... which indicate relatively high reliability. Furthermore, research also provides evidence that KSEP ratings during the first month of kindergarten predict later academic achievement through Grade 5 (Nylund-Gibson, Grimm, Quirk, Grimm, Furlong, Nylund-Gibson, & Swami, 2015;Quirk, Nylund-Gibson, & Furlong, 2013). Recent studies have also supported a two-factor structure that is invariant across gender and parent education levels (Quirk, Mayworm, Furlong, Grimm, & Rebelez, 2015) and ethnicity and home language (Quirk et al., 2016). ...
Research Findings: Public policy has increasingly focused on expansion of preschool access for underserved students and systematic evaluation of preschool quality and students’ readiness for school. However, such evaluation is limited by a lack of thoroughly validated assessments for use with preschool populations. The present study examined the measurement and structural invariance of the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile (KSEP) across kindergarten and prekindergarten groups to evaluate its potential use across developmental groups. Participants included 522 kindergarten and 548 prekindergarten students in central California. Invariance was tested by fitting a series of multiple-groups confirmatory factor analysis models with parameter constraints across groups. Results indicated that measurement and structural parameters of the KSEP were invariant across kindergarten and prekindergarten groups. Prekindergarten means on both Social–Emotional Readiness and Cognitive Readiness were significantly lower than kindergarten means. Practice or Policy: These results suggest
that the KSEP may potentially be used with prekindergarten students to assess school readiness and inform intervention before kindergarten entry. http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/y79FqeN8JdreW9AMJzh2/full
This study investigated developmental trajectories of observationally coded engagement across the early elementary years and whether these trajectories were associated with children's academic achievement. Furthermore, we evaluated if these relations varied as a function of children's family socio-economic status and early reading and math skills. Data were collected from 301 children who were studied from kindergarten (Mage = 65.74 months; 49% boys) to 2nd grade. Children's behavioral engagement was observed in kindergarten, 1st, and 2nd grade. Reading and math skills were assessed via standardized tests in kindergarten and 2nd grade. Growth mixture models identified two classes of behavioral engagement: most children (87.0%) displayed relatively high behavioral engagement in the fall of kindergarten and decreased significantly across time (referred to below as high-decreasing class), and other children (13.0%) exhibited moderate behavioral engagement in the fall of kindergarten that was stable across time (referred to below as moderate-stable class). After controlling for academic skills in kindergarten and demographic variables (i.e., child age, sex, ethnicity, and family socio-economic status), children in the high-decreasing class displayed higher reading skills, but not math skills, than children in the moderate-stable class. Additional analyses revealed that differences in reading skills between the two classes were present only for children from low socio-economic status families or for children low in kindergarten reading skills. The findings suggest that economically or academically at-risk students might benefit more than their peers from high behavioral engagement.
This study examined the effects of maternal and children’s resources on school readiness, literacy achievements, and reading motivation in children. The participants included children (N = 180) (124 girls; 56 boys) from 19 kindergartens, their mothers, and their kindergarten teachers. Mothers reported on their working hours, interaction quality, and learning stimulation range at home. Data on children’s literacy achievements and school readiness were gathered from the teachers. Data on reading motivation and task persistence were obtained directly from the children. Structural equation modelling analysis indicated that maternal working hours affect interaction quality, and the quality of maternal interaction affects children’s reading motivation. Children’s task persistence affects literacy achievement. Both maternal interaction quality and children’s task persistence affect their readiness for school. The analysis also revealed association between the pre-academic skills. Maternal availability and children’s reading motivation and persistence are critical factors in children’s development of academic skills.
This study evaluated the emergent literacy profiles of preschool Spanish-speaking children. Participants included 440 children in dual-language classrooms who were assessed in English and Spanish at the beginning and end of their preschool year. Research Findings: Through latent profile analysis, conducted with fall data, four empirically derived emergent literacy profiles emerged. Further analyses were conducted to determine if there were differential relations between the literacy profiles and spring early reading measures of alphabet knowledge and oral language, measures that are typically used to evaluate kindergarten readiness for literacy instruction. Practice or Policy: Results highlight the heterogeneous nature of emergent literacy development in Spanish-speaking children and demonstrate the need for individualized literacy instruction during the preschool years.
Although publicly-funded prekindergarten (pre-k) programs have been designed to promote children’s school readiness, programs have tended to support early literacy skills to a greater degree than early language skills. Given the importance of both language and literacy skills for children’s reading acquisition and academic achievement, the present study sought to understand whether different pre-k classroom instructional practices were related to gains in language and/or literacy skills. Teacher–child language exchanges, children’s engagement in domain-specific learning activities, and the use of different types of activity settings were examined in 63 pre-k classrooms for 455 children living in six rural counties in the Southeastern United States. Hierarchical linear models showed that gains in expressive language were positively associated with teacher–child language exchanges and negatively associated with large-group activities. Gains in phonemic awareness and initial-sound knowledge were positively related to sound-focused activities and small-group settings. Gains in reading decoding skills were also positively associated with small-group settings. Implications for research, teacher practice, and professional development are discussed.
This study compared reading and mathematics growth trajectories in a statewide dataset of 33,715 students across third through fifth grades. Specifically, we examined growth for English Learners (ELs) who were reclassified as no longer needing English Language services at different grade levels as compared to their never-EL peers. Overall, EL students performed significantly below never-EL students on reading and mathematics assessments at Grade 3, with EL students making greater academic gains across time points than never-EL students. Students who were reclassified after third grade and after fourth grade closed, or began to close, the academic opportunity gap by the end of fifth grade, providing promising evidence suggesting that reclassification policies are adequate for identifying those students who no longer need EL services. Students who continued to be classified as EL from third through fifth grades continued to score significantly lower than never-ELs, and in many cases other EL groups, indicating that there exists a group of EL students who continue to make inadequate reading and mathematics gains across late elementary school. Implications for policy and practices that support EL students' mathematics and reading growth are discussed.
A person-centered approach was used to explore how preschool school readiness profiles predict Grade 3 academic performance among a large (N = 43,044) low-income, ethnically-diverse longitudinal sample of children. Study aims: (a) determine the number and type of preschoolers’ school readiness profiles, (b) determine how profile membership relates to demographic characteristics, and (c) use the profiles to predict Grade 3 academic achievement. Six profiles were found: Pre-academic strength (PAS) strong school, average home behavior; PAS-average school, low home behavior; PAS-average school, strong home behavior; Pre-academic weakness (PAW) average school, low home behavior; PAW-low school, average home behavior; and Overall poor school readiness. Demographic characteristics were associated with profile membership, and profiles were differentially related to Grade 3 outcomes, after controlling for demographic factors. Results highlight the importance of starting school with strong social skills at school (vs. home) and the potential benefits of public school pre-K boosting children’s social/emotional skills.
Research Findings
Universal screening practices that utilize reliable and valid screening measures are vital for identifying social-emotional and behavioral (SEB) concerns for students at-risk for future behavioral and academic difficulties. Screening procedures implemented at the start of kindergarten can result in early identification and intervention for students with SEB difficulties. However, few studies have systematically identified and reviewed screeners of SEB constructs of kindergarten readiness. The current study systematically identified and reviewed the psychometric properties of 11 rating scales that may be used as screeners of SEB difficulties at kindergarten entry in the United States. In addition, this study evaluated bias identification methods to determine the extent to which scales may be used with diverse populations. Results of this study demonstrated adequate to strong reliability evidence and inadequate validity and bias evaluation evidence. Practice or Policy: Results of this study can be used by school personnel as they work to identify universal screening rating scales that are most appropriate in their setting. In addition, this study identified significant gaps in the current landscape of SEB assessments for universal screening measures that may be addressed through future research efforts.
This study is a brief psychometric report examining the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile (KSEP). Multiple regression models were tested examining associations between kindergarten teachers’ ratings of children’s social-emotional and cognitive readiness during the first month of kindergarten with academic and social-emotional outcomes almost 6 years later. Significant associations (p < .05) were identified between children’s cognitive readiness at kindergarten entry and reading fluency in Grade 5, as well as between children’s social-emotional readiness and multiple aspects of their social-emotional well-being in Grade 5. This study provides evidence supporting the long-term predictive validity of KSEP screener ratings and highlights the importance of screening for social-emotional, as well as cognitive, indicators of readiness when children enter kindergarten. Practical implications are discussed.
Researchers examined the concurrent and predictive validity of a brief (12-item) teacher-rated school readiness screener, the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile (KSEP), using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis to examine associations between (N = 78) children’s social-emotional (SE) and cognitive (COG) readiness with measures of behavioral/emotional risk and early literacy skills throughout kindergarten. Results indicated statistically significant associations between both subscales of the KSEP (SE and COG) with all outcome variables. Findings provide validity evidence in support of the KSEP as an initial gate in the universal screening process to inform educators on the readiness of incoming kindergarteners.
This study examined the dimensionality and measurement invariance of the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile (KSEP) when used to rate the school readiness of children from different ethnic backgrounds (Latino or White, non-Latino), as well as from households where a different language was predominant (Spanish or English). Teachers rated the readiness of 9,335 children during the first month of kindergarten in four ethnically diverse, medium-sized school districts in central California. From the total sample, two overlapping subsamples (S1 and S2) were identified. First, a series of confirmatory factor analyses were conducted with S1 (n = 7,787) to examine the dimensionality and measurement invariance of the KSEP with children who identified as either Latino or White at the time of kindergarten enrollment. Next, the same set of analyses were replicated with S2 (n = 9, 234) to examine whether results held for students from households where the primary language spoken was Spanish or English. Results yielded evidence supporting a two-factor structure encompassing social-emotional and cognitive dimensions of children's readiness. In addition, results showed the KSEP exhibited measurement invariance across student ethnicities (Latino/White) and home languages (Spanish/English). The results of this study provide psychometric evidence that is particularly important for a universal school readiness screener.
Researchers using latent class (LC) analysis often proceed using the following three steps: (1) an LC model is built for a set of response variables, (2) subjects are assigned to LCs based on their posterior class membership probabilities, and (3) the association between the assigned class membership and external variables is investigated using simple cross-tabulations or multinomial logistic regression analysis. Bolck, Croon, and Hagenaars (2004) demonstrated that such a three-step approach underestimates the associations between covariates and class membership. They proposed resolving this problem by means of a specific correction method that involves modifying the third step. In this article, I extend the correction method of Bolck, Croon, and Hagenaars by showing that it involves maximizing a weighted log-likelihood function for clustered data. This conceptualization makes it possible to apply the method not only with categorical but also with continuous explanatory variables, to obtain correct tests using complex sampling variance estimation methods, and to implement it in standard software for logistic regression analysis. In addition, a new maximum likelihood (ML)-based correction method is proposed, which is more direct in the sense that it does not require analyzing weighted data. This new three-step ML method can be easily implemented in software for LC analysis. The reported simulation study shows that both correction methods perform very well in the sense that their parameter estimates and their SEs can be trusted, except for situations with very poorly separated classes. The main advantage of the ML method compared with the Bolck, Croon, and Hagenaars approach is that it is much more efficient and almost as efficient as one-step ML estimation. © The Author 2010. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Political Methodology. All rights reserved.
The 3-step method for estimating the effects of auxiliary variables (i.e., covariates and distal outcome) in mixture modeling provides a useful way to specify complex mixture models. One of the benefits of this method is that the measurement parameters of the mixture model are not influenced by the auxiliary variable(s). In addition, it allows for models that involve multiplelatent class variables to be specified without each part of the model influencing the others. This article describes a unique latent transition analysis model where the measurement models are a latent class analysis model and a growth mixture model. We highlight the application of this model to study kindergarten readiness profiles and link it to elementary students’ reading
trajectories. Mplus syntax for the 3-step specification is provided.
This study examined the relations of age, preschool experience, and gender with children's school readiness levels at kindergarten entry. The sample included 5,512 children of predominantly Hispanic heritage and from families experiencing low socioeconomic circumstances. A series of between-subjects ANOVAs indicated that age (Eta sq .019 to .043), preschool experience (Eta sq .104 to .204), and gender (Eta sq .015 to .022) were significantly related to children's school readiness as measured by the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile (KSEP). Logistic regression examined the unique contribution of these variables to predict students' academic achievement at the end of Grade 2 with a subsample of 980 students. The strongest achievement predictor was school readiness - the odds of students rated in the top 25% on the KSEP having proficient or advanced scores on the English Language Arts portion of the California Standards Test at the end of Grade 2 were 4.51 greater than the odds of students rated in the bottom 75% on the KSEP having proficient or advanced scores. Similar results were found for students' achievement in mathematics. The key findings of this study showed that formal preschool experiences play an important role in preparing children of Hispanic descent and who live in households experiencing low income for kindergarten entry. However, children's readiness at entry into kindergarten was more strongly related to later academic achievement than age at kindergarten entry and preschool experience.
This study investigated the associations of oral language and reading skills with a sample of 282 Spanish-speaking English language learners across 3 years of elementary school. In the 3rd grade, the English and Spanish decoding measures formed two distinct but highly related factors, and the English and Spanish oral language measures formed two factors that showed a small positive correlation between them. The decoding and oral language factors were used to predict the sample's English and Spanish reading comprehension in the 6th grade. The decoding and oral language factors were both significant predictors of reading comprehension in both languages. The within-language effects were larger than the cross-language effects and the cross-language effects were not significant after accounting for the within-language effects.
The transition into kindergarten is important because it sets the foundation for future academic achievement. Identifying a child's readiness at school entry and intervening appropriately facilitates positive academic outcomes. The Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile (KSEP) is a school district developed universal screening measure used to assess children's readiness for school. This action research study reports on the psychometric proprieties of the KSEP, including its prediction of academic achievement through grade 2. Results suggest promising psychometric characteristics. Discussion focuses on uses of the KSEP for school readiness evaluations and future research. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)
Latino children often struggle in school. Early childhood education programmes are seen as critical for fostering children's school readiness. Latino families often choose family childcare (FCC) over centre-based childcare (CBC), yet little is known about the school readiness of Latino children attending FCC. We compared school readiness over the pre-kindergarten year for low-income Latino children who attended either FCC or CBC with childcare subsidies. Teachers and parents rated children's social skills and behaviour with the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment. Cognitive, motor, and language development were assessed with the Learning Accomplishment Profile Diagnostic. Although there were no family demographic differences between children who attended FCC versus CBC, children in CBC improved over time in cognitive, language, and social skills, whereas children in FCC stayed the same or lost ground in these areas over time, especially boys. The school readiness of Latino children, especially boys, may be better served by attending CBC.
The low achievement of students from non–English-speaking households living in low socioeconomic contexts is associated with academic skill gaps evident at kindergarten entry. Yet, few cost-effective, valid instruments are available to assess these students’ school readiness. To examine this topic, this longitudinal study followed 1,069 primarily Latino students (536 males, 553 females) in a midsized school district. Teachers used the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile (KSEP) to rate students’ school readiness at entry into kindergarten and measures of reading skills and of performance on state standardized assessments were collected through the end of Grade 2. Latent-variable path analysis examined whether students’ school readiness ratings predicted midkindergraten phonological awareness and reading fluency at the end of Grades 1 and 2. KSEP scores significantly predicted midkindergarten phonological awareness (standardized path coefficient of .40) and end of Grade 1 reading fluency (standardized path coefficient of .17), beyond what was explained by midkindergarten phonological awareness skills. Additional analyses examined the practical implications of these findings. Students were placed into 5 categories on the basis of their total scores on the California Standards Test (CST) score (far below basic, below basic, basic, proficient, and advanced). Students who performed better on the CST assessment (English/language arts and mathematics) at the end of Grade 2 had significantly higher KSEP ratings at kindergarten entry than did students with lower CST scores. This collaborative research project provides an example of how a district–community–university partnership can lead to research that contributes to ongoing systems change.
Longitudinal prediction of English and Spanish reading skills was examined in a sample of 249 Spanish-speaking English-language learners at 3 time points in kindergarten through Grade 1. Phonological awareness transferred from Spanish to English and was predictive of word-identification skills, as in previous studies. Other variables showing cross-linguistic transfer were letter and word knowledge, print concepts, and sentence memory. Expressive vocabulary tended to show language-specific relationships to later reading. Oral-language variables predicted reading comprehension more highly than word identification. Classification of good and poor readers in 1st grade was found to be comparable with studies that used monolingual readers. Results broadened the range of variables showing cross-linguistic transfer, at the level of both predictor and outcome variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article describes the developmental patterns of Hispanic-White math and reading achievement gaps in elementary school, paying attention to variation in these patterns among Hispanic subgroups. Compared to non-Hispanic White students, Hispanic students enter kindergarten with much lower average math and reading skills. The gaps narrow by roughly a third in the first 2 years of schooling but remain relatively stable for the next 4 years. The development of achievement gaps varies considerably among Hispanic subgroups. Students with Mexican and Central American origins—particularly first- and second-generation immigrants—and those from homes where English is not spoken have the lowest math and reading skill levels at kindergarten entry but show the greatest achievement gains in the early years of schooling.
Mixture modeling is a widely applied data analysis technique used to identify unobserved heterogeneity in a population. Despite mixture models' usefulness in practice, one unresolved issue in the application of mixture models is that there is not one commonly accepted statistical indicator for deciding on the number of classes in a study population. This article presents the results of a simulation study that examines the performance of likelihood-based tests and the traditionally used Information Criterion (ICs) used for determining the number of classes in mixture modeling. We look at the performance of these tests and indexes for 3 types of mixture models: latent class analysis (LCA), a factor mixture model (FMA), and a growth mixture models (GMM). We evaluate the ability of the tests and indexes to correctly identify the number of classes at three different sample sizes (n D 200, 500, 1,000). Whereas the Bayesian Information Criterion performed the best of the ICs, the bootstrap likelihood ratio test proved to be a very consistent indicator of classes across all of the models considered.
This longitudinal study examined the process of English reading comprehension at age 11 for 173 low achieving Spanish-speaking children. The influence of growth rates, from early childhood (age 4.5) to pre-adolescence (age 11), in vocabulary and word reading skills on this complex process were evaluated using structural equation modeling. Standardized measures of word reading accuracy and productive vocabulary were administered annually, in English and Spanish, and English reading comprehension measures were administered at age 11. Latent growth curve analyses revealed that English skills accounted for all unique variance in English reading comprehension outcomes. Further, expected developmental shifts in the influence of word reading and vocabulary skills over time were not shown, likely on account of students' below grade level reading comprehension achievement. This work underscores the need for theoretical models of comprehension to account for students' skill profiles and abilities.
We know that social competence contributes to young children's adaptation to, and cognitive learning within, classroom settings. Yet initial evidence is mixed on the social competencies that Latino children bring to kindergarten and the extent to which these skills advance cognitive growth. Building from ecocultural and developmental-risk theory, this paper shows children's social competence to be adaptive to the normative expectations and cognitive requirements of culturally bounded settings in both the home and classroom. Latino socialization in the home may yield social competencies that teachers value rather than reflect "risk factors" that constrain children's school readiness. We draw on the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, kindergarten cohort (N = 19,590) to detail 5 social competencies at entry to school--self-control, interpersonal skills, approaches to learning, internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors--and to examine variability among Latino subgroups. We then test the extent to which baseline variation in social competence accounts for children's cognitive growth during the kindergarten year. We find that Latino children from poor, but not middle-class, families display weaker social competencies vis-à-vis White children (all relationships p < or = .05). Social competence levels contribute to Latino children's cognitive growth, which is shaped most strongly by positive approaches to learning. The disparities in competencies observed for Latino children from poor families, relative to White children, are significant yet much smaller than gaps in baseline levels of mathematical understanding. We discuss how the consonance or mismatch between competencies acquired at home and those valued by teachers must consider cultural differences, social-class position, and variation among diverse Latino subgroups.
Two generations ago, Latino children and families were often defined as disadvantaged, even "culturally deprived," by psychologists, social scientists, and pediatric researchers. Since then, empirical work from several disciplines has yielded remarkable discoveries regarding the strengths of Latino families and resulting benefits for children. Theoretical advances illuminate how variation in the child's culturally bounded context or developmental niche reproduces differing socialization practices, forms of cognition, and motivated learning within everyday activities. This review sketches advances in 4 areas: detailing variation in children's local contexts and households among Latino subgroups, moving beyond Latino-White comparisons; identifying how parenting goals and practices in less acculturated, more traditional families act to reinforce social cohesion and support for children; identifying, in turn, how pressures on children and adolescents to assimilate to novel behavioral norms offer developmental risks, not only new opportunities; and seeing children's learning and motivation as situated within communities that exercise cognitive demands and social expectations, advancing particular forms of cognitive growth that are embedded within social participation and the motivated desire to become a competent member. This review places the articles that follow within such contemporary lines of work. Together they yield theoretical advances for understanding the growth of all children and adolescents, who necessarily learn and develop within bounded cultural or social-class groups.
This study examined developmental associations between growth in domain-general cognitive processes (working memory and attention control) and growth in domain-specific skills (emergent literacy and numeracy) across the pre-kindergarten year, and their relative contributions to kindergarten reading and math achievement. One hundred sixty-four Head Start children (44% African American or Latino; 57% female) were followed longitudinally. Path analyses revealed that working memory and attention control predicted growth in emergent literacy and numeracy skills during the pre-kindergarten year, and furthermore, that growth in these domain-general cognitive skills made unique contributions to the prediction of kindergarten math and reading achievement, controlling for growth in domain-specific skills. These findings extend research highlighting the importance of working memory and attention control for academic learning, demonstrating the effects in early childhood, prior to school entry. We discuss the implications of these findings for pre-kindergarten programs, particularly those designed to reduce the school readiness gaps associated with socio-economic disadvantage.
This article reports results of a longitudinal study of relative reading achievement of 87 boys and 100 girls from 1st through 6th grades. Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests (W. H. MacGinitie, J. Kamons, R. L. Kowalski, R. K. MacGinitie, & T. MacKay, 1980) data were drawn from records of 1 rural school district in Eastern Canada. There was a systematic relationship between gender and reading categorization in Grades 1-3, with more boys below average, and no systematic relationship in Grades 4-6. Probabilities of 6th-grade reading-achievement categorization conditioned on 1st-grade achievement were used to challenge the stability of reading categorization reported in previous studies. The courses of relative reading achievement over the 6 grades of key subgroups of children were followed to show how reading-achievement categorization changes. The implications include a case for early reading intervention and for reconsideration of the view that relative reading achievement is largely immutable.
An effective technique for data analysis in the social sciences The recent explosion in longitudinal data in the social sciences highlights the need for this timely publication. Latent Curve Models: A Structural Equation Perspective provides an effective technique to analyze latent curve models (LCMs). This type of data features random intercepts and slopes that permit each case in a sample to have a different trajectory over time. Furthermore, researchers can include variables to predict the parameters governing these trajectories. The authors synthesize a vast amount of research and findings and, at the same time, provide original results. The book analyzes LCMs from the perspective of structural equation models (SEMs) with latent variables. While the authors discuss simple regression-based procedures that are useful in the early stages of LCMs, most of the presentation uses SEMs as a driving tool. This cutting-edge work includes some of the authors' recent work on the autoregressive latent trajectory model, suggests new models for method factors in multiple indicators, discusses repeated latent variable models, and establishes the identification of a variety of LCMs. This text has been thoroughly class-tested and makes extensive use of pedagogical tools to aid readers in mastering and applying LCMs quickly and easily to their own data sets. Key features include: • Chapter introductions and summaries that provide a quick overview of highlights • Empirical examples provided throughout that allow readers to test their newly found knowledge and discover practical applications • Conclusions at the end of each chapter that stress the essential points that readers need to understand for advancement to more sophisticated topics • Extensive footnoting that points the way to the primary literature for more information on particular topics With its emphasis on modeling and the use of numerous examples, this is an excellent book for graduate courses in latent trajectory models as well as a supplemental text for courses in structural modeling. This book is an excellent aid and reference for researchers in quantitative social and behavioral sciences who need to analyze longitudinal data.
This study employed the most recent (2006) cohort of the nationally representative Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES) to explore the nature of mathematics instruction in Head Start and the child, family, and teacher factors that contribute to children's mathematics learning over the preschool year. In total, 2501 preschoolers and their families, as well as their teachers (n = 335), participated in the study from fall 2006 to spring 2007. Results showed that teachers reported frequent mathematics instruction, although direct observations did not entirely confirm this frequency. A variety of factors predicted children's mathematics knowledge at Head Start entry, and several – including instructional quality – were linked to learning over time. No thresholds in instructional quality emerged. Overall, this study provides new information about classroom mathematics instruction and child learning among the nation's most vulnerable early learners.
Research Findings: This study investigated the relationship of the Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY) program to mothers' involvement in education at home and school, student school readiness in kindergarten, and student academic outcomes at 3rd grade. HIPPY serves a mostly minority, low-income family population and employs home visitors that are mostly female and Spanish speaking. Using a within-group analysis, we found that HIPPY mothers increased educational activities in their home with their children after 1 year of home-based intervention. The majority (84.8%) of HIPPY kindergartners were rated as "ready for school" by their kindergarten teachers according to a within-group analysis. In addition, between-group analyses showed that HIPPY kindergartners had higher attendance rates, higher prekindergarten enrollment, and higher promotion to 1st grade compared to other kindergartners in the school district. HIPPY 3rd graders scored significantly higher on a state-mandated math achievement test than their matched peers. Practice or Policy: The results suggest that HIPPY had a positive relationship with families and schools through improved parent involvement and student school outcomes.
This study contributed to the school readiness literature by taking an intrachild perspective that examined the relations between Latino/a children's school readiness profiles and later academic achievement. Teachers rated the school readiness of 781 Latino/a kindergartners during the first month of school using the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile (KSEP). Latent class analysis (LCA) examined KSEP profiles across social-emotional, physical, and cognitive domains and identified five distinct school readiness classes that described students’ strengths and weaknesses at kindergarten entry. Among the predictors examined, gender was the only significant difference among the top two readiness classes, with girls less likely to be in the lower of these two classes (OR = 0.38). In addition, children in the bottom three readiness classes were significantly less likely than students in the top readiness class to have preschool experience (ORs = 0.02–0.19) and had significantly lower levels of English proficiency (ORs = 0.51–0.72). Class membership was significantly associated with scores on the Grade 2 California Standards Tests and only the top two readiness classes had reading fluency rates near or above a national benchmark at the end of Grade 2. The variation of early achievement found across readiness classes also showed that considering the pattern of a child's social-emotional and cognitive readiness might enhance school readiness assessment. Implications for integrating universal school readiness screeners within a comprehensive multigating assessment model are also discussed.
This study uses the Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES) data from 1997 to investigate the degree to which child, family, classroom, teacher, and Head Start program characteristics are related to children's school readiness and continued development over the four-year-old Head Start year. Latent class analyses were used to examine the constellation of school readiness competencies within individual Head Start children in both the fall and spring of the four-year-old Head Start year. Multinomial regression analyses examined patterns of association between demographic and program characteristics and profile membership over time. Four distinct developmental profiles were found in the sample in the fall, and three were found in the spring. Furthermore, a substantial proportion of Head Start children (43%) moved from a developmental profile including some risk to a strengths profile between the fall and spring of the Head Start year. Child age, family structure, parental educational attainment, classroom quality and teacher's level of educational attainment emerged as important factors associated with stability and change in profile membership over the four-year-old Head Start year, but receipt of social services through Head Start was not associated with stability or change in profile membership.
This paper presents a dynamic, ecologically informed approach to conceptualizing and studying the transition to formal schooling. This perspective acknowledges that early school transitions play an important role in later school success; theorizes that a full understanding of child competence must examine the influence of the relationships among child characteristics and home, school, peer, family, and neighborhood contexts; and, most importantly, examines how these relationships change over time. This approach recommends that future policy, practice, and research be based on the following three premises. First, the transition to school must be conceptualized in terms of relationships between children and their surrounding contexts, such as schools, peers, families, and neighborhoods. Second, the measurement of children's readiness for school must acknowledge the combined influence of school, home, peers, and neighborhood contexts, the relationship among such contexts, and their direct and indirect effects on children. Third, and most specific to this paper, the examination of this transition period must address how contexts and relationships change over time, and how change and stability in these relationships form key aspects of children's transition to school. Ultimately, research informed by these principles may advise policy and practice on transition to school in normative and high-risk populations.
Abstract One of the most pressing problems in California is improving student academic performance, especially the state’s burgeoning Latino student population. This study examined,the extent of the achievement,gap between Latino and White students over the first two years of elementary school and the characteristics of students and schools that contribute to it. The analysis revealed that Latino students begin kindergarten at a considerable educational disadvantage relative to White students and the disadvantage increases during the first two years of school. Yet schools do little to widen or narrow these differences. Instead achievement,differences increase when students are not in school. Consequently, to reduce the achievement gap will require both effective education policies and policies that address the overall social welfare of Latinos outside of school. 1 One of the most pressing problems in California is improving student academic performance. This is especially true for the state’s Latino students, who now represent the largest ethnic group in the state, , but who generally have much lower achievement levels than White or Asian students. 2
Although scholars have called for greater attention to informational texts in the early grades for some time, there have been few data available about the degree to which informational texts are actually included in early grade classrooms, and in what ways. This study provides basic, descriptive information about informational text experiences offered to children in 20 first-grade classrooms selected from very low- and very high-SES school districts. Each classroom was visited for four full days over the course of a school year. On each visit, data were collected about the types of texts on classroom walls and other surfaces, in the classroom library, and in classroom written language activities. Results show a scarcity of informational texts in these classroom print environments and activities—there were relatively few informational texts included in classroom libraries, little informational text on classroom walls and other surfaces, and a mean of only 3.6 minutes per day spent with informational texts during classroom written language activities. This scarcity was particularly acute for children in the low-SES school districts, where informational texts comprised a much smaller proportion of already-smaller classroom libraries, where informational texts were even less likely to be found on classroom walls and other surfaces, and where the mean time per day spent with informational texts was 1.9 minutes, with half the low-SES classrooms spending no time at all with informational texts during any of the four days each was observed. Strategies for increasing attention to informational texts in the early grades are presented. [Note: This article is reprinted in Promisng Practices for Urban Reading Instruction, www.reading.orgpublicationsbbvbooksbk518.] Si bien, desde hace algún tiempo, los investigadores han mostrado la necesidad de prestar mayor atención a los textos informativos en los grados iniciales, se dispone de pocos datos acerca del grado en el que efectivamente se incorporan textos informativos en las aulas de grados iniciales y de la forma en que son utilizados. Este estudio proporciona información básica, descriptiva acerca de experiencias con textos informativos llevadas a cabo con niños de 20 aulas de primer grado seleccionadas de distritos escolares de nivel socioeconómico (NSE) muy bajo y muy alto. Se visitó cada aula durante cuatro días completos en el curso del año escolar. En cada visita se recogieron datos sobre los tipos de textos que aparecían en las paredes del aula y otras superficies, en la biblioteca del aula y en las actividades de lenguaje escrito. Los resultados muestran una escasez de textos informativos en las escrituras del medio y en las actividades; había pocos textos informativos en las bibliotecas de las aulas, pocos textos informativos en las paredes del aula y otras superficies y una media de sólo 3.6 minutos por día dedicados a textos informativos durante las actividades con el lenguaje escrito. Esta escasez fue particularmente aguda en el caso de los distritos escolares de bajo NSE, en los cuales los textos informativos constituían una pequeña proporción en las ya pequeñas bibliotecas de las aulas. Asimismo, era poco probable encontrar textos informativos en las paredes de las aulas y otras superficies, el tiempo promedio por día dedicado a textos informativos fue de 1.9 minutos y en la mitad de las aulas de bajo NSE no se trabajó en ningún momento con textos informativos durante los cuatro días de observación. Se presentan estrategias para desarrollar la atención hacia los textos informativos en los grados iniciales. Obgleich die Wissenschaftler seit einiger Zeit fordern, den informativen Texten größere Beachtung in Anfangsklassen zu widmen, sind nur wenige Daten über das Ausmaß verfügbar, in welchem informative Texte tatsächlich in Anfangsklassen integriert werden und auf welche Weise dies geschieht. Diese Studie liefert gründlich dargelegte Erkenntnisse über die Verwertung informativer Texterfahrungen, die Kinder der ersten Klasse in 20 ausgesuchten Klassenräumen von sehr niedrigen bis zu sehr hohen sozial-ökonomischen {SES=SocioEconomic Status} Schulbezirken machten. Jeder Klassenraum wurde für einen vollen Tag an insgesamt vier Tagen im Verlauf eines Schuljahres besucht. Bei jedem Besuch wurden Daten über die Art der Texte an Klassenraumwänden und anderen Aushangflächen, in der Klassenraumbücherei und bei schriftlichen Klassenraumaktivitäten gesammelt. Die Resultate zeigen einen Mangel an informativen Texten in dieser für Gedrucktes und ähnlicher Aktivitäten vorgesehenen Klassenraumumgebung-es fanden sich relativ wenige informative Texte einschließlich der Klassenraumbücherei, wenig informativer Text an Klassenraumwänden und anderen Flächen, und während der Sprachaktivitäten im Durchschnitt nur 3.6 mit informativen Texten verbrachte Minuten pro Tag. Diese Einschränkung war besonders bei Kindern im unteren SES-Schulbezirk akut, wo informative Texte einen noch weit geringeren Anteil bilden, bei ohnehin kleineren Klassenraumbibliotheken, wobei solche informativen Texte weit weniger an Klassenraumwänden oder anderen Flächen zu finden waren und wo im Tagesdurchschnitt 1.9 Minuten mit informativen Texten verbracht wurden, wobei die Hälfte der niedrigen SES-Klassenräume überhaupt keine Zeit an nicht einem einzigen der vier observierten Tage mit informativen Texten verbrachten. Strategien für eine gesteigerte Bedeutung hin zu informativen Texten in den Anfangsklassen werden dargelegt.
To clarify the relationship between oral language and early reading development, the authors administered to 39 children a broad range of oral language measures in 3 areas (metalinguistics, structural language, and narrative discourse); measures of background variables (IQ, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, gender, family literacy); and measures of reading ability (word recognition, pseudoword reading, passage comprehension) in kindergarten and in 1st and 2nd grades. The authors used regression analyses to identify parsimonious models that explained variance in early reading. The main finding of the study was that semantic abilities (i.e., oral definitions and word retrieval), not phonological awareness, predicted 2nd-grade reading comprehension. As expected, phonological awareness skill in kindergarten predicted single-word reading at 1st and 2nd grades. The finding that semantic skills predicted passage comprehension suggests that the importance of different oral language skills to early reading varies as a function of language domain, reading skill, and measurement point.
Recent interest and investment in early childhood education as a means of promoting children's school readiness has prompted the need for clear definitions of school readiness. Traditionally school readiness has been viewed within a maturationist frame, based on a chronological set-point, which led to the emergence of readiness testing. Following a brief review of this literature, this article provides an overview of the conceptual and practical considerations that must be given to such a definition. Among conceptual concerns are the lack of agreement about the key components of school readiness and theoretical models to connect them. Also of concern is the need to consider multiple purposes of assessment, and the appropriate use of assessments. Practical considerations include the need to incorporate multiple stakeholders' views in a definition, the availability of adequate measurement tools and how resultant data can be used. The article closes with a discussion of possible future directions by laying out a series of assumptions about the nature of school readiness.
School readiness assessment is a prominent feature of early childhood education. Because the construct of readiness is multifaceted, we examined children's patterns on multiple indicators previously found to be both theoretically and empirically linked to school readiness: social skill, interactions with parents, problem behavior, and performance on tests of cognition and attention. Multistage cluster analysis with independent replications was used to empirically identify normative profiles in a sample of 964 typically developing 54-month-old children. This procedure considered how the aforementioned indicators operate in concert by accounting for the nonlinear multivariate relations among them. Results supported six common (or core) profile types that satisfied all formal heuristic and statistical criteria, including complete coverage, satisfactory within-type homogeneity, between-type dissimilarity, and replicability. Resulting profiles suggest that cognitive process and self regulation develop somewhat independently, resulting in profiles that reveal both linkage and independence of these areas of development. A summary of the defining characteristics for each profile is provided. In addition, the performance of children comprising different profiles was investigated on three concurrent achievement measures to further substantiate the external validity of the resulting configurations. Because readiness connotes a link to the future, predictive validity was examined by evaluating differences between profile types on three achievement measures collected in first grade. Results are discussed in the context of a compensatory hypothesis, one which acknowledges that there is more than one route to successful, or at least adequate, educational outcome among typically developing children.
This paper investigates whether inferences about school performance based on longitudinal models are consistent when different assessments and metrics are used as the basis for analysis. Using norm-referenced (NRT) and standards-based (SBT) assessment results from panel data of a large heterogeneous school district, we examine inferences based on vertically equated scale scores, normal curve equivalents (NCEs), and nonvertically equated scale scores. The results indicate that the effect of the metric depends upon the evaluation objective. NCEs significantly underestimate absolute individual growth, but NCEs and scale scores yield highly correlated (r >.90) school-level results based on mean initial status and growth estimates. SBT and NRT results are highly correlated for status but only moderately correlated for growth. We also find that as few as 30 students per school provide consistent results and that mobility tends to affect inferences based on status but not growth – irrespective of the assessment or metric used.
The present study investigated the role of vocabulary depth in reading comprehension among a diverse sample of monolingual
and bilingual children in grades 2–4. Vocabulary depth was defined as including morphological awareness, awareness of semantic
relations, and syntactic awareness. Two hundred ninety-four children from 3 schools in a Mid-Atlantic district and 3 schools
in a Northeastern school district participated in the study and were assessed at the beginning and end of one school year
on a wide variety of language and literacy measures. Bilingual children were assessed in English and Spanish. A latent difference
score model that assessed change in a latent indicator of English reading comprehension from Time 1 (Fall) to Time 2 (Spring)
was tested with results showing that vocabulary depth measures made significant contributions to initial status, but not change,
in reading comprehension over and above between-subjects factors (grade, ethnicity, language status) and baseline control
within-subject factors (word identification and vocabulary breadth). There was no added contribution of Spanish language measures
to English reading comprehension among the bilingual students.
The role of extensive reading in building vocabulary continues to receive considerable attention in first and second language research and pedagogy. This study analyses the lexical differences between narrative and expository reading materials used in upper-elementary education (10- and 11-year-old children), and explores how these differences could affect children's potential vocabulary acquisition through reading. Results of a computerized analysis of nearly 1.5 million word tokens reveals marked differences between 28 narrative and 28 expository children's books in terms of overall token distribution and individual type repetitions at all levels of vocabulary analysed in the study (i.e. general high frequency words, academic high frequency words, and specialized words). Further exploration of the lexical data indicates high numbers of register-specific words at all levels of vocabulary, particularly at the more specialized levels where the potential for protracted vocabulary growth is the greatest. A subsequent discussion addresses qualitative differences in the characteristics of these exclusive narrative and expository types. These lexical findings are used to assess claims of Wide Reading and Free Reading relative to children's acquisition of vocabulary through extensive reading, especially the default claims of "incidental" word acquisition through repetitive encounters with unknown words while reading large volumes of material for pleasure.
The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) is designed to provide detailed information on children's development, health, and early learning experiences in the years leading up to entry into school. The ECLS-B is the first nationally representative study within the United States to directly assess children's early mental and physical development, the quality of their early care and education settings, and the contributions of their fathers, as well as their mothers, in their lives. The purpose of this First Look report is to introduce new ECLS-B survey data through the presentation of selected descriptive information. Readers are cautioned not to draw causal inferences based on the univariate and bivariate results presented. It is important to note that many of the variables examined in this report may be related to one another, and complex interactions and relationships among the variables have not been explored. The variables examined here are also just a few of the several thousand that can be examined in these data; they were selected to demonstrate the range of information available from the study. These findings are examples of estimates that can be obtained from the data and are not designed to emphasize any particular issue. The release of this report is intended to encourage more in-depth analysis of the data using more sophisticated statistical methods. The tables in this report present information collected during the preschool wave of the ECLS-B in the following areas: demographic characteristics of children and their families (table 1); children's language, literacy, mathematics, color knowledge, and fine motor skills (tables 2 through 6); and children's experiences in early care and education (table 7). Appendix A, Survey Methodology and Glossary, provides technical documentation for the findings presented in this report, and general information about the study. Appendix B, Standard Error Tables, reports the standard errors for tables 1 through 7. (Contains 15 tables and 1 footnote.) [This report was also prepared by McPhee Consulting.]
This investigation tested the importance of early academic achievement for later achievement trajectories among 18,011 students grouped by level of socioeconomic risk. Students considered to be at highest risk were those who experienced homelessness or high residential mobility (HHM). HHM students were compared with students eligible for free meals, students eligible for reduced price meals, and students who were neither HHM nor low income. Socioeconomic risk and oral reading ability in first grade predicted growth of reading and math achievement in Grades 3 through 8. Risk status predicted achievement beyond the effects of early reading scores and also moderated the prediction of later growth in reading achievement from early oral reading. Results underscore the early emergence and persistence of achievement gaps related to poverty, the high and accumulating risk for HHM students, and the significance of oral reading in first grade as both an early indicator of risk and a potential protective factor.
Though much valuable research has been conducted on the academic achievement of school-age immigrant youth, less is known about the early developmental competencies of immigrant children during the preschool years. This study describes the school readiness of 2194 low-income children receiving subsidies to attend child care with emphasis on how nativity status (generation), race/ethnicity, and national origins might be related to children's preparedness for kindergarten. The Learning Accomplishment Profile-Diagnostic (LAP-D) was used to measure cognitive and language skills, while teacher-report on the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment (DECA) measured socio-emotional protective factors and behavior concerns. Results demonstrate that variation does exist in school readiness according to nativity-based factors. First- and second-generation immigrants lagged behind children in non-immigrant families in cognitive and language skills but excelled by comparison in socio-emotional skills and behavior. In many cases, first-generation immigrant children showed more advanced development than second-generation immigrant children, providing some evidence in the early years for an immigrant advantage. The present study raises awareness regarding some of the strengths immigrant children demonstrate from a very young age-strengths that can be built upon to encourage their later success and academic achievement.
This article reports results of a longitudinal study of relative reading achievement of 87 boys and 100 girls from 1st through 6th grades. Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests (W. H. MacGinitie, J Kamons, R. L. Kowalski, R. K. MacGinitie, & T. MacKay, 1980) data were drawn from records of 1 rural school district in Eastern Canada. There was a systematic relationship between gender and reading categorization in Grades 1-3, with more boys below average, and no systematic relationship in Grades 4-6. Probabilities of 6th-grade reading-achievement categorization conditioned on 1st-grade achievement were used to challenge the stability of reading categorization reported in previous studies. The courses of relative reading achievement over the 6 grades of key subgroups of children were followed to show how reading-achievement categorization changes. The implications include a case for early reading intervention and for reconsideration of the view that relative reading achievement is largely immutable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study estimated normative reading trajectories for the population of English-proficient language minority students attending U.S. public elementary schools. Achievement of English-language learners (ELLs) was evaluated in terms of native English speakers' progress, and estimates were adjusted for the effects of socioeconomic status (SES). The ELL group was disaggregated into native Spanish speakers and native speakers of Asian languages. Multilevel latent variable growth modeling indicated that achievement trends of Asian-language ELLs are more similar to those of native English speakers than to those of Spanish ELL groups. Spanish ELLs had lower initial reading achievement than both Asian-language ELLs and native English speakers, and Asian students had higher initial achievement than did the native English speaking group. Additionally, Spanish ELLs had statistically significantly less growth over time than did Asian ELLs, with differences being most notable on reading evaluation–related tasks. Language-related differences in total reading were minimized when SES effects were specifically modeled, suggesting that SES may be the more significant factor explaining the lower achievement rates of English-proficient native Spanish speakers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Among a nationally representative sample of 2336 Head Start children, patterns of school readiness were compared at the beginning and end of children's first preschool year, and predictors of stability and change across readiness profiles were examined. The present study documented that although the majority of children remain in a qualitatively similar school readiness profile across their first year in Head Start, 20% of children move to a qualitatively different profile over the school year, reflecting both improvements and declines in functioning. Child and family attributes (e.g., child age, ELL status, maternal education, and family structure), as well as contextual factors (e.g., teacher education and experience, parenting style, and parent involvement) were significant predictors of both profile stability and change. Given that we have little understanding about what factors practice or policy can manipulate to improve school readiness, these findings shed light on what we might do to promote school readiness and prevent declines in functioning over time. Thus, findings from this study provide a population- and pattern-based perspective of Head Start children's strengths and needs, relevant for informing both individual and systems level change in Head Start programs across the nation.Highlights► Children comprised three reliable school readiness profiles at the end of Head Start. ► Likely and unlikely patterns of profile membership across their first year were revealed. ► Child, family and classroom factors predicted this profile stability and change.
Overview Empirical example: Positive health behaviors Preparing to conduct LCA with covariates LCA with covariates: Model and notation Hypothesis testing in LCA with covariates Interpretation of the intercepts and regression coefficients Empirical examples of LCA with a single covariate Empirical example of multiple covariates and interaction terms Multiple-group LCA with covariates: Model and notation Grouping variable or covariate? Use of a Bayesian prior to stabilize estimation Binomial logistic regression Suggested supplemental readings Points to remember What's next
Combining conceptual models from immigration and educational research, this study investigated whether a normative antecedent to the transition to formal schooling in the contemporary U.S. – early child care – links Mexican immigrant status to various aspects of school readiness. Regression models with nationally representative data revealed that children from Mexican immigrant families were overrepresented in parental care and underrepresented in center-based care compared to their native peers from other race/ethnic populations, which helped to explain a significant but small portion of their generally lower rates of both math achievement and externalizing symptoms in kindergarten. This mediating role of early child care, however, paled in comparison to family socioeconomic circumstances.
A longitudinal design (kindergarten through third grade) was used to assess the effects of the age at which children entered kindergarten on children's academic achievement, social skills, academic engagement, relationship with teachers, and self ratings of academic skills. The sample was ethnically diverse; all of the over 200 children in the study came from low-income families. Results indicated a modest advantage in academic achievement for children who entered kindergarten at a relatively older age during the first year of school, but this advantage disappeared by third grade. The only advantage found in kindergarten and third grade for children who were relatively old when they entered school was in more positive feelings about their teacher. “Holding out” was rare (less than 1%) in this low-income sample.
Two studies examine patterns of school readiness in children at school entry and how these patterns predict first-grade outcomes in a nationally representative sample of first-time kindergartners from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999 (N = 17,219). In Study 1, cluster analyses revealed four profiles at kindergarten entry: comprehensive positive development (30%), social/emotional and health strengths (34%), social/emotional risk (13%), and health risk (22.5% of the sample). Study 2 results suggested that children with one of the two “risk” profiles were more likely to be from families with multiple socioeconomic disadvantages. In addition, all four profiles differentially predicted academic and social adjustment in early elementary school. Children with a risk profile performed the worst on all outcomes; children with a comprehensive positive development profile performed the best. The authors discuss the need for early identification of children who may be at risk for entering school with few school readiness strengths.
A person-oriented approach examined patterns of functioning in social and executive function domains at 54 months and in turn forecasted 5th-grade socioemotional and achievement outcomes for 944 children. Six distinct profiles of 54-month school readiness patterns predicted outcomes in 5th grade with indications of cross-domain association between 54-month performance and later functioning. A group of children at 54 months characterized by low working memory exhibited elevated levels of socioemotional problems and low achievement in 5th grade. Patterns in which high social competence or high working memory were prominent predicted high 5th-grade achievement. Unexpectedly, a group distinguished by attention problems performed well on later achievement outcomes. After controlling for children's early demographics, readiness profiles accounted for math achievement in 5th grade.
In this article we replicate and extend findings from Duncan et al. (2007). The 1st study used Canada-wide data on 1,521 children from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY) to examine the influence of kindergarten literacy and math skills, mother-reported attention, and mother-reported socioemotional behaviors on 3rd-grade math and reading outcomes. Similar to Duncan et al., (a) math skills were the strongest predictor of later achievement, (b) literacy and attention skills predicted later achievement, and (c) socioemotional behaviors did not significantly predict later school achievement. As part of extending the findings, we incorporated a multiple imputation approach to handle missing predictor variable data. Results paralleled those from the original study in that kindergarten math skills and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised scores continued to predict later achievement. However, we also found that kindergarten socioemotional behaviors, specifically hyperactivity/impulsivity, prosocial behavior, and anxiety/depression, were significant predictors of 3rd-grade math and reading. In the 2nd study, we used data from the NLSCY and the Montreal Longitudinal-Experimental Preschool Study (MLEPS), which was included in Duncan et al., to extend previous findings by examining the influence of kindergarten achievement, attention, and socioemotional behaviors on 3rd-grade socioemotional outcomes. Both NLSCY and MLEPS findings indicated that kindergarten math significantly predicted socioemotional behaviors. There were also a number of significant relationships between early and later socioemotional behaviors. Findings support the importance of socioemotional behaviors both as predictors of later school success and as indicators of school success.
The problem of selecting one of a number of models of different dimensions is treated by finding its Bayes solution, and evaluating the leading terms of its asymptotic expansion. These terms are a valid large-sample criterion beyond the Bayesian context, since they do not depend on the a priori distribution.