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Contemporary School Psychology
The Official Journal of the California
Association of School Psychologists
ISSN 2159-2020
Contemp School Psychol
DOI 10.1007/s40688-015-0079-1
Development and Initial Examination
of the School Psychology Multicultural
Competence Scale
Celeste M.Malone, Candyce Briggs,
Elizabeth Ricks, Kyndra Middleton,
Sycarah Fisher & James Connell
1 23
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Development and Initial Examination of the School Psychology
Multicultural Competence Scale
Celeste M. Malone
1
&Candyce Briggs
2
&Elizabeth Ricks
1
&Kyndra Middleton
1
&
Sycarah Fisher
3
&James Connell
4
#California Association of School Psychologists 2015
Abstract This study reports on the initial development and
examination of the School Psychology Multicultural
Competence Scale (SPMCS), a 45-item self-report measure
for evaluating school psychologists’multicultural competence
in the primary domains of school psychology practice (i.e.,
assessment, consultation, intervention). A sample of 312
school psychology graduate students was recruited by out-
reachtoschoolpsychologytrainingprogramsandemail
listservs to complete the SPMCS and a questionnaire about
previous multicultural/diversity coursework and practicum
with culturally and linguistically diverse clients. The results
from principal axis factoring indicated that 28 of the 45
SPMCS items contributed to a four-factor solution with sub-
scales identified as cultural skills, cultural knowledge, cultural
appreciation, and cultural awareness. Internal consistency for
each subscale was moderate to high. Overall, completion of
multicultural/diversity courses and completion of practicum
with culturally and linguistically diverse clients were associ-
ated with higher self-reported scores of multicultural compe-
tence. The SPMCS can potentially be used as one component
to evaluate the extent to which training programs develop the
multicultural competence of their trainees. Additionally, these
findings provide additional insight into the conceptualization
of multicultural competence.
Keywords Multicultural competence .Training
The USA is becoming more racially and ethnically diverse;
it is estimated that approximately 67 % of all children will
be non-White by 2060 (U.S. Census Bureau 2012). In
marked contrast, the field of school psychology lacks racial
and ethnic diversity. In a survey of the National
Association of School Psychologists (NASP) members, ap-
proximately 91 % of the respondents identified themselves
as White (Castillo et al. 2011). Thus, there exists a large
difference in the racial-ethnic composition of school psy-
chologists and the school-age population they serve. In
light of this, it is imperative that we ensure that all school
psychologists, regardless of ethnicity, have the necessary
education and training to serve diverse students and their
families.
There is general consensus between the two major profes-
sional organizations and program-accrediting bodies, the
American Psychological Association (APA) and NASP, that
trainees should be prepared by their programs to provide
services to culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) indi-
viduals (i.e., racial, ethnic, and linguistic minorities;
American Psychological Association 2013;National
Association of School Psychologists 2010b). Additionally,
both organizations view culturally competent service delivery
as a foundation of ethical practice (American Psychological
Association 2010; National Association of School
Psychologists 2010a).
*Celeste M. Malone
celeste.malone@howard.edu
1
Human Development and Psychoeducational Studies, Howard
University, 2441 4th Street NW, Washington, DC 20059, USA
2
Behavioral and Social Sciences, University of the District of
Columbia, Washington, DC, USA
3
Department of Counseling, School, and Educational Psychology,
The University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
4
A.J. Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA,
USA
Contemp School Psychol
DOI 10.1007/s40688-015-0079-1
Author's personal copy
Overview of Multicultural Competencies
The multicultural counseling competencies guide our under-
standing of culturally competent practice (Arredondo et al.,
1996; Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992; Sue et al., 1982).
First described by Sue et al. (1982), these competencies iden-
tify the beliefs/attitudes, knowledge, and skills of a culturally
skilled psychologist. In terms of beliefs/attitudes, the cultural-
ly skilled psychologist should be aware of and sensitive to his/
her own cultural heritage and biases and comfortable with the
differences that exist between himself/herself and the client in
terms of race and beliefs. The knowledge that is important for
multicultural competence is the understanding of the sociopo-
litical systems operating in the USA with respect to its treat-
ment of ethnic minorities, specific knowledge about particular
ethnic minority groups, and the knowledge and understanding
of the generic characteristics of counseling and therapy.
Culturally competent psychologists possess the skills to gen-
erate a wide variety of verbal and nonverbal responses, send
and receive nonverbal messages accurately, and exercise in-
stitutional intervention skills on the client’s behalf when
appropriate.
The multicultural counseling competencies also provided
the starting point for the three studies that identified multicul-
tural competencies in school psychology (Gopaul-McNicol,
1997; Lopez & Rogers, 2001; Rogers & Lopez, 2002).
Gopaul-McNicol (1997) identified 15 multicultural compe-
tencies needed by school psychologists when working CLD
students based on her own personal experiences, a review of
school psychology and ethnic minority literature, and empir-
ical research. These competencies are (1) cross-cultural ethical
competence, (2) awareness of the therapists’own values and
biases, (3) cross-cultural awareness, (4) competence in under-
standing interracial issues, (5) language competencies, (6)
competency in the ability to work with interpreters, (7)
cross-cultural assessment competencies, (8) cross-cultural
counseling competencies, (9) cross-cultural issues in conflict
resolution, (10) competence in special education prevention,
(11) competencies in bilingual education curriculum, (12)
cross-cultural consultation competencies, (13) cross-cultural
research competencies, (14) competence in empowering fam-
ilies through community-based organizations, and (15) com-
petence in pediatric/health psychology (Gopaul-McNicol,
1997). These comprehensive multicultural competencies ad-
dress all of the domains in which school psychologists
practice.
Using these broad categories, Lopez and Rogers (2001)
and Rogers and Lopez (2002) conceptualized more specific
awareness, knowledge, and skill competencies. These two
studies utilized the Delphi method to conceptualize and iden-
tify cross-cultural school psychology competencies that ad-
dress the full spectrum of school psychological services.
Lopez and Rogers’(2001) study had more of an emphasis
on multicultural awareness (i.e., awareness of the cultural
identities of self and others) items while Rogers and Lopez’s
(2002) study had more competency items focusing on multi-
cultural knowledge and skills. Between these two studies,
there is a comprehensive listing of multicultural competencies
in school psychology which fit in the three-domain conceptual
framework of multicultural competence.
Lopez and Rogers (2001) and Rogers and Lopez (2002)
recommend the development of a multicultural competence
assessment based upon the competencies identified in both
studies to help evaluate school psychologists’multicultural
competence strengths and weaknesses. Additionally, such an
assessment tool can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of
multicultural competence curriculum models and determine
the extent to which the multicultural competencies are ad-
dressed in training programs (Lopez & Rogers, 2001;
Rogers & Lopez, 2002).
Multicultural Competence Assessment for School
Psychology
Neither APA nor NASP specify how training programs should
address multicultural and diversity issues or how graduate
students’competence in this area should be assessed.
However, both organizations require programs to engage in
ongoing assessment to ensure that programs are attaining
training goals (American Psychological Association 2013;
National Association of School Psychologists 2010b). In ex-
amining multicultural training in school psychology, one of
the recommendations made by Newell et al. (2010) was that
training programs place as much importance on evaluating
multicultural skills and knowledge as they do on assessing
competence in other areas of practice. One way programs
could do so is through the administration of existing
multicultural competence measures. Jones et al. (2013)also
provide a rationale for the use of questionnaires to assess
multicultural competence in graduate students. These ques-
tionnaires can be used as an initial exercise for gaining an
understanding of one’s own cultural values and beliefs and
as pre- and post-training tools to determine growth or change
in cultural awareness. The use of self-report questionnaires
does not have to replace any assessments already in place
but can provide additional information regarding students’
progress in developing multicultural competence, identify
areas in which students feel less proficient, and develop goals
to address those areas (Malone, 2010). Additionally, it is
aligned with best practices to provide students with the oppor-
tunity to evaluate their preparedness for entering professional
practice (Prus & Garcia-Vazquez, 2014).
There is one published multicultural competence scale for
school psychologists, the Multicultural School Psychology
Counseling Competency Scale (MSPCCS; Rogers &
Contemp School Psychol
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Ponterotto, 1997) which assesses school psychologists’mul-
ticultural counseling competence; however, it does not assess
multicultural competence in the other broad domains of
school psychology practice (i.e., assessment, consultation,
and intervention). Therefore, this instrument, as well as other
assessment tools used in counseling psychology, would pro-
vide an incomplete picture of the multicultural competence of
school psychologists.
To advance school psychology as a professional field
and ensure that trainees and practitioners are equipped with
multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills to work ef-
fectively, there must be a way to assess the multicultural
competence of school psychologists in all domains of ser-
vice delivery. To meet this need, the School Psychology
Multicultural Competence Scale (SPMCS) was developed.
The current study’s purpose is twofold: to determine the
underlying factor structure of the SPMCS and to determine
the extent to which participants’self-reported multicultural
competence differs as a function of multicultural/diversity
coursework and practicum experiences.
Method
Participants
Participants were graduate students enrolled in NASP-
approved school psychology programs. In the first wave of
recruitment, directors of 36 school psychology graduate pro-
grams received invitations for their students’participation.
Eighteen were programs with an emphasis on multicultural-
ism and/or bilingualism. The other 18 programs were matched
based on the geographic region in which the program is locat-
ed. Sixty-seven graduate students participated.
Due to the low response rate during the first wave, partic-
ipation was opened to all school psychology graduate students
regardless of program affiliation. Invitations to participate
were disseminated using a snowball technique in which the
invitation letter was posted to the Student Affiliates of
Division 16 listserv, and recipients were encouraged to for-
ward the invitation to other school psychology graduate stu-
dents. An additional 245 graduate students participated during
the second phase of recruitment for a total of 312 participants.
Demographic characteristics of the participant pool are de-
tailed in Table 1.
Procedure
Participants completed the SPMCS and a demographic ques-
tionnaire through the SurveyGizmo website. Participants indi-
cated their consent through completion of the online forms.
Those who did not wish to provide consent were redirected to
a disqualification page.
Measures
School Psychology Multicultural Competence Scale
The SPMCS is a 45-item, self-report measure designed to
assess the multicultural competence of school psychologists
and trainees (Malone et al. 2011). The three domains (aware-
ness, knowledge, skills) of the multicultural counseling com-
petencies (Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992)providedthe
conceptual framework for the SPMCS. The items were de-
rived from the cross-cultural school psychology competencies
(Lopez and Rogers, 2001; Rogers and Lopez, 2002). Nine
experts in multicultural school psychology, identified based
on their number of presentations and publications on multi-
cultural school psychology and their history of research in this
area, were used to determine the SPMCS’content validity.
The experts rated the extent to which an affirmative answer
to each of the scale’s items was indicative of a school psychol-
ogist’s multicultural competence using a Likert scale of 1
(strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree) using a modified
Delphi procedure (Murry & Hammons, 1995;Rowe,
Wright, & Bolger, 1991). Items with an average rating of 3
or higher had strong agreement. Experts also provided com-
ments and/or suggested revisions to the original items. In the
second round of survey edits, received 4 weeks after the first
round, experts confirmed or changed their original ratings for
the statements and provided additional comments. With the
exception of one item, which received an average score of
2.75, there was strong agreement among the experts that the
SPMCS items can assess multicultural competence in school
psychologists.
The final version of the SPMCS was developed based upon
the expert responses obtained from the questionnaires. It
contained three, 15-item subscales (awareness, knowledge,
skills) based upon the tripartite definition of multicultural
competence (Sue et al., 1992). Participants completing the
SPMCS indicated their level of agreement with each statement
on a Likert scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree).
Demographic Questionnaire
Participants also completed a 10-item demographic question-
naire (gender, race/ethnicity, bilingual/multilingual status) and
items related to school psychology training (program location,
degree, year in program, internship status) and training on
multicultural and diversity issues in school psychology and
their experiences in working with CLD populations.
Data Analysis
Principal axis factoring (PAF) with promax rotation was used
on the participants’responses to the 45 SPMCS items because
the primary purpose was to determine the underlying factor
Contemp School Psychol
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structure of the SPMCS. PAF was selected over the principal
components analysis extraction method because PAF seeks to
examine shared variance versus unique variance.
Additionally, PAF takes into consideration that each item is
not perfectly reliable but the observed variance can be ex-
plained by a distinct number of latent characteristics that
Tabl e 1 Demographic
characteristics of study
participants
Characteristic (N=312)
Gender, n(%)
Male 42 (13.5)
Female 270 (86.5)
Race/ethnicity, n(%)
Asian/Asian American/Pacific Islander 12 (3.8)
Black/African-American 22 (7.1)
Caucasian 248 (79.5)
Hispanic 19 (6.1)
Other/Multi-racial 11 (3.5)
Speak languages other than English, n(%)
Yes 104 (33.3)
No 207 (66.3)
No response 1 (0.3)
Geographic region of school psychology program, n(%)
Northeast (ME, NH, VT, MA, RI, CT, PA, NJ) 125 (40.1)
Midwest (WI, MI, IL, IN, OH, MO, ND, SD, NE, KS, MN, IA) 73 (23.4)
South (DE, MD, DC, VA, WV, NC, SC, GA, FL) 40 (12.8)
West (ID, MT, WY, NV, UT, CO, AZ, NM, AK, WA, OR, CA, HI) 46 (14.7)
No response 4 (1.3)
School psychology degree pursued, n(%)
MA/MS 48 (15.4)
EdS/CAGS 104 (33.3)
PhD/PsyD/EdD 158 (50.6)
No response 2 (0.6)
Year in school psychology program, n(%)
1st year 79 (25.3)
2nd year 94 (30.1)
3rd year 71 (22.8)
4th year 27 (8.7)
5th year or beyond 41 (13.1)
Currently on internship, n(%)
Yes 61 (19.6)
No 246 (78.8)
No response 5 (1.6)
Number of courses taken with a primary focus on multicultural and/or diversity issues in education or school
psychology, n(%)
Zero 74 (23.7)
One 137 (43.9)
Two 64 (20.5)
Three or more 35 (11.2)
No response 2 (0.6)
Completion of practicum with culturally and linguistically diverse clients, n(%)
Yes 226 (72.4)
No 85 (27.2)
No response 1 (0.3)
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combine to form an overall single factor. Promax rotation was
selected because it was anticipated that some of the factors of
the SPMCS would be correlated, and this isthe best method to
use for correlated factors. Additionally, this method is concep-
tually simple as it seeks to develop a matrix with simple struc-
ture. Simple structure occurs when there are no cross-loadings
on multiple factors, and the items load moderately to highly on
one unique factor. In SPSS software, both PAF and promax
rotation are straightforward options that can be selected using
the Dimension Reduction analysis. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
measure of sampling adequacy was 0.893. Bartlett’stestof
sphericity was significant (χ
2
(528)= 4245.744, p<0.001) in-
dicating that the SPMCS items were correlated. These two
procedures proved the items were factorable.
Results
Factor Analysis of the SPMCS
Parallel analysis was used to determine the maximum number
of factors that should be extracted for the final rotated solution.
Parallel analysis generates random datasets with the same di-
mensions (participants× items) as the main analysis and then
conducts an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on each dataset
(Hayton et al. 2004). Results of the parallel analysis showed
that nine factors should be extracted. However, a four-factor
solution, which explained 42 % of the variance, was preferred
because of the leveling off of eigenvalues on the scree plot
after four factors, the insufficient number of primary loadings
on the other factors, and the difficulty of interpreting the fifth
and subsequent factors.
A total of 13 items were eliminated because they did not
contribute to a simple factor structure and failed to meet min-
imum criteria of having a primary factor loading of 0.4 or
above and no cross-loading of 0.3 or above. Four additional
items focusing on basic skills (as opposed to multiculturally
competent practice) were removed because their exclusion
resulted in a significant increase in the scale’sinternalconsis-
tency. PAF of the remaining 28 items using promax rotation
was conducted with four factors explaining 50 % of the vari-
ance. All items had primary factor loadings over 0.4 with no
cross-loading. The factor loading matrix for this final solution
is presented in Table 2.
The labels proposed for each factor are as follows: factor 1,
cultural skills; factor 2, cultural knowledge, factor 3, cultural
appreciation, and factor 4, cultural awareness. Internal consis-
tency for the overall measure and each of the subscales was
examined using Cronbach’s alpha. The alpha for the overall
scale was 0.92; alphas for the subscales are noted in Table 2
and were moderate to strong. No substantial increases in alpha
for any of the subscales could have been achieved by elimi-
nating more items.
Multicultural Training and Self-Reported Multicultural
Competence
Composite scores were created for each of the four factor
subscales based on the means of the items which had their
primary loadings on each factor. Higher scores indicated
higher levels of perceived multicultural competence in that
particular area. The descriptive statistics for the total sample
are presented in Table 3.
To determine the extent to which school psychology grad-
uate students’perceived multicultural competence differed
based on multicultural training, a factorial multivariate analy-
sis of variance (MANOVA) was computed using the SPMCS
subscales as the dependent variables and multicultural/
diversity courses completed and practicum with CLD clients
as the independent variables. A non-significant Box’sMtest
(p=0.283) indicated homogeneity of covariance matrices of
the dependent variables across the independent variables. The
results of the MANOVA revealed significant main effects for
coursework [Wilks’Λ=0.861, F(60, 10,928), p<0.001, par-
tial η
2
=0.049] and practicum with CLD clients [Wilks’Λ=
0.961, F(60, 10,928), p=0.018, partial η
2
=0.039]. The inter-
action between coursework and practicum was not significant
[Wilks’Λ=0.938, F(60, 10,928), p=0.081, partial η
2
=0.021].
For multicultural/diversity courses completed, univariate
tests showed that there were significant differences on cultural
skills [F(3, 302)= 4.80, p=0.003, partial η
2
=0.05] and cultural
knowledge [F(3, 302)=5.79, p=0.001, partial η
2
=0.05]. Post
hoc analyses were conducted using the Hochberg GT2 test
since it is relatively unaffected by unequal group size and
variance. On the cultural skills and cultural knowledge sub-
scales, students who had taken at least one multicultural/
diversity course had significantly higher mean scores than
students who had not taken any such coursework. The differ-
ences in mean scores increased with the number of
multicultural/diversity courses completed.
For practicum with CLD clients, univariate tests showed
that there were significant differences on cultural skills [F(1,
302)= 9.02, p=0.003, partial η
2
=0.03] and cultural apprecia-
tion [F(1, 302)= 8.16, p= 0.005, partial η
2
=0.03]. For both
subscales, students who had completed practicum with CLD
clients had higher mean scores than students that had not
completed such practicum.
Discussion
The present study sought to determine the underlying factor
structure of the SPMCS and determine the extent to which
participants’self-reported multicultural competence differs
as a function of multicultural/diversity coursework and prac-
ticum experiences. It was hypothesized that the SPMCS
would reflect the three-dimensional construct of multicultural
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Tabl e 2 Loadings for principal axis factoring with promax rotation of SPMCS items
Item Factor h
2
M(SD)
1234
I can explain test information to culturally diverse parents 0.782 0.049 −0.052 −0.081 0.574 2.84 (0.65)
I can make culturally relevant curriculum and classroom
management recommendations
0.654 0.107 −0.069 0.000 0.495 2.67 (0.66)
I can effectively assess the mental health needs of a student
from a cultural background significantly different from my own
0.645 −0.062 −0.060 0.053 0.373 2.88 (0.60)
When working with linguistically diverse parents and students,
I can interpret information obtained through translators
0.563 0.116 0.001 −0.110 0.354 2.74 (0.66)
I can work with culturally and linguistically diverse children,
parents, and school staff
0.575 −0.002 0.133 −0.002 0.408 3.28 (0.54)
I am skilled in understanding nonverbal communication 0.524 −0.127 0.136 0.031 0.289 3.05 (0.65)
I am skilled in terms of being able to provide appropriate intervention
services to culturally diverse students
0.550 0.256 −0.114 0.075 0.556 2.57 (0.66)
I can effectively secure information and resources to better serve
culturally diverse students and families
0.491 0.111 0.246 −0.129 0.412 3.11 (0.62)
I am skilled in implementing home-school collaboration programs
and interventions
0.448 0.202 −0.014 0.010 0.360 2.47 (0.76)
I can recognize prejudice and prevalent obstacles that may
affect consultation
0.415 −0.119 0.184 0.208 0.352 3.13 (0.50)
I have knowledge of research on assessing culturally and
linguistically diverse children
−0.163 0.813 0.178 −0.106 0.540 2.87 (0.68)
I know how to adapt instruments to assess linguistically
diverse students
0.059 0.703 0.066 −0.090 0.530 2.44 (0.69)
I am knowledgeable of evidence-based intervention strategies
used with culturally and linguistically diverse students
0.144 0.593 −0.083 0.094 0.518 2.54 (0.70)
I know how to use alternate ass essment methods such as dynamic
assessment and ecological assessment
−0.011 0.569 −0.015 0.079 0.353 2.43 (0.81)
I am knowledgeable of effective assessment strategies used with
culturally and linguistically diverse students
0.079 0.549 0.008 0.084 0.421 2.82 (0.62)
I am knowledgeable of the most effective consultation strategies
used with culturally and linguistically diverse students
0.162 0.564 −0.083 0.098 0.501 2.37 (0.66)
I understand the process of second language acquisition and its
impact on the acquisition of academic skills
0.068 0.4350.093 0.004 0.272 3.03 (0.72)
I am aware that members of cultural groups may have different
attitudes towards disabilities or exceptionalities
0.082 −0.083 0.633 0.036 0.441 3.60 (0.50)
I respect and appreciate socioeconomic and cultural background
of a child and his/her family
0.197 −0.132 0.609 −0.051 0.418 3.63 (0.48)
It is important to integrate cultural and language background
of a student into a ps ychoeduca tional report
−0.189 0.243 0.558 −0.032 0.317 3.65 (0.49)
I know that cross-cultural variables may affect performance on
and interpretation of standardized assessments
−0.052 0.171 0.540 −0.008 0.335 3.47 (0.55)
I consider sociocultural variables and perspectives when
evaluating research
0.210 0.027 0.487 0.046 0.357 3.25 (0.56)
I understand the need to retain one’s cultural identity −0.077 0.053 0.420 0.255 0.316 3.50 (0.56)
I understand how my cultural background has influenced
the way I think and act
−0.124 −0.104 0.170 0.704 0.497 3.54 (0.51)
I am aware of how culture impacts learning and behavior −0.007 0.139 −0.110 0.660 0.465 3.23 (0.57)
I can discuss how culture influences parenting practices 0.042 0.082 −0.092 0.612 0.407 3.23 (0.62)
I have a sense of the values, strengths, and limitations of
my own culture
−0.071 −0.037 0.214 0.530 0.366 3.38 (0.54)
I can accurately compare my own cultural perspective to
that of a person from another culture
0.222 0.017 −0.037 0.451 0.346 2.98 (0.58)
Percent explained variance by factor 29.98 8.57 5.71 5.30
Reliability (Cronbach’sα) 0.86 0.84 0.75 0.75
Factor correlations
Factor 1 –
Factor 2 0.662 –
Factor 3 0.411 0.272 –
Factor 4 0.513 0.414 0.444 –
Factor loadings >0.40 are in italics
Factor 1 cultural skills, Factor 2 cultural knowledge, Factor 3 cultural appreciation, Factor 4 cultural awareness
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competence as defined in the existing literature (Sue et al.,
1982). Additionally, it was expected that school psychology
trainees’scores on the SPMCS would be higher if they had
completed multicultural/diversity coursework and practicum
with CLD clients.
Factor Analysis of the SPMCS
A PAF demonstrated that a four-factor solution using cultural
skills, cultural knowledge, cultural appreciation, and cultural
awareness best fit the data obtained from the sample of grad-
uate students who completed the SPMCS. The cultural skills
subscale assessed respondents’ability to use skills associated
with culturally competent practice; the cultural knowledge
subscale assessed knowledge of culturally appropriate assess-
ment and intervention strategies. The cultural appreciation
subscale assessed respondents’appreciation of other cultures
and their values and norms. The cultural awareness subscale
reflected an awareness of how culture influences worldview
and shapes behaviors.
Although the SPMCS did not factor into knowledge, skills,
and awareness, the obtained subscales relate to the tripartite
definition of multicultural competence. The SPMCS factored
into two separate cultural skills and cultural knowledge sub-
scales that were highly correlated (r=0.662). Knowledge and
skills are very closely related in that both can be explicitly
taught through didactic coursework. The knowledge-focused
items determined if respondents knew of methods of culturally
competent service delivery while the skills-focused items
assessed respondents’ability to utilize these methods.
The cultural appreciation and cultural awareness subscales
were related to multicultural awareness. The cultural appreci-
ation subscale focused on awareness of values, biases, and
preconceived notions while the cultural awareness subscale
focused on awareness of assumptions of human behavior.
The fact that these items factored into two subscales suggested
that each subscale represents a separate and distinct compo-
nent of multicultural awareness and that the existing definition
of multicultural awareness may be overly broad.
Multicultural Coursework and Self-Reported
Multicultural Competence
The second purpose of the study was to determine the extent
to which respondents differ in their perceived multicultural
competence based on multicultural/diversity coursework and
practicum with CLD clients. Overall, increased education and
training were related to higher self-reported scores of multi-
cultural competence. Respondents who completed at least one
multicultural/diversity course had higher scores on the cultural
skills and cultural knowledge subscales than those who had no
coursework in that area. Additionally, completion of practi-
cum with CLD clients was associated with higher cultural
skills scores. This outcome was expected. Knowledge and
skills can be explicitly taught within a classroom setting while
practicum provides the opportunity to apply and practice these
skills under supervision. Previousstudies (Constantine & Yeh,
2001;Holcomb-McCoy,2005; Sammons & Speight, 2008;
Smith, Constantine, Dunn, Dinehart, & Montoya, 2006)have
noted the impact of training, specifically multicultural and
diversity coursework, on the development of multicultural
skills and knowledge and overall multicultural competence.
The results of the current study suggest that while a single
course can lead to the development of multicultural compe-
tence in some areas, additional coursework, along with oppor-
tunities to practice learned skills, is more effective in increas-
ing multicultural competence.
Those respondents who had completed practicum with
CLD clients reported higher scores on the cultural apprecia-
tion subscale. The interaction with CLD clients can help
trainees feel more comfortable serving individuals of diverse
backgrounds and exposes trainees to worldviews and
Tabl e 3 Mean scores and
standard deviations for SPMCS
subscales
Cultural skills Cultural knowledge Cultural appreciation Cultural awareness
MSD MSD MSD MSD
Total sample 2.54 0.38 2.64 0.49 3.52 0.35 3.27 0.40
Number of multicultural/diversity courses completed
Zero 2.37
a,b,c
0.39 2.43
a,b,c
0.48 3.44 0.37 3.26
a
0.40
One 2.55
a,d
0.35 2.62
a,d
0.47 3.55 0.33 3.22
b
0.40
Two 2 .6 1
b
0.40 2.67
b,e
0.43 3.49 0.37 3.26
c
0.36
Three or more 2.76
c,d
0.33 3.04
c,d,e
0.49 3.56 0.33 3.52
a,b,c
0.37
Practicum with CLD clients
No 2.36 0.40 2.43 0.51 3.42 0.37 3.16 0.44
Yes 2.61 0.36 2.72 0.46 3.55 0.34 3.31 0.37
Means in a column sharing subscripts are significantly different from each other according to the Hochberg
GT2 test
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perspectives other than their own. This would contribute to a
trainee’sgrowthinculturalappreciationinadditiontocultural
knowledge and skills. The importance of experiential learning
and practicum with CLD clients has been noted in previous
studies (Allison et al., 1996; Carlson, Brack, Laygo, Cohen, &
Kirkscey, 1998; Dickson, Jepsen, & Barbee, 2008;Dickson&
Jepsen, 2007). Practicum experiences with CLD clients play a
vital role in the development of multicultural competence in
school psychology trainees.
Implications
Multicultural Competence
One implication of the present study is related to the concep-
tualization of multicultural competence in professional psy-
chology. Existing multicultural competence scales (e.g.,
CCCI-R, MCAS:B, MCKAS) were developed using the
three-part definition of multicultural competence (Sue et al.,
1982). However, most of these scales, including the SPMCS,
do not retain their original subscales after factor analysis. The
factor analytic structure of the previously developed scales
provided little support for the tridimensional conceptualiza-
tion of multicultural competence (Ponterotto, Rieger, Barrett,
&Sparks,1994), but provided additional insight into the con-
ceptualization of multicultural competence. The four sub-
scales of the SPMCS may provide a clearer, more accurate
and comprehensive description of multicultural competence.
Multicultural Training in School Psychology
The results ofthe present study also provide information about
the training of school psychologists. While multicultural/
diversity coursework is needed, it is also important that
trainees practice these learned skills through practicum expe-
riences with CLD clients. The results of this study lend tacit
support for an integrated-separate course model of multicul-
tural training (Rogers, 2006; Rogers, Hoffman, & Wade,
1998). This would provide multiple opportunities for expo-
sure to multicultural content and it should lead to increased
multicultural competence in trainees. The multicultural
coursework should be coupled with additional opportunities
for practicum with CLD clients along with appropriate multi-
cultural focused supervision (Vereen, Hill, & McNeal, 2008).
Evaluating Multicultural Training in School Psychology
The SPMCS may serve as an evaluation tool to determine the
extent to which multicultural competence develops over the
course of a graduate training program. School psychology
training programs are required to address multicultural and
diversity issues in the practice of psychology; training pro-
grams are also required to evaluate how well they are attaining
stated program and training goals. The use of self-report ques-
tionnaires was recommended as a way to evaluate students’
multicultural competence as they progress through their train-
ing programs (Jones et al., 2013;Newelletal.,2010).
However, the measures suggested focused on counseling
and did not address all of the domains of school psychology
practice. The SPMCS differs from other measures in that it has
the potential to assess multicultural knowledge and skills as
they relate to all domains of school psychology practice (i.e.,
assessment, intervention, and consultation). Therefore, it can
be used in conjunction with other assessment methods (e.g.,
portfolios) to assess all domains of school psychology multi-
cultural competence.
Limitations
Although the present study contributes to our understanding
of multicultural competence, there are several limitations.
While the sample was representative of graduate students with
regard to race/ethnicity and gender (Curtis, Chesno Grier, &
Hunley, 2004;Thomas,1998), doctoral students are overrep-
resented. Approximately 30 % of school psychology graduate
students are enrolled in doctoral level programs (Fagan,
2014), however, doctoral students comprised approximately
50 % of this study’s sample. Additionally, there may have
been a self-selection bias in the trainees who chose to partic-
ipate. Those who responded to the research request may have
been interested in multicultural and diversity issues in school
psychology. This pattern was observed in the first wave of
data collection. The only program directors who responded
to the original research request were those from programs
who self-identified as offering exemplary multicultural train-
ing. Thus, the graduate students who chose to respond to the
research request may be more multiculturally competent than
the overall school psychology trainee population. However,
opening participation to all school psychology trainees, re-
gardless of program affiliation, possibly reduced this potential
bias. Finally, the SPMCS is limited to assessing multicultural
competence in working with CLD clients. The SPMCS does
not address other areas of diversity (e.g., sexual orientation
and socioeconomic status).
Future Directions
The SPMCS is a new measure designed to assess multicultural
competence in school psychology trainees. Principal axis fac-
toring was conducted todetermine thestructure of the SPMCS
subscales. As a follow-up, this study should be replicated with
a sample of practicing school psychologists to determine if the
same factor structure is obtained and todetermine the extent to
which training, professional development, and other profes-
sional characteristics impact self-reported multicultural com-
petence. Additionally, confirmatory factor analysis should be
Contemp School Psychol
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conducted to verify the SPMCS subscales in order to aid in
establishing the scale’s validity. To establish the SPMCS’con-
struct validity, the scale can and should be used in concurrent
validity studies with other established multicultural compe-
tence measures to determine how well the SPMCS correlates
with those other measures. Once several components of valid-
ity have been established, the scale can be used on a wider
range of school psychologists to produce more generalizable
results. Finally, the SPMCS could be modified so that it can be
used as an observational tool so training program faculty can
corroborate the ratings that trainees give themselves. This ob-
servational tool, along with the self-report data, will help fur-
ther establish the validity of the SPMCS.
Training programs are required to address multicultural and
diversity issues so that trainees can be prepared to effectively
serve clients of all cultural backgrounds. To determine the
relationship between multicultural competence and client out-
comes, future studies should be done to examine whether
school psychologists who have higher ratings of multicultural
competence produce better outcomes for their CLD clients.
The SPMCS would be an appropriate measure to use to eval-
uate multicultural competence because it is the only tool thus
far that addresses all the domains of school psychological
practice.
Acknowledgments This study served as Celeste M. Malone’s doctoral
dissertation at Temple University. Special thank you to Catherine
Fiorello, Joseph Ducette, and Frank Farley of Temple University; Erin
Rotheram-Fuller of Arizona State University; and James Connell of
Drexel University for their assistance.
Compliance with Ethical Standards All procedures performed in this
study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical
standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with
the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable
ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual
participants included in the study.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no competing
interests.
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Celeste M. Malone PhD, MS, is an assistant professor in the school
psychology program at Howard University. She received her doctorate
in school psychology from Temple University and her Masters degree in
counseling from Johns Hopkins University. Her main research interests
include multicultural competence in the training and practice of school
psychologists, school-based mental health services, and school climate.
Candyce R. Briggs PhD, is an assistant professor in the psychology
Program at the University of the District of Columbia. She received her
doctorate in school psychology (with a specialization in gifted education)
from the University of Iowa. Her research interests include African Amer-
ican students in gifted education and the effects of caregiver ethnicity on
student behavioral and social emotional outcomes.
Elizabeth Ricks PhD, is a visiting assistant professor of educational
psychology at Howard University. She earned a doctorate in educational
psychology at Howard University. Her research focuses on early child-
hood motivation and achievement.
Kyndra V. Middleton PhD, is associate professor and program coordi-
nator of educational psychology at Howard University. Her research fo-
cuses on ensuring test score validity for all students and increasing the
number of underrepresented minorities in STEM fields.
Sycarah Fisher PhD, received her doctoral training in School Psycholo-
gy at Michigan State University with an emphasis on working with cul-
turally diverse populations. Dr. Fisher’s research focuses on improving
life outcomes for diverse populations. This manifests itself in two distinct
lines of research. The first involves investigating protective factors and
outcomes for minority youth. The second line of research focuses on
expanded school mental health services, substance abuse and urban
schools.
James E. Connell PhD, is the clinical core director for the A.J. Drexel
Autism Institute at Drexel University. He received his doctorate in school
psychology from Louisiana State University. His research focuses on
identifying the variables that influence adult behavior change in commu-
nity settings.
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