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Analysing)labels,)associations,)and)sentiments)in)Twitter)
on)the)Abu)Sayyaf)kidnapping)of)Viktor)Okonek)
Abstract(
!
This! paper! investigates! Twitter! data! related! to! the!kidnapping! case! of! two! German!
nationals! in! the! southern! region! of! the! Philippines! by! the! Abu! Sayyaf! Group! (ASG).! It!
explores! perceptions! of! the! ASG,! along! with! associated! organizations! and! sentiments!
indicated! in! the! tweets! together! with! statistically! significant! relationships.! Findings!
revealed! that:! “Rebel”! and! “Militant”! were! the! most! frequently! used! labels! for! the! ASG;!
Majority! of! the! tweets! contained! sentiments! that! assess! threats! such! as! abduction! and!
kidnapping! of! hostages;! and! almost! half! contained!words! that! indicate! negotiation! or!
concession! to! the! demands! of! the! captors.! Logistic! regression! analyses! on! "Rebel"! and!
"Islamist"! revealed! positive! coefficients! for! these! sentiments! used! as! predictors.! This!
meant!that!people!who!assessed!threats!and!expressed!sentiments!that!responses!should!
concede!to!the!captors’!demands!were!more!likely!to! use! the! “Rebel”!or!“Islamist”!labels.!
Rather! than! the! two! longstanding! dominant! narratives! of! the! ASG! as! terrorist! and!
criminals,! the! emerging! rebel!and! militant!labels,! suggest! a! more! domestically! and!
politically! sensitive! Twitter! commentarial! than!represented! in! the! work! of! the! !"#$%&'%(
)&*+,-)( .%,%'-/0!exponents.! These! findings! along! with! the! complex!associated!political!
and!policy!contexts!and!implications!are!discussed!in!this!paper.!
!
Keywords:!Abu!Sayyaf,!Islamist,!Militant,!Mindanao,!Rebel,!Kidnapping,!Terrorism!
Introduction(
According! to! the! popular! award! winning! American! author/journalist! Mark! Bowden,!
Mindanao!and!the!ASG! are!very!much! ‘1-2%'-3+3(-*(4%,%'-3&56.! Such! high! profile! attention!
(primarily! off! the! back! of! the! 2001! ‘783( 4%"0%3( 9-'*%..-*/35(of! Martin! and! Gracia!
Burnham! (and! others)! by! the! ASG:( has! lead! to! a! well-established,! and! little! contested,!
focus!of!US!foreign!policy!around!‘;-/2+-*/(+2&0(+2&,&<(38(=&('8*>+(2%?&(+8(;-/2+(+2&0(2&,&5@A!!
Diplomatically!the!Philippines!stood!328B"'&,(+8(328B"'&,3(with!the!US!following!9/11!and!
demonstrated!this!by!promising!to!take!on!the!ASG4.!Making!Mindanao!the!poster-boy!for!
+2&( 3&)8*'( ;,8*+!thesis5,! portraying! it! as! the! go-to! sanctuary! in! the! region! for! +2&( 1-2%'A(!
While! a! precious! minority! has! advocated! caution! and! problems,! a! C'80-*%*+( 08'&"<(
.&,.&+B%+&'( -*( +2&( 0&'-%( DE( .,80-*&*+( )800&*+%+8,3( F82%*( GB*%,%+*%( %*'( H%)2%,E(
!DBI%JK,!have!established!an!influential!predilection!for!what!Carlyle!Thayer!called!the!C%"(
$%&'%#)&*+,-)(.%,%'-/0JLA((
(
The! Abu! Sayyaf! Group! is! one! of! many,! but! perhaps! the! most! telling! of! enigmas! in! the!
Muslim!insurgency!in!Mindanao.!Levels!of!understanding!on!who,!what,!and!why!+2&E!are!
is! perhaps! illustrated! best! and! most! recently! through! social! media! -! where! such!
(mis)understandings!proliferate,!complicate!and!cement.!The!Okonek!kidnapping!offers!us!
a!contemporary!case!to!analyse!how!+,%'-+-8*%"(0&'-%!previously!misled!the!public,!often!
through! reliance! on! questionable! academic! work,! against! contemporary! views! in! *&=(
0&'-%M!on! the! ASG.! The! labels,! associations,! and! sentiments! directed! towards! the! ASG!
elucidate!the!level!and!complexity!of!public!understanding!on!one!of!the!most!contentious!
and!important!aspect!of!one!of!the!world’s!longest!running!conflicts.!The!ASG!have!come!
!
to!represent!the!international!terror!dimension!to!what!until!9/11!was!regarded!as!largely!
an!indigenous!insurgency.!!The!‘.8.B"%,(,&.,&3&*+%+-8*3’9!in!the!media!of!the!ASG!have,!as!
Ugarte!has!shown,!come!from!a!reliance!on!official!reports,!resulting!in!propaganda.!!This!
research!was! undertaken!because!we! “,&%"-I&(+2%+( )"%-03( 2%?&( )8*3&NB&*)&3”6O !and!many!
claims! are! made! of! the! ASG,! this! would! be! an! opportune! moment! to! measure! those!
consequences.!
!
“The%phrase%"al-Qaeda-linked"%has%become%a%permanent,%self-perpetuating%fixture%that%
is%questioned%by%no%one%and%repeated%by%everyone.”11%
!
Supposedly!the! region! is! “%;;"-)+&'”12!by! an!ideological! menace! that! has!C32-;+&'( ;,80(+2&(
0-''"&(&%3+(+8(+2&(!3-%#.%)-;-)(,&/-8*J6PA( This!supposed! Q%"-D%*I%+-8*(8;(R8B+2&%3+( !3-%( as!
Bilveer!Singh!would!have!us!believe,!has!created!a!widespread!and!entrenched!postulation!
that! +2&( 1-2%'!is! connected,! conspiratorially! organised!and! controlled,! with! the! ASG! the!
lethal! tip! of! the! tentacle.! Mindanao! was! therefore! said! to! be! ‘+2&( *&S+( !;/2%*-3+%*56T!
because! of! the! ASG.! The!prominent! rationale! for! the! preoccupation! to!the! idea! that!
Southeast!Asia! and! Mindanao! in! particular!is! ‘)8**&)+&'5!is! through! a! pr ocess! known! as!
,%'-)%"-3%+-8*<(and!the!idea!of!failed!states!becoming!a!‘sanctuary’!or!‘breeding!ground’!for!
+2&( 1-2%'6U(by! the! spread! of! ,%'-)%"-I%+-8*.! Like! a! pathogen! spread! top-down! from! the!
ASG’s! “)2%,-30%+-)( "&%'&,3J6K(Mindanao!became! cast! by! way! of! little! more! than! second!
hand!unverifiable!stories:!
!
“Osama%personally%forged%the%link%with%Abdurajak%Janjalani,%the% founder%and%leader%of%
ASG.%ASG’S%organization,%ideology,%target%selection%and%tactics%are%deeply%influenced%by%
Al%Qaeda…%The%extent%of% the% Al-Qaeda-Philippines%link%was%such%that% by% integrating%a%
few%hundred%Moros%from%Mindanao,%in%the%southern%Philippines,%first%to%wage%jihad%and%
thereafter% to% secure% Al% Qaeda’s% assistance% in% their% fight% for% an% independent% Islamic%
state,%it%established%a%special%Moro%sub-brigade%in%Afghanistan.”17%
!
Academic! understanding! is! caught! between! Thayers! “,%'-)%""E( '-;;&,&*+( ?-&=J6M!and! the!
dangerous! ‘.%+28"8/-I-*/5!of! +2&( 1-2%'<!common! in! the! ,%'-)%"-3%+-8*!explanation,! as!
Hamilton-Hart!brilliantly!recognized19.!!The! armies!of!Overseas!Filipino! Workers!(OFWs)!
in!the!Middle!East!and!elsewhere,!who!come!and!go!routinely!are!seemingly!ignored!when!
it!comes!to!making!stark!warnings!based!on!the!!;/2%*(!"B0*-!who!apparently!C,&+B,*&'(
+8(+2&-,(280&"%*'3( %3( =&""<(-*;B3&'(=-+2(%('%*/&,8B3"E(,%'-)%"(V1-2%'(0&*+%"-+E5A”20!It!is! this!
backdrop! which! Ugarte! and! Turner! signalled! out! to! describe! the! 38)-%"( )8*3+,B)+-8*(of!
Mindanao:!
!
“This% social% construction% is% the% ‘enacted% environment’% (Weick%1977)…% we% ‘actually%
shape% future% realities’% (Morgan% 1989:% 93)% while% failing% to% appreciate% that% our%
perceptions% could% be% based% on% the% ‘fallacy% of% misplaced% concreteness’% (Whitehead%
1948).% That% is,% unwarranted% conclusions% are% drawn% about% the% way% things% are% (in% this%
particular%case,%what%the%‘Abu%Sayyaf’%actually%is).”21%
!
Analysis!of!the!Okonek!kidnapping!by! the!ASG!will!tell! us! how!the!social!media! users! of!
Twitter!commenting! on! the!incident!38)-%""E()8*3+,B)+!the! ASG,! and!the! conflict.!Do! they!
see!the!ASG!as!international!jihadists!linked!to!al!Qaeda22!with!“+&*+%)"&3J@P(everywhere!or!
as!O’Brien!noted,!local!‘bandits’24!playing!out!the!conflicts!“%/,%,-%*(,88+3”25?!!
!
!
Academics!have!commendably!exposed!the!flaws26!and! lack!of!evidence27!put! forward!to!
support!any!connections!the!ASG!and!the!conflict!in!Mindanao!has!to!+2&(/"8D%"(1-2%'.!ASG!
is!a!symptom!of!the!wider!“.&,3-3+&*+(;-S%+-8*(8*(W3"%0<(,%'-)%"-30(%*'(+&,,8,-30(8*(.%,+(8;(
+2&(.8"-)E( )800B*-+E”28!in!the! region!which! is!based! on!“%*&)'8+%"(V&?-'&*)&5”29!that!lacks!
basic!“%)%'&0-)()2&)X%D-"-+E”30.!And!while!the!academy!trades!scholastic!blows,!prominent!
exponents!continue!to!publish!new!material!with!the!ASG!the!go-to!targets!of!Mindanao31!
as! +2&( 1-2%'3!breeding! ground.! The! audience! for! these! publications,!as! seen! through!
Twitter,!is!likely!to!be!well!acquainted!with!the!media!savvy!‘experts’!of!Y-2%'(-*(Z-*'%*%8!
and! their! labels! for! the! ASG.! !Here! we! see! if,! and! how,! the! %"( $%&'%( )&*+,-)( .%,%'-/0!
manifests,!because!we! are!starting!to!see! a! revival!of!a! “;%"3&(%*%"8/EJP@ (on!Mindanao(in!
new! publications,! some! from! the! same! prominent! authors! who! have! yet! to! address! the!
questions!many!raised!previously.!!
Significance(of(the(Study((
!
Focus! on! a! single! incident!such!as! here! with! Okonek! isolate! views! of! those! on! Twitter!
against!such!a!backdrop.!This!analysis!therefore!starts!where!others!have!looked!into!this!
issue!before,!understanding!that! attention!needs! to!be! paid!C;,80( +2&( .&,3.&)+-?&(8;("8)%"(
,&%"-+-&3<(*8+(&S+&,*%""E(-0.83&'(8,/%*-/,%03JPP<(allowing!us!to!assess!perspectives!used!in!
this! ASG! incident.! This! is! a! pressing! issue! for! the! region! and! the! conflict,! as! the! ASG!
represent! its! most! dangerous! and! volatile! quantity! -! with! the! success! of! the! current!
Aquino! administrations! attempted! Bangsamoro! peace! deal! reliant! on! ASG! being!
inoculated! by! political! reconciliation! with! the! more! stable! and! overtly! political! Moro!
Islamic!Liberation!Front! (MILF).!Avoiding!questions!about!the!identity!and! perception! of!
the!ASG!will!only!further!many!of!the! current!problems! and!likely!lead!to!collapse!of!yet!
another!attempt!at!peace!in!Mindanao.!Without!research!into!current!understanding,!it!is!
difficult!to! see!how!the!necessary! public! support!can!be!obtained!to! achieve!any! success!
for! new! legislation! and! governance! in! Mindanao.! It!has! been! noted! previously! that!
avoiding!the!complexities!of!the!ASGs!meaning!has!lead!to!a!self-perpetuating!cycle:!
!
%“The%Abu%Sayyaf%seems%to%be%whoever%the%military%claims%it%to%be%and%given%those%who%
are% labelled% Abu% Sayyaf,% being% buried% six% feet% under,% could% no% longer% contest% the%
military’s%claims%of%being%just%that”34.%
!
Understanding! the! result! of! this! continued! pattern! for! “)8*?&*-&*+( DB+( 0-3"&%'-*/”35!
labelling! will! renew! focus! on! the! ASG! and! the! conflict! in! Mindanao! against! the! current!
backdrop!of!peace!negotiations.!Previous!statements!of!how!the!ASG!are!‘.&,)&-?&'5,!such!
as! here! by! O’Brien! have! not! been! well! sourced,! probably! relying! on! the! media!
representations!rather!than!perceptions!in!the!populous:!!
!
“Notably,%when%ASG% is% perceived% throughout%the% Philippines% as%nothing% more% than%an%
armed% kidnapping% gang,% this% creates%new% opportunities% to% gather% intelligence% from% a%
population% less% tolerant% of% their% purely% criminal% behavior…% Periods% of% heightened%
criminal% activity% make% it% more% difficult% for% a% group% like% ASG% to% portray% itself% as%
motivated% by% a% ‘‘greater% good’’—thus,% law% enforcement% and% security% agencies% can%
benefit% from% noting% this% and% capitalizing% on% a% group’s% ideological% vulnerabilities,%
weakening% its% resilience% to% a% point% where,% eventually,% the% group% can% no% longer%
survive.”36%
!
!
This! research! uses! Okonek! and! Twitter! as! the! basis! for! an! empirical! foundation! on! the!
latest’s! perceptions! of! the! ASG.! With! an! evidentiary! basis,! this! research! disagrees! with!
O’Brien! and! tells! us! that! those! who! did! label! the!ASG! in! the! Okonek! tweets! were! less!
inclined!towards!a!criminal!association.!
!
As! Woodier! noted! “,&.8,+-*/( 8;( +2&( +&,,8,( +2,&%+( -*( R8B+2&%3+( !3-%( -3( 8;+&*( B*-*+&""-/&*+<(
3-0."-3+-)<(%*'(3&*3%+-8*%"A(W+(8;+&*("%)X3(.&,3.&)+-?&(%*'(.,8.8,+-8*A(Journalism!on!the!ASG!
has! given! little! consideration! to! what! is! perhaps! the! guiding! question! on! terrorism!
understanding!-!!“28=('8(=&(X*8=(+2-3?”PL!Creditably!Ugarte! and! Turner!decided! to!“+&3+(
)"%-03(+2%+(+2&(V!DB(R%EE%;5(2%3(;&%+B,&3(8;(8,/%*-I%+-8*3(%3()8*?&*+-8*%""E(.8,+,%E&'(-*(+2&(
8,/%*-)(0&+%.28,(%*'(3+,B)+B,%"(;,%0&JPM<( finding! significant! disjuncture! in!the! reporting!
of! ASG! structure! compared! to! what! could! be! independently! verified.(We!thus! ask:(what!
narrative!did!the!Twitter!users!on!Okonek!fall!into?!
Background(
!
German!couple!Dr.!Stefan!Viktor!Okonek!and!Henrike!Dielen!spent!almost!seven!months!in!
captivity!after!being!seized!from!their!yacht!in!April!2014,!about!10!nautical!miles!off!the!
coast! of! Rio! Tuba! in! Palawan.! With! the! backdrop! of! recent! video! decapitations! of!
international! journalists! James! Foley,! Steven! Sotloff,! and! David! Haines! by! an! Islamic!
extremist!group!in! August! and! September!of!that! year,! the! Abu!Sayyaf!group!(ASG)!had!
threatened!to!behead!Dr.!Okonek,!even!showing!pictures!of!him!standing!on!his!supposed!
grave,!unless!a!ransom!demand!of!P250!million!was!paid,!with!the!deadline!set!on!October!
17,! 15:00! (local! time).! After! a! brief! period! of! uncertainty! between! negotiations! and!
deadline!extensions,!the!ASG!claimed!that!their!ransom!demand!had!been!met,!prompting!
the!release!of!Okonek!and!Dielen!on!the!evening!of!October!17!in!Barangay!Sandah,!Patikul,!
Sulu39.! During!the! most!critical!moments! in!October,! in! addition!to! extensive!traditional!
media! coverage! such! as! local! television! and! radio,! the! events! garnered! substantial!
attention!in!online!news!sources!and!social!media!with!more!international!audiences.!
!
The! ASG! has! had! a! reported! connection40!to! international! terror! since! 9/11.! Studies! of!
their! /&*&%"8/E!linked! them! most! often! (but! not! exclusively)!to! the! global! scope! of! al!
Qaeda!41!or! the! more! regional!Jemaah! Islamiya42.! The! ASG! have! become! the! Southeast!
Asian!associate,!offspring,!franchise,!affiliate!43,!or!however!it!is!termed,!of!+2&(1-2%'!lead!by!
“0&33-%*-)(%*'(0E3+-)”TT!figures.!This!leads!to!“[;;-)-%"(%*'(0&'-%(38B,)&3([that]()8*+-*B%""E(
,&;&,( +8( %( 38)-%"( &*+-+E( X*8=*( %3( +2&( V!DB( R%EE%;5”TU.! As! Docena! astutely! noted,! the! ASG!
became! one! of! the! foundations! for! the! logic! behind! greater! US! military! attention!to! the!
region!in!+2&(=%,(8*(+&,,8,:!
%“Speaking% of%the% Abu% Sayyaf,% no% mention% of% the% group% now% seems% to% be% complete%
without%the%phrase%"al-Qaeda%linked".%News%report%after%news%report%point%out%that%the%
Abu%Sayyaf%is%linked%to%Osama%bin%Laden's%worldwide%network%and%leave%it%at%that%-%as%
though%such%a%claim%has%been%established%and%is%not%to%be%questioned%any%longer.”46%%
!
Occasionally,! this! already! murky! portrayal! is! muddied! further! with! the! complexities! of!
involvement! with! ‘networked’! crime47 .! As! a! result! “+2&( "%D&"( V!DB( R%EE%;5( /,%'B%""E(
B*'&,=&*+(%(.,8)&33(8;(-*;"%+-8*”TM!into!terrorism49.! It! is!unclear! whether!or! not!this!story!
of!+,%*3-+-8*!or!-*;"%+-8*!to!terror!is!accurate,!but!nevertheless!it!is!well!reported!that!the!
ASG!sits!at!the!nexus!50!of!crime!and!terror.!!
!
!
Objectives(of(the(Study(
This! paper! investigates! Twitter! data! related! to! the! Viktor! Okonek! and! Henrike! Dieter!
kidnapping! by! the! ASG.! It! will! determine! perceptions! of! the! ASG! and! associated!
organizations! along! with! sentiments! indicated! in! the! tweets! and! explore! statistically!
significant! relationships.! The! analysis! specifically! addresses! the! following! research!
questions:!
!
1)!What!labels!were!used!in!the!tweets!to!describe!the!Abu!Sayyaf!group?!!
2)!What!organizations!that!may!be!associated!with!the!ASG!were!mentioned!in!the!tweets?!
3)!What!were!the!sentiments!found!in!the!tweets?!
4)!How! are!these!variables!related!to!each!other!and!how!are!the!labels!used!to!describe!
the!ASG!predicted!by!these!other!variables?!
!
Finally,! the! study! also! aims! towards! an! understanding! of! perceptions! and! framing!of!
terrorist!and!criminal!organizations!such!as!the!ASG!within!the!Mindanao!context!and!its!
implications.!Crucially! this! will! be! the! first! attempt! to! find! and! test! any! popular!
appreciation!of!the!%"($%&'%()&*+,-)(.%,%'-/0A(
Data(and(Methods(
Twitter! data! was! collected! via! the! Search! API! (application! programming! interface51 )
during!the! most!critical!days!of!the!Viktor!Okonek!and!Henrike!Dieter!kidnapping!by!the!
Abu!Sayyaf!Group.!The!data!collection!methods!adopted!for!this!paper!are!similar!to!those!
used!by!Burnap!et!al.52!and!Cheong!and!Lee53!in!order!to!determine!keywords!for!queries,!
tweet!gathering!procedures,!and!utilization!of!other!online!facilities!such!as!Google!Trends.!
Data!suggests!an!issue!attention!cycle!of!about!17!days!when!public!attention!and!Twitter!
activity! related! to! the! event!w as!m ost!frequent.! The! sampling! time! frame! for! this! study!
was!the!period!of!October!9th!to!25th!of!2014!from!which!we!collected!N=!9026!tweets.!
!
The!sample!was!subjected!to!pre-processing!and!recoding!prior!to!modelling,!as!described!
below.! Collection! was! performed! using! JAVA! code! ran! in! NetBeans! IDE! to! access! and!
retrieve! Twitter! data! automatically,! and! converted! into! CSV! form at.! NVIVO,! a! Computer!
Assisted!Qualitative!Data!Analysis! Software! (CAQDAS)!was! utilized! for!initial! analysis! of!
text!contents!via!word!frequencies,!distribution,!and!clustering.!Spreadsheet!software!was!
then! used! for! coding,! recoding,! data! checking,! and! creation! of! additional! variables! for!
further!analysis!based!on!initial!findings!from!CAQDAS.!!
!
Upon! creation! of! a! consolidated! dataset! from! the! Twitter! data! sample,! descriptive!
statistics! and! various! statistical! methods! such! as! chi-square,! bivariate! correlation!
(Spearman’s! rho)! were! performed.! ! All! English!tweets! were! then! filtered! (N=3524)! for!
further! analyses! such! as! binary! logistic! regression! with! the! aid! of! statistical! analysis!
software.!Collected!data!that!were!used!in!the!analysis!includes:!Tweet!details!such!as!date!
creation,! language,! ID,! text;! Twitter! user! details! such! as! name,! location,! description,!
account! creation! date,! followers! count,! friends! count,! status! count,! etc.;! Additional! data!
were!also!obtained!from!sources!such!as!IMF!and!World!Bank,!based!on!country!location!
information! for! preliminary! analyses! such! as! bivariate! correlations,! though! are! not!
included! in! the! regression! models! due! to! incomplete! or! unavailable! user! details! that!
would!result!in!a!substantial!decrease!of!samples!size.!!
!
!
Variables!extensively!used! in!the!analysis!are!based!on! most!frequently!occurring!words!
determined!using!CAQDAS!and!keywords!and!categories!in!sentiment! analysis!utilized!in!
previous! literature! on! terrorism54!or! on! event! focused! case! studies55.! On! the! basis! that!
“)"%33-;E-*/(&08+-8*%"( )8*+&*+( ;,80( -*;8,0%+-8*%"( )8*+&*+(,&0%-*3( %*(-0.8,+%*+( )2%""&*/&(
-*(38)-%"(0&'-%(%*%"E3-3JUK<(attempts!at!scaling!sentiment!become!particularly!salient!when!
applied! on! a! high! publicity! event! such! as! this.! Also! when! they!involve! a! vaguely!(and!
contested)!criminal,! terrorist,! and! extremist! group,! with! rescue! efforts! coordinated! by!
multiple! agencies! and! countries,! with!outcomes! affecting! public! perceptions.! It! must!
however!be! noted! that!aside! from! previously!utilized! approaches!to! sentiment! analysis,!
analysts! may! still! employ! various! critical! and! qualitative! methods! to! understand! tweet!
content!and!individual!perspectives.!Categories!may!also!be!customized!in!order!to!adjust!
to!particular!cultures!or!events!that!transpire.!
!
The!group! labels! and! organization! connection!variables!used! are! based! on!the! study! by!
Ugarte!and!Turner57!as!well!as!the!most!frequent!descriptions!of!the!ASG!from!online!news!
articles! related! to! the! kidnapping.! Possible! label! variables! included:! bandit,!criminal,!
extremist,!fighter,!Islamist,!jihadist,!kidnapper,!militant,!muslim/moslem,!rebel,!separatist,!
and!terrorist.!!
!
Logistic!regressions!were!applied!to!explain!occurrence!of!the!three!most!frequently!used!
labels! in! tweets! for! the! ASG,!with! variables! such! as! sentiment! categories,! associated!
organizations,! and! if! indicated! location.! The! outcome! variables:! "Rebel",! "Militant",! and!
"Islamist"! were! coded! 1! if! it! is! mentioned! in! the! tweet! and! 0! oth erwise.! The! predictors!
were:! Sentiment! categories! -! Assessments! of! Threats,! Response! conceding! to! the! ASG!
demands,!Emotions!of!Fear!or!Anxiety,!Response!and!Law!Enforcement,!and!Assessments!
of!Casualties;!Mentioned!Associations!-!Islamic!State!(ISIS),!Moro!Islamic!Liberation!Front!
(MILF),! al! Qaeda;! and! if! location! indicated! is! the! Philippines.!Data! encoding,! pre-
processing,!treatment!and!modelling,!were!conducted!following!statistical!procedures!for!
binary!logistic!regression58.!
!
Analysis(and(Results
From!the!9,026!tweets!related!to!the!ASG!kidnapping,!four!out!of!five!users!with!the!most!
tweets!were!located!in!the!Philippines!(Refer!to!table!1).!User!descriptions!indicated!that!
these!four!users!were!news!organizations/companies.!Despite!only!being!the!third!highest!
number! of! tweets,! the! most! prominent! among! the! top! five! is! “DZBB! Super! Radyo”! with!
38,124!followers,! Super! Radyo! DZBB! 594! kHz!is! the! flagship! AM! radio! station! of! Radio!
GMA! Network! Inc.! in! the! Philippines! –! a! subsidiary! of! one! of! the! largest! broadcasting!
networks!in!the!country!and!one!of!the!top!AM!stations!in!Metro!Manila.!!Interestingly,!55!
Tagalog! tweets!from! DZBB! Super! Radyo!focused! on! beheading! (.%/.B/8+),! ransom,!
government!offensive!and!rescue!efforts,!with!more!mention!on!the! Armed! Forces! of! the!
Philippines!(AFP)! and! military!related! matters.! Similarly,! all! of! their! five!English!tweets!
suggested!means!to!counter!ASG!and!to!support!government!actions.!Among!the!top!five!
users,! only! “James! Greid”! from! Canada! was! an! individual! user! with!40! tw eets,! with! the!
other!three!being!primarily!online!news!organizations.!
!
When!considering!only!English!tweets,!all!of!the!top!five!users!were!from!the!Philippines.!
The!aforementioned!three:!“PINOY!NEWS!PORTAL”,!“PHILIPPINE!NEWS”,!and!“PHL!News!
Online”!were!still!included!in!the!top!5!users.!However!this!time,!the!most!prominent!was!
“Rappler”! with! 518837!followers,! Rappler! is! a! comparatively!recent! news! organization,!
based! in! the! Philippines,! known! for! pioneering! new! forms! of!internet! based! ‘0B"+-#
!
."%+;8,0(3+8,E+&""-*/5,!with!services!available!on!desktop!and!mobile!browsers.!Somewhat!
similar! to!DZBB,! the! English! tweets!posted! by! Rappler! mostly!highlighted! hostages,!
deadline,!and!government!reactions.!The!beheading!aspect!was!also!mentioned!but!not!as!
frequent.!Maria!Ressa!(alongside!Gunaratna!and!Abuza)!is!the!queen!of!the!0&'-%('%,"-*/3(
8;(Y-2%'(-*(Z-*'%*%8<(as!noted!above,!founded!Rappler59.!Her!work,!which!has!confusingly!
straddled!journalism! and! academia,! unashamedly! claims!special!and!privileged!access!to!
classified! materials,! which! she! does! not! disclose.! And! though! her! work! and! has! been!
regularly! and! extensively! criticised,60!her! recent! work! -! a! “.8=&,;B"( *%,,%+-?&( +2%+( /"B&3(
+8/&+2&,(38)-%"(*&+=8,X3(\(D8+2(.2E3-)%"(%*'(?-,+B%"(\(=2-)2(3.,&%'(+2&(1-2%'-(?-,B3(;8,0(D-*(
]%'&*(+8(^%)&D88X”61!is!a!pseudo-academic!study!of!an!event.!Probably!best!illustrated!in!
the!8!pages!that!list!the!“_%3+(8;(_2%,%)+&,3”!and!12!pages!of!hard!to!understand!network!
maps,!which!are!only!very!briefly!explained,!though!not!methodologically.!Where!this!data!
came!from!is!anyone’s!guess.!The!various!nodes!on!the!‘sociograms’!look!complicated!and!
presumably! are! there! to! give! the! book! some! academic! heft! so! that! ‘the! network’!
connection!is!irrefutable,!with!such!complicated!diagrams!to!prove!it.!!
!
Ressa!is!at!the!centre!of!this!issue,!she!owns!a!social!media!company!to!disseminate!the!%"(
$%&'%()&*+,-)(.%,%'-/0.!She! does!this!by! pointing!vaguely!to! evils!found!in! social! media!
and!unscientifically!makes!associative!claims!such!as! Filipinos!(or! Filipino!organizations,!
the!ASG!included)!being!interconnected!to!the!global!terrorist!scourge:!!
!!
“Filipinos%connect% with%al-Qaeda-linked%groups% in% Somalia% and% Yemen.% The% black%flag-%
embedded% in% al-Qaeda%lore%–% pops% up% on% websites%and% Facebook% pages% from% around%
the%world,%including% the%Philippines,%Indonesia,%the%Middle%East,%Afghanistan,%Australia%
and%North%Africa.”62%%
%%
It! must! be! noted! that! although! Ressa! has! not! collected! substantial! amounts! of! data! or!
applied!Burnap!et! al’s! or!Cheong!and! Lee’s!methods.! After!seeing!some! dastardly!looking!
Facebook! pages,! she! has! used! them! to! artificially! 08'&,*-3&!the! connections! between!
Mindanao! and! +2&( 1-2%'.! As! such,! there! is! no! justification! as! to! why! the! few! al! Qaeda!
decorated!Facebook! pages!may! be! more! significant!than! the! many! more! with!memes! of!
cats!playing!the!piano!or!dogs!on!surfboards.!!
!!
Among!users!who!specified!their!locations,!the!top!five!countries!with!the!most!number!of!
tweets! were:! The! Philippines,! Indonesia,! Germany,! Malaysia,! and! USA.! These!possibly!
relate! to! the! geographic! distance,! number! of! Filipinos! living! in! the! country,! and! the!
involvement! of! the! country!(in! the! case! of! Germany)! to! the! kidnapping.! As! for! English!
tweets!that!comprised!39.04%!of!the!sample,!the!most!numerous!came!from:!Philippines,!
Malaysia,!Nigeria,!Bahrain,!and!UK.!There!were!only!59!(1.67%)!English!tweets!that!came!
from!Germany.
Labels( for( the( Abu( Sayyaf( Group,( other( organizations( mentioned,( and(
sentiments(in(tweets(
Rebels! and! Militants! were! the! most! frequently! used! labels! (15.75%! and! 14.10%!
respectively)!for!the!Abu!Sayyaf!in!English!tweets.!Only!3.38%!of!the!tweets!label!them!as!
Islamists.!Other!labels!appear!less!than!1%!among!the!tweets!(Refer!to!Table!2).!!
!
For!the!"Rebel"!label,!looking!at!the!strongest!correlations!that!these!two!labels!have!with!
other! variables:! the! use! of! the! label! "rebel"! was! found! to! have! positive! significant!
correlations!with!sentiments!related!to! threat!assessment!(.311,!p<0.001)! and!responses!
!
conceding! to! the! ASG! demands! (.404,! p<0.001),! along! with! the! distance! of! the! tweet!
location!country!from! Jolo!(.276,!p<0.001),!GDP! per!capita!of!the!country!(.248,!p<0.001)!
and!if!the!country!is!predominantly!Muslim!(.366,<0.001).!!
!
On!the!other!hand,!the!"militant"!label!was!found!to!have!a!strong!positive!correlation!with!
the!"Islamist"!label! (.407,! p<0.001)!along!with! the! distance!of!the! tweet! location!country!
from!Jolo! (.308,!p<0.001),!and! had!a! negative! correlation!with! sentiments! related! to!law!
enforcement!(-.155,!p<0.001).!!!
!
Only!1.42%! of!the! English!tweets! mentioned! ISIS,!while! organizations! such! as! the!MILF!
and!Al! Qaeda!were! mentioned!less! than! 1%! of!the! time.! Less!than! a!handful! tweets!had!
mentioned!the!MNLF!or!the!Jemaah!Islamiyah.!
!
Majority!(61.21%)!of!the!tweets!in!English!contained!sentiments!that!assess!threats!such!
as!abduction!and!kidnapping!of!hostages.!About!half!(43.44%)!contained!words!pertaining!
to! responses! such! as! payment! of! ran som,! that! indicate! negotiation! or! concession! to! the!
demands!of!the!captors.!!Less!than!a!quarter!of!the!tweets!contained!the!more!evocative!of!
categories!such!as!fear!anxiety!(20.66%)!and!pessimistic!scenarios!of!casualty!assessment!
(14.22%).!It!is!then! worth!mentioning! that!although!the!top!Twitter!users!with!the!most!
followers!such!as! DZBB!and!Rappler,! references!to!government!response,!the!category! of!
Response!and!Law!Enforcement!sentiment,!was!found!to!be!only!in!16.69%!of!the!tweets.
Correlations(of(sentiment(category(variables((
Utilizing!similar!variable!categories!employed! in! sentiment!analysis!by!other!researchers!
on!civilian! sentiment! and! response! to! terrorism! events! via!Twitter,! results! of!this! study!
indicate! that! sentiments! that! contain! assessments! of! threats! had! positive! significant!
correlations! with! the! sentimen ts! of! responses! pertaining! to! negotiating! or! con ceding! to!
ASG!demands!(.256,!p<0.001),!while!negatively!correlated!with!responses!mentioning!law!
enforcement! and! government! action! (-.272,!p<0.001).! As! mentioned! previously,! it! was!
found!to! be! positively!correlated! with! the! label! of! "rebel".! Whether!the! tweet! was!from!
Germany! was! found! not! to! be! significantly! correlated! to! the! sentiment,! but! it! was!also!
found!that! the!distance!(in! terms!of! kilometers)! of!Jolo!to! the!tweet! source!location! was!
positively!correlated!(.278,!p<0.001),!that!is!to!say!-!the!farther! the!distance,!the!more!of!
such!sentiments!were!observed.!!
The! conceding! responses! category! was! found! to! be!negatively! correlated! to! sentiments!
containing!assessments! of! casualties! (-.211,!p<0.001),! while! positively! correlated! to! the!
"rebel"!label!(.404,p<0.001).!
!
Sentiments! that! contain! emotions! of! fear! and! anxiety! were! found! to! be! significantly!
correlated!with!assessments!of!casualties!(.597,!p<0.001)!as!words!that!evoke!worrisome!
and! fearful! emotions! are! usually! accompanied! by! words! detailing! consequences! to! the!
victims.!!
!
Interestingly,! sentiments! that! mentioned! responses! of! law! enforcement! had! a! positive!
correlation! if! the! tweets! came! from! the! Philippines! (.229,!p<0.001).! While! a! negative!
correlation!with!distance!of!Jolo!to!the!tweet!source!location!(-.282,!p<0.001),!that!is!to!say!
-!the!farther!the!distance,!the!less!responses!of!law!enforcement!were!observed.!!
!
Sentiments!that!contain!assessments!of!casualties!had!a!negative!correlation!with!the!label!
of!"militant"(.130,!p<0.001).!
!
!
Overall,!it! was!also!observed!for!the! preliminary! analysis!that! the!GDP! per! Capita!of! the!
country!were!the!tweet!was!located!had!positive!correlations!with!the!threat!assessment,!
conceding! responses,! fearful! emotion,! casualty! assessment! sentiments,! while! a! negative!
correlation!with!law!enforcement! responses.!!!Further,!it! was!also!found!that! distance! of!
the! country! were! the! tweet! was! located! had! positive! correlations! with! the! threat!
assessment,! conceding! responses,! casualty! assessment! sentiments,! while! also! having! a!
negative!correlation!with!law!enforcement!responses.
Significant(Predictors(of(Labels((
For! the! binary! logistic! regression! analyses,! results! show! that! sentiments! that! contain!
'assessment! of! threats'! and! 'responses! that! concede! to! the! kidnappers'! demands'!
significantly! predicted! usage! of! "Rebel",! "Militant",! and! "Islamist"! labels! for! the! ASG.!
Analyses! on! "Rebel"! and! "Islamist"! revealed! positive! coefficients! for! these!predictors,!
whereas!"Militant"!had!a!negative!coefficient.!As!shown!in!Table!3,!exp(b)!values!indicate!
that!when!the!sentiments!increase!the!more!likely!that!the!two!labels!are!used,!while!it!is!
the! inverse! for! militant.! Test!of! the! full! model! against! a! constant! only! model! was!
statistically!significant,!indicating!that!the!predictors!as!a!set!reliably!distinguished!usage!
of! labels! for! the! ASG.! The! model! explained! a! significant! proportion! of! variance! on! the!
usage!of! the!labels,! particularly!for!"Rebel"!(Nagelkerke! R²! =!.45).!Significant! associated!
organizations! predictors! was! the! MILF! for! the! "Islamist"! label.! While! for! the! "Militant"!
label,!the!ISIS!association!predictor!had!a!negative!coefficient.!
!
These! findings! may! also! be! interpreted! as! usage! of! the! two!labels! evoking! associated!
sentiments!of! threats!and! necessary!responses! taken!more! seriously.!Or! as!congruent! to!
the! Rebel! or! Islamist! perceived! identity.! Curiously,! though! the! significant! predictor! of!
location!specified!being!the!Philippines!seem!to!suggest!that!these!labels!are!less!likely!to!
be!used!if!the!tweet!location!is!specified!as!originated!from!the!country.
Discussion((
What(labels(were(used(in(the(tweets(to(describe(the(Abu(Sayyaf(group?(What(
are(the(most(frequent(labels(used(in(English(tweets?(
!
The!two!most!common!labels!used!(see!table!2a)!denote!a!distinct!political!element!to!the!
ASG!–! ‘rebel’! and! ‘militant’.! ! Kidnapping! is! not! uncommon! in! the! Philippines63!and! often!
the! more! common! label! associated! in! kidnappings! centres!on! the! criminality! –! usually!
‘bandit’! or! ‘criminal’.! ! As! O’Brien! noted,! the! “-*+&,3&)+-8*”64!of! crime! and! terror! adds! a!
further!level!of!complexity!to!the!ASG.!As!such!the!research!seems!to!show!how!the!ASG!in!
the!Okonek!case! have!had!their! status!‘B./,%'&'5!as!it!were!from!mere! banditry! to!some!
element! of! political! labelling.! The! ASG! are! an! enemy! of! Filipino! state! forces! and! it! is!
unlikely!that!on!any!issue!they!would!be! labelled!as!anything!other! than! a!term!denoting!
them!as!insurgents!of!the!state.!
!
The!second!group!of!terms,!which!would!demonstrate!some!recital!of!the!!"($%&'%()&*+,-)(
.%,%'-/0<!are!Islamist,!Muslim,!and!Jihadist,!with!the!three!being!minority!labels.!Even!on!
an!issue!of!international!concern,!the!kidnapping!for!ransom!of!foreign!nationals,!Twitter!
commenters!who! chose! to! label! the! ASG,! interpreted! the! ASG! as! local! insurgents.! The!
public! is! used! to! seeing! ASG! as! an! enemy! of! the! Filipino! state! needing! state! sanctioned!
!
military! countenance! and! the! labels! suggest! this! is! understanding! behind! the! primarily!
label! for! the! ASG!in! this! case.!The! evidence! of!this! is! likely!to! be! well!received! in! policy!
circles!in!Manila!advocating!for!continued!military!operations!in!the!region.!If!the!general!
public! is! of! a! similar! mind! to! the! Twitter! users! on! the! Okonek!case,! it! suggests! that! a!!
cemented!view!of!the! ASG!as!an!internal!struggle!for!political!power!in!Mindanao.!This!is!
despite!the!overtly!wild!claims!of!internationally!fuelled!and!facilitated!terrorism!by!Ressa,!
Abuza!and!Gunaratna.!
! !
This! finding! lends! support! to! the! importance! of! the! complexities! of! Filipino! politics,!
identity! and! citizenship,! reflected! in! very! 21st!century! expressions! on! the! conflict.! The!
complex! physical! and! human! geography! of! the! nation! and! Mindanao! itself! mean! the!
diverse!ethno–cultural!heritage!of!the!conflict!remain!pertinent!issues.!Here!the!evidence!
suggests! they! are! more! pertinent,! rather! than! Mindanao! and! the! ASG!serving!as! a!
sanctuary! for! jihadists.! ! These! findings! reinforce! the! recommendation! that! further!
research! is! needed! on! “&08+-8*%"( /&8/,%.2EJKU !as! Woon! terms! it! to! further! examine! the!
seemingly!realized!fragmented!sense!of!nationhood,!identity!and!reality!at!play.!As!Woon!
noted! from! fieldwork! in! the! region! “-+( -3( +2,8B/2( +2-3( .,8)&33( +2%+( 08,&( &S.%*3-?&( %*'(
*B%*)&'( X*8="&'/&3(8;( ?-8"&*)&( %*'( +&,,8,( )%*( D&( /&*&,%+&'<( +2&,&DE( -*?%"-'%+-*/(
3&)8*'%,E<( '-3)B,3-?&( %*%"E3&3( 8;( +2&3&( &?&*+3( %3( +2&( 38"&( '80 -*%*+( ,&;"&)+-8*( 8;( ,&%"-+E,”66.!
The!secondary! discursive!labels! of!the! %"($%&'%( )&*+,-)( .%,%'-/0!on! the! ASG! have!been!
detailed!and!nuanced!and!as!we!see!next,!invalidated!by!38)-%"(0&'-%(;-&"'=8,X(KL A!
!
This!research!allowed!us!to!ask!if!the!ASG!were!seen!as!.-,%+&3(-*(.%,%'-3&68!or!1-2%'-3+3(-*(
.%,%'-3&?!And!the!answer!was!neither,!these!two!longstanding!narratives!of!the!ASG!were!
not! found!significantly!and! the! emerging! F&D&"!and! Z-"-+%*+!labels! may! surprise! close!
observers!of!commentary! on!the! ASG.!!This!suggests! a!more! domestically!and!politically!
sensitive! Twitter! commentarial! than! represented! in! the! work! of! the! !"#$%&'%( )&*+,-)(
.%,%'-/0!exponents.!
!
While!64.39%!(2269)!of!the!English!tweets!had!no!label!for!the!ASG,!the!fact!that!35.61%!
(1255)!of!the!tweets!did!seek!to!label!the!ASG!does!demonstrate!an!ASG!labelling!issue!in!a!
third! of! tweets.! The! relative! conformity! in! those! tweets! to! label! ASG! in! political! terms!
should! not! be! regarded! as! representative! on! its! own! though.! Labels! are! of! course!
difficult69;! hence! this! research.! Given! the! nature! of! commentary! on! the! ASG! the! next!
marker!is!often!organizational.!
What(organizations( that(may(be( associated(with( the(ASG( were(mentioned( in(
the(tweets?( ( (
!
As!a!marker!of!ASG’s!connections,!the!tweets!on!the!Okonek!incident!showed! only!2.58%!
(91)!of!English!tweets!added!an!organization!to!the!ASG.!Perhaps,!the!ASG!is!understood!
as!an! organization!in!its! own! right,! and!that!the!need! to! ‘link’!to! other! entities!is! only! a!
minor!concern.!!Where!an!organization!(and!we!use!this!term!loosely,!with!the!term!group!
already!taken!by!the!ASG!name!itself)!is!mentioned!in!the!same!tweet,!the!currency!of!ISIS!
as! the! ‘latest’,! most! publicized! organization! at! the! time,! appears! to! supplant! the! longer!
term!regional!Jemaah!Islamiyah,!50! tweets!against!just! 2.! !Links!to! organizations!are!not!
prevalent! and! the! tiny! minority! of! tweets! that! did! link! the! ASG! looked! to! the! most!
newsworthy!–!ISIS,!despite!it!being!the!most!remote.!
!
!
Contrast! the! 2%! figure! of! organisation! V"-*X%/&3’! with! the! scope! of! ‘expert’! academic!
attention!placed!on!linkage!and!we!have!empiricied!a!significant!disjuncture.!As!Fealy!and!
Thayer!noted!“-*+&,*%+-8*%"(%*'(,&/-8*%"(+&,,8,-30(3.&)-%"-3+3(8;+&*(B3&(V"-*X%/&5(-*(3B)2(%*(
-""#'&;-*&'( %*'( -*'-3),-0-*%+&( =%E( +2%+( "%)X3( %*%"E+-)%"( %)B-+E( %*'( &S."%*%+8,E( .8=&,”LO.!
Twitter!users!motives!cannot!be!read!from!this!data!but!it!appears!as!if!Colliers!warning!
against! “%33B0-*/( %( =8,"'( 8;( )"&%,"E( D8B*'&'( 8,/%*-I%+-8*3”71!is! not! needed! for! Twitter!
users! who! may! understand! the! complexities! and! informality! of! social! groupings! well.!
Rather,!the!advice!remains!pertinent!to!those!for!whom!the!issue!of!organisational!linkage!
remains!a!primary!concern!-!particularly!amongst!some!journalists!and!academics.!
What(were(the(sentiments(found(in(the(tweets?( (
!
Over!the!course!of!the!events,!the!majority!of!the!sentiments!found!in!the!tweets!assessed!
the!physical!threats!to!the!victims!(61.21%),!expressed!concession!towards!the!demands!
of! the! captors! (43.44%),! and! conveyed! anxiety! and! fear! (20.66%).! Interestingly,! though!
some!(14.22%)!had!sentiments!describing!casualties!and!even!a!few!(1.42%)!who!foresaw!
slightly!optimistic!views!that!the!victims!may!escape,!almost!nobody!had!expressed!shock!
in! their! tweets.! This! may! be! attributed! to! the! rampant! occurrences! of! kidnapping! that!
plague!the!country,!particularly!in!rural!areas.!Such!sentiments!suggest!that!it!has!become!
an!unfortunate! part! of! life!and! a! lucrative! endeavour!for! lawless! elements! to! engage! in.!
And!that!the!relatively!rational!course!of!action!is!to!concede!to!the!kidnappers!demands!
rather! than! risk! harm,! particularly! when! dealing! with! those! considered! as! ,&D&"3!that!
appear!to!be!beyond!the!state!and!its!societal!norms.!
!
The!“+,&0&*'8B3(/,8=+2”72!in!the!study!of!terrorism!through!novel! and!potentially!useful!
methodologies!such!as!informatics73!present!a!renewed! chance!to! bamboozle!the! public.!
By!focusing!on!social!network!analysis74!on!groups!such!as!ASG,!or!terrorism!more!broadly!
the! danger! again! is! that! it! may! mislead! the! public.! Studies! that! have! looked! into! the!
Twitter!activity!of!those!afflicted!by!conflict!(such!as!in!the! Z&S-)%*(7,B/(`%,75:!suggest!
uses!beyond!immediate!crisis76.!Information!sharing!and!the!ecosystem!of!commentary!is!
far!less! risky!and!less! bounded! by!proximity! to! the!events.! Commenting! on! the!ASG! and!
Okonek!we!have!seen!that!the!B3&,(/&*&,%+&'()2%**&"77(differs! from! the!academic,!media!
and!policy!channels.!!
Conclusions(
As! the! findings! of! this! study! have!revealed,! depictions! of! the! ASG! as! a! terrorist!
organization! has! not! stuck.! That! they! are! perceived! as! primarily! rebels,! militants,! or!
Islamists,!by!those!who!chose!to!label!them,!despite!the!milieu!of!atrocities!carried!out!by!
other! extremists! clearly! visible! online,! is! an! important! insight.! With! the! group! itself!
threatening!to!mimic!the! execution!of!their!captives!unless!their! demands!were!met,!this!
ISIS,!al!Qaeda!mimicry!did!not!lead!to!labelling!and!association!compatible!to!the!%"($%&'%(
)&*+,-)(.%,%'-/0.! However,! the! findings! also! indicated! that! tweets! from! the! Philippines!
were!less!likely!to!use!these!labels.!That!may!imply!that!either!the!locals!do!not!classify!the!
ASG!with!these!labels!or!that!an!international!audience!chooses!to!brand!the!ASG!as!such!
in! another! way.! In! either! case,! the! ASG! has! not! been! significantly! perceived! as!
international!terrorists.!!As!Michael!Stohl!has!eloquently!argued!in! his!critical!analysis! of!
knowledge! claims! and! terrorism;! “+2&(%B'-&*)&( -3( *8+( .&,3B%'&'JLM!even! when! presented!
with! an! overwhelming! diet! of! claims! on! *&=( +&,,8,( *&+=8,X3.! ! Additional! future!
introspection! should! be! done! to! determine! as! to! whether! the! state,! media,! or!
!
propagandists! had! failed! to! persuade! the! netizens! of! the! ASG! being;! terrorists! doing!
criminal!acts,!criminals!engaging!in!terrorist!acts,!or!simply!opportunists!wanting!to!make!
a!quick!buck.!
!
The! repeated! reports! that! Mindanao! threatens! to! be! ‘the! next! Afghanistan’! which! are!
&)28&'!in! the! social! media! posts! of! organisations! like! Rappler! are! not! replicated! by!
individual!Twitter!users.!On!this!topic!we!can!see!that!Twitter!is!not!an!&)28()2%0D&,La!for!
+2&( %"( $%&'%( )&*+,-)( .%,%'-/0.! This! is! despite! ‘Afghanistan! cautioning’! becoming!well!
cemented! in! Filipino! domestic! policy! towards! Mindanao,! and! outside! in! the! regional!
3&)8*'( ;,8*+!informed! policies! explicit! in! many! diplomatic! relations.! Arguably! such!
cautioning! was! at! its! peak! in! 2005,! but! repeated! in! 200980!and! then! affirmed! in! 2011,!
following! the! Wikileaks! diplomatic! cable! release! in! 201081!when! various! press! stories!
circulated!that!were!both!embarrassing82!for!US-Filipino!relations!and!provide!some!rare!
detailed! evidence! of! the! extent!to! which! the! US! was! providing! tactical! and! intelligence!
support83.! This! situation!however! did! not! come! to! pass! overnight,!but!rather!because! of!
the! protracted! nature! of! the! conflict! and! the! history! of! rebellion,! insurgency! and! anti-
colonialism! in! Mindanao,! the! region!has! always! been,! and! continues! to! be! opportunely!
deemed!as!a!hotbed!for!insurgency.!!
!
The! Philippines! has! been! described! as! an! obvious! hideout! and! sanctuary! for! +2&( /"8D%"(
1-2%'.!A!‘host’!country,!carrier!of!the! radicalisation!infection!where!C+2&(&33&*+-%"('-"&00%(
-3( +2&( 3%0&A( b8=( '8&3( 8 *&( 3&.%,%+&( +2&( +&,,8,-3+( .%,%3-+&( ;,80( -+3( B*=-""-*/( 283+<( =-+28B+(
'8-*/(;%+%"(?-8"&*)&(+8(+2&(.%+-&*+cJMTA(This!rather!oblique!view!is!not!just!simplified!to!the!
point!of!redundancy!but!is!also!not!represented!in!the!data!collected!here.!The!labels!F&D&"!
and!Z-"-+%*+!do!not!infer!the!pathology!of!a!radicalised!ideology!and!so!public!support!for!
campaigns!will!need!to!address!the!understanding!behind!this!disparity.!!!
!
With!little!by!the!way!of!verifiable!empirical!study!on!the!reality!of!the!ASG,!dependence!
on! secondary,! over! field-work! based! primary! research! has! furthered! the! drought! of!
country! specialists.! CR&";#3+E"&'(+&,,8,8"8/-3+3( %*'(.%,%)2B+&( 18B,*%"-3+3JMU!have! attempted!
to!set!the!narrative!and!political!agenda.!!There!continues!to!be!a!“%(),-+-)%"(/%.(=2-)2(2%3(
&0&,/&'(D&)%B3&( 8;( 3+%*'%,'( -*+&,.,&+%+-8*3( 2%?&( +&*'&'( +8( ;8""8=( 8;;-)-%""E( %..,8?&'(
'-,&)+-8*(8;(%(0E,-%'(3&";#,&;&,&*)-*/(0-"-+%,E(3+B'-&3JMK!with!many!authors!owing!all!their!
‘research’!and!basing!their!conclusions!from,!the!word!of!the!Philippine!Military!and!other!
state!officials.!In! short,!much!of!what!has!been!written!about!+2&(1-2%'!and!Mindanao!has!
been!framed!in!specific!US!security!terms!87.!Despite!this,!the!Twitter!users!on!the!Okonek!
case!appear!to!be!immune,!and!perhaps!know!better!than!to!swallow!a!poorly!argued!and!
evidenced!line!by!those!who!often!fail!to!even!spend!time!in!their!country.!
!
Although! the! conflict! in! Mindanao! is! essentially! local,! the! supposed! “-*+&,*%+-8*%"(
'-0&*3-8*( %3( +2&( 3&.%,%+-3+3( &3+%D"-32&'( "-*X3( =-+2( W3"%0-)( ,%'-)%"3( -*( 8+2&,(.%,+3( 8;( +2&(
ZB3"-0(=8,"'”88,! were! not! evidenced!in! the! data.!Only!3.38%! of! English! tweets! labelled!
them! as! Islamists,! and! only!2.58%!linked! them! to! other!organizations.!This!is! similar!to!
Thayer,! who! argued! that! country! specialists! CVD8++80( B.5( ?-&=( '-,&)+"E( )2%""&*/&3( X&E(
%33B0.+-8*3( 8;( -*+&,*%+-8*%"( %*'( ,&/-8*%"( +&,,8,-3+( &S.&,+3A”89!The! labels,! sentiments! and!
organisations!used!on! the!Okonek! case!offers! Twitter!users! a! bottom!up! voice!to! reflect!
the! diet! of! the! ASG! coverage!consumed.! The! natural! conclusion! is! that! the! -*+&,*%+-8*%"(
W3"%0-3+('-0&*3-8*!is!not!shared!from!‘the!bottom’.!
!
Notes(
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1$Mark$ Bowden,$ “Jihadists$ in$ Paradise,”$The% Atlantic,$ March$ 2007,$
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2007/03/jihadists-in-paradise/305613/.$
2$For$a$ comprehensive$report$ into$ the$ modern$ US-Philippine$ military$ alliance$see$ Docena,$ H.$
(2007).$“At%the% Door% of% all% the% East”:%The%Philippines%in%United%States%Military%Strategy.$ Focus$
on$the$Global$South.$Retrieved$from$http://focusweb.org/content/door-all-east$
3$Ambassador$ Albert$ del$ Rosario,$ “A$ Progress$ Report$ on$ the$ Philippines”$ (The$ Heritage$
Foundation,$ March$ 27,$ 2002),$ http://www.heritage.org/research/lecture/a-progress-report-
on-the-philippines.$
4$This$is$despite$the$ASG$only$previously$being$of$interest$to$American$anthropologists,$rather$
than$ politicians,$ for$ their$ challenge$ to$ Filipino$ Muslim$ identity,$ see$ Charles$ O.$ Frake,$ “Abu$
Sayyaf:$ Displays$ of$ Violence$ and$ the$ Proliferation$ of$ Contested$ Identities$ among$ Philippine$
Muslims,”$ \iAmerican$ Anthropologist$ 100,$ no.$ 1$ (March$ 1,$ 1998):$ 41–54,$
doi:10.1525/aa.1998.100.1.41.$
5$Andrew$ Tan,$ Security% Strategies% in% the% Asia-Pacific:% The% United% States’% “Second% Front”% in%
Southeast% Asia$(New$ York:$ Palgrave$ Macmillan,$ 2011);$ Kenneth$ Conboy,$ The% Second% Front:%
Inside%Asia’s%Most%Dangerous%Terrorist%Network$(Equinox$Publishing,$2005);$John$Gershman,$“Is$
Southeast$Asia$the$Second$Front?,”$Foreign%Affairs$81,$no.$4$(2002):$60,$doi:10.2307/20033240;$
Kumar$ Ramakrishna,$ “Countering$ Radical$ Islam$ in$ Southeast$ Asia:$ The$ Need$ to$ Confront$the$
Functional$ and$ Ideological$ ‘enabling$ Environment.,’”$ in$ Terrorism% and% Violence% in% Southeast%
Asia:% Transnational% Challenges% to% States% and% Regional% Stability,$ ed.$ Paul$J.$ Smith$ (East$ Gate$
Books,$ 2005),$ 145–68;$ Christopher$ S.$ Bond,$ The% Next%Front:% Southeast% Asia% and% the% Road% to%
Global%Peace% with% Islam,$ 1$ edition$(Chichester:$Wiley,$ 2009);$Andrew$ Tan,$“Southeast$Asia$ as$
the$ ‘second$ Front’$ in$ the$ War$ against$ Terrorism:$ Evaluating$ the$ Threat$ and$ Responses,”$
Terrorism% and% Political% Violence$15,$ no.$ 2$ (2003):$ 112–38,$
doi:10.1080/09546550312331293067.$
6$Collier,$“Terrorism:$Evolving$Regional$Alliances$and$State$Failure$in$Mindanao,”$26.$
7$“Al-Qaeda$and$ Political$Terrorism$in$Southeast$Asia,”$in$Terrorism%and% Violence% in% Southeast%
Asia:%Transnational%Challenges%to%States%and%Regional%Stability,$by$Paul$J.$Smith,$2005,$82.$
8$Andrew$Hoskins$and$Ben$O’Loughlin,$War%and%Media$(Polity$Press,$2010).$
9$Eduardo$F.$Ugarte,$“‘In$a$Wilderness$of$Mirrors’:$The$Use$and$Abuse$of$the$‘Abu$Sayyaf’$Label$
in$ the$ Philippines,”$ South% East% Asia% Research$18,$ no.$ 3$ (September$ 1,$ 2010):$ 373–413,$
doi:10.5367/sear.2010.0002.$
10$Philip$Jenkins,$Images% of% Terror:%What%We% Can% and%Can’t%Know% about%Terrorism$(New$ York:$
Aldine$de$Gruyter,$2003),$193.$
11$Docena,$“Philippines:$Fanning$the$Flames$of$War.”$
12$Bilveer$ Singh,$ The% Talibanization% of% Southeast% Asia:% Losing% the% War% on% Terror% to% Islamist%
Extremists$(New$Delhi:$Praeger,$2007),$ix.$
13$Andrew$ Tan$ and$ Kumar$ Ramakrishna,$ The% New% Terrorism:% Anatomy,% Trends,%and% Counter-
Strategies$(Eastern$Universities$Press,$2002),$10.$
14$GMA$ News,$ “NDF:$ After$ Clinton$ Visit,$ Mindanao$ May$ Be$ next$ Afghanistan,”$ GMA% News%
Online,$ November$ 14,$ 2009,$
http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/176946/news/nation/ndf-after-clinton-visit-
mindanao-may-be-next-afghanistan;$Pia$Lee-Brago,$“Mindanao$Could$Be$next$Afghanistan$-$US$
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Diplomat,”$ Philstar.com,$ April$ 11,$2005,$
http://www.philstar.com/headlines/273463/mindanao-could-be-next-afghanistan-—-us-
diplomat;$Kit$ Collier,$“The$Philippines’$Sanctuaries$of$ Terror,”$Project%Syndicate,$May$ 2,$ 2006,$
http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/the-philippines--sanctuaries-of-terror/english.$
15$Examples$of$ the$ tenants$ of$ the$sanctuary$ and$breeding$ ground$ arguments,$ such$ as$ Abdul-
Ahad,$G.$(2012,$April$30).$‘Al-Qaida’s$wretched$utopia$and$the$battle$for$hearts$and$minds’.$the%
Guardian.$ Retrieved$ October$ 20,$ 2013,$ from$
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/30/alqaida-yemen-jihadis-sharia-law$The$ so-
called$‘Arc$ of$ Terror’$ idea$ as$ demonstrated$ in$ pieces$ such$as$ Spencer,$R.$ (2010,$ January$ 31).$
Recruits$ seek$ out$ al-Qaeda’s$ deadly$ embrace$ across$ a$ growing$ arc$ of$ jihadist$ terror.$
Telegraph.co.uk.$ Retrieved$ from$
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/saudiarabia/7105454/Recruits-
seek-out-al-Qaedas-deadly-embrace-across-a-growing-arc-of-jihadist-terror.html$
16 $Fernando$ Reinares,$ “Radicalisation$ Processes$ Leading$ to$ Acts$ of$ Terrorism”$ (European$
Commission’s$ Expert$ Group$ on$ Violent$ Radicalisation,$ 2008),$ 15,$
http://www.clingendael.nl/sites/default/files/20080500_cscp_report_vries.pdf.$
17$Rohan$Gunaratna,$Inside%Al%Qaeda :%Global%Network%of%Terror,$Reissue,$2003,$232.$
18$Damien$Kingsbury,$Violence%in%between:%Conflict%and%Security%in% Archipelagic%Southeast%Asia$
(Clayton;$Singapore:$Monash$Asia$Institute ;$Institute$of$Southeast$Asian$Studies,$2005),$72.$
19$Natasha$Hamilton-Hart,$“Terrorism$in$Southeast$Asia:$Expert$Analysis,$Myopia$and$Fantasy,”$
The%Pacific%Review$18,$no.$3$(2005):$316,$doi:10.1080/09512740500188845.$
20$Barry$Desker$and$Kumar$Ramakrishna,$“Forging$an$Indirect$Strategy$in$Southeast$Asia,”$The%
Washington%Quarterly$25,$no.$2$(2002):$161.$
21$Ugarte$and$Turner,$“What$Is$the$‘Abu$Sayyaf’?$How$Labels$Shape$Reality,”$399.$
22$Dirk$ J.$ Barreveld,$ Terrorism% in% the% Philippines:% The% Bloody%Trail% of% Abu% Sayyaf,% Bin% Laden’s%
East%Asian%Connection$(iUniverse,$2001).$
23$Zachary$ Abuza,$ “Tentacles$ of$ Terror:$ Al$ Qaeda’s$ Southeast$ Asian$ Network,”$ Contemporary%
Southeast%Asia$24,$no.$3$(December$2002):$427+;$Shawn$Brimley,$“Tentacles$of$Jihad:$Targeting$
Transnational$Support$Networks,”$Parameters$36,$no.$2$(June$22,$2006):$30.$
24$Eric$Gutierrez,$“From$Ilaga$to$ Abu$ Sayyaf:$ New$ Entrepreneurs$in$Violence$and$ Their$ Impact$
on$ Local$ Politics$ in$ Mindanao,”$ Philippine% Political% Science% Journal$24,$ no.$ 47$ (December$ 1,$
2003):$ 145–78,$ doi:10.1080/01154451.2003.9754250;$ Banlaoi,$“The$ Abu$ Sayyaf$ Group:$ From$
Mere$Banditry$to$Genuine$Terrorism”;$Kit$Collier,$“A$Carnival$of$Crime:$The$Enigma$of$the$Abu$
Sayyaf,”$ Conflict,% Community,% and% Criminality% in% Southeast% Asia% and% Australia,% Center% for%
Strategic%&%International%Studies%(CSIS).%S,$2009,$44–57.$
25$Sietze$ Vellema,$ Jr,$ Saturnino$ M.$ Borras,$ and$ Jr,$ Francisco$ Lara,$ “The$ Agrarian$ Roots$ of$
Contemporary$Violent$Conflict$in$Mindanao,$Southern$Philippines,”$Journal%of%Agrarian%Change$
11,$no.$3$(July$2011):$298–320,$doi:10.1111/j.1471-0366.2011.00311.x.$
26$Michael$ K.$ Connors,$ “War$ on$ Error$ and$ the$ Southern$ Fire:$ How$ Terrorism$ Analysts$ Get$ It$
Wrong,”$Critical%Asian%Studies$38,$no.$1$(2006):$151–75,$doi:10.1080/14672710600556528.$
27$Graham$ Brown,$ “The$ Perils$ of$ Terrorism:$ Chinese$W hispers,$ Kevin$ Bacon$ and$ Al$ Qaeda$in$
Southeast$Asia$–$A$Review$Essay,”$Intelligence% and% National% Security$21,$no.$1$(2006):$150–62,$
doi:10.1080/02684520600568626.$
28$Joseph$Chinyong$ Liow,$ “International$Jihad$and$ Muslim$Radicalism$ in$ Thailand?:$Toward$an$
Alternative$Interpretation,”$Asia%Policy$2,$no.$1$(2006):$92.$
29$Ibid.,$93.$
30$Brown,$“The$Perils$of$Terrorism,”$151.$
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
31$Maria$ Ressa,$ From% Bin% Laden% to% Facebook% 10% Days% of% Abduction,% 10% Years% of% Terrorism$
(Hackensack,$ NJ:$ World$ Scientific$ Pub.$ Co.,$ 2013),$
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=57
5392.$
32 $Joseph$ Chinyong$ Liow,$ “ISIS$ Goes$ to$ Asia,”$ Foreign% Affairs,$ September$ 19,$ 2014,$
http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/142004/joseph-chinyong-liow/isis-goes-to-asia.$
33$Kit$Collier,$“Terrorism:$Evolving$Regional$Alliances$and$State$Failure$in$Mindanao,”$Southeast%
Asian%Affairs$2006,$no.$1$(2006):$27.$
34$Docena,$“Philippines:$Fanning$the$Flames$of$War.”$
35$Ugarte$and$Turner,$“What$Is$the$‘Abu$Sayyaf’?$How$Labels$Shape$Reality,”$398.$
36$McKenzie$O’Brien,$“Fluctuations$Between$Crime$and$Terror:$The$Case$of$Abu$Sayyaf's$
Kidnapping$ Activities,”$ Terrorism% and% Political% Violence$24,$ no.$ 2$ (2012):$ 333,$
doi:10.1080/09546553.2011.648679.$
37$Jenkins,$Images%of%Terror:%What%We%Can%and%Can’t%Know%about%Terrorism,$193.$
38$Ugarte$and$Turner,$“What$Is$the$‘Abu$Sayyaf’?$How$Labels$Shape$Reality,”$404.$
39$Julie$Alipala-Inquirer$and$Cynthia$D.$Balana,$“After$Freed$Germans,$at$Least$11$Hostages$Still$
in$ Abu$ Sayyaf$ Hands,”$ Globalnation.inquirer.net,$ October$ 19,$ 2014,$
http://globalnation.inquirer.net/112923/after-freed-germans-at-least-11-hostages-still-in-abu-
sayyaf-hands/.$
40$Michael$S.$James$and$and$John$K.$Cooley,$“The$Abu$Sayyaf-Al$Qaeda$Connection,”$ABC%News,$
January$6,$2006,$http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=79205&page=1.$
41$David$Martin$Jones,$M.$L.$R.$Smith,$and$Mark$Weeding,$“Looking$for$the$Pattern:$Al$Qaeda$in$
Southeast$Asia–The$Genealogy$ of$ a$ Terror$Network,”$Studies%in%Conflict%&% Terrorism$26,$no.$6$
(2003):$443–57,$doi:10.1080/10576100390248284.$
42$Zachary$Abuza,$“Funding$Terrorism$in$Southeast$Asia:$The$Financial$Network$of$Al$Qaeda$and$
Jemaah$ Islamiya,”$ Contemporary% Southeast% Asia:% A% Journal% of% International% and% Strategic%
Affairs$25,$no.$2$(2003):$169–99.$
43$David$ Ronfeldt,$ “Al$ Qaeda$ and$ Its$ Affiliates:$ A$ Global$ Tribe$ Waging$ Segmental$ Warfare?,”$
First%Monday$10,$no.$3$(March$7,$2005),$doi:10.5210/fm.v10i3.1214;$John$Rollins,$Al%Qaeda%and%
Affiliates:% Historical% Perspective,% Global% Presence,% and% Implications% for% U.% S.% Policy$(DIANE$
Publishing,$ 2010);$ Thomas$ Joscelyn,$ “Global$ Al$ Qaeda:$ Affiliates,$ Objectives,$ and$ Future$
Challenges,”$ The% Long% War% Journal$18$ (2013),$
http://defenddemocracy.org/content/uploads/documents/TJFormattedTestimony7_18.pdf.$
44$Robert$ East,$ Terror% Truncated:%The% Decline% of% the% Abu% Sayyaf% Group% from % the% Crucial% Year%
2002$(Cambridge$Scholars$Publishing,$2013),$1.$
45$Eduardo$ F.$ Ugarte$ and$ Mark$ Macdonald$ Turner,$ “What$ Is$ the$ ‘Abu$ Sayyaf’?$ How$ Labels$
Shape$Reality,”$Pacific%Review$24,$no.$4$(2011):$410,$doi:10.1080/09512748.2011.596558.$
46$Herbert$Docena,$ “Philippines:$Fanning$the$Flames$ of$War,”$Asia%Times%Online,$ May$ 2,$ 2007,$
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/IE02Ae03.html.$
47$Clarita$R.$Carlos,$The%Links%between%Organized%Crime% and%Terrorism:%The%Philippines%and% the%
Abu%Sayyaf,$October$2002.$
48$Ugarte$and$Turner,$“What$Is$the$‘Abu$Sayyaf’?$How$Labels$Shape$Reality,”$411.$
49$Rommel$ C.$ Banlaoi,$ “The$ Abu$ Sayyaf$ Group:$ From$ Mere$ Banditry$ to$ Genuine$ Terrorism,”$
Southeast%Asian%Affairs$2006,$no.$1$(2006):$247–62.$
50$Steven$Hutchinson$and$Pat$O’malley,$“A$Crime–Terror$Nexus?$Thinking$on$Some$of$the$Links$
between$Terrorism$and$ Criminality,”$Studies% in%Conflict%&% Terrorism$30,$ no.$12$(2007):$ 1095–
1107,$doi:10.1080/10576100701670870.$
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
51$The$ Twitter$ Search$ API$ (application$ programming$ interface)$ allows$ queries$ against$ the$
indices$of$recent$or$popular$Tweets$similar$to$the$Search$feature$available$in$Twitter$mobile$or$
web$ clients,$ such$ as$ Twitter.com$ search.$For$ more$ details$ and$ documentation$ refer$ to$
https://dev.twitter.com/rest/public/search$
52$Pete$ Burnap$ et$ al.,$ “Tweeting$ the$ Terror:$ Modelling$ the$ Social$ Media$ Reaction$ to$ the$
Woolwich$ Terrorist$ Attack,”$ Social% Network% Analysis% and% Mining$4,$ no.$ 1$ (December$ 2014),$
doi:10.1007/s13278-014-0206-4.$
53 $Marc$ Cheong$ and$ Vincent$ C.$ S.$ Lee,$ “A$ Microblogging-Based$ Approach$ to$ Terrorism$
Informatics:$Exploration$and$Chronicling$ Civilian$Sentiment$ and$ Response$to$Terrorism$Events$
via$ Twitter,”$ Information% Systems% Frontiers$13,$ no.$ 1$ (March$ 1,$ 2011):$ 45–59,$
doi:10.1007/s10796-010-9273-x.$
54$Ibid.$
55$Wei$Shi,$Hongwei$Wang,$and$Shaoyi$He,$“Sentiment$Analysis$of$Chinese$Microblogging$Based$
on$Sentiment$ Ontology:$ A$ Case$Study$ of$ ‘7.23$Wenzhou$Train$ Collision,’”$ Connection% Science$
25,$no.$4$(December$1,$2013):$161–78,$doi:10.1080/09540091.2013.851172.$
56$Pollyanna$ Gonçalves,$ Fabrício$ Benevenuto,$ and$ Meeyoung$ Cha,$ “PANAS-T:$ A$ Pychometric$
Scale$ for$ Measuring$ Sentiments$ on$ Twitter,”$ arXiv:1308.1857% [physics],$ August$ 8,$ 2013,$
http://arxiv.org/abs/1308.1857.$
57$Ugarte$and$Turner,$“What$Is$the$‘Abu$Sayyaf’?$How$Labels$Shape$Reality.”$
58 $Andy$ Field,$ Discovering% Statistics% Using% IBM% SPSS% Statistics$(Sage,$ 2013),$
https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=c0Wk9IuBmAoC&oi=fnd&pg=PP2&dq=Discov
ering+Statistics+using+SPSS&ots=LaBpGMXy1A&sig=5yCcX-Szt0mbinlPBT1Dtj2fa8g;$Barbara$ G.$
Tabachnick$and$Linda$S.$Fidell,$Using%Multivariate%Statistics,$5$edition$(Boston:$Pearson,$2006);$
Chao-Ying$Joanne$Peng$and$Tak-Shing$Harry$So,$“Logistic$Regression$Analysis$and$Reporting:$A$
Primer,”$ Understanding% Statistics:% Statistical% Issues% in% Psychology,%Education,% and% the% Social%
Sciences$1,$no.$1$(2002):$31–70.$
59$Maria$ Ressa,$ Seeds% of% Terror:% An% Eyewitness% Account% of% Al-Qaeda’s% Newest% Center$(Free$
Press,$2011);$Ressa,$From%Bin%Laden%to%Facebook%10%Days%of%Abduction,%10%Years%of%Terrorism.$
60$Hamilton-Hart,$“Terrorism$in$Southeast$Asia.”$
61$Ressa,$From%Bin%Laden%to%Facebook%10%Days%of%Abduction,%10%Years%of%Terrorism,$v.$
62$Ibid.$
63 $Eduardo$ F.$ Ugarte,$ “The$ Phenomenon$ of$ Kidnapping$ in$ the$ Southern$ Philippines:$ An$
Overview,”$South%East%Asia%Research$16,$no.$3$(November$1,$2008):$293–341.$
64$O’Brien,$“Fluctuations$Between$Crime$and$Terror,”$320.$
65$Chih$ Yuan$ Woon,$ “For$ ‘emotional$ Fieldwork’$ in$ Critical$ Geopolitical$ Research$ on$ Violence$
and$ Terrorism,”$ Political% Geography$33$ (March$ 2013):$ 31–41,$
doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2012.11.007;$ Chih$ Yuan$ Woon,$ “Undoing$ Violence,$ Unbounding$
Precarity:$ Beyond$ the$ Frames$ of$ Terror$ in$ the$ Philippines,”$Geoforum$42,$ no.$ 3$ (June$ 2011):$
285–96,$doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2011.04.003.$
66 $Woon,$ “For$ ‘emotional$ Fieldwork’$ in$ Critical$ Geopolitical$ Research$ on$ Violence$ and$
Terrorism,”$34.$
67 $Jeffrey$ S.$ Juris,$ “Reflections$ On#$ Occupy$ Everywhere:$ Social$ Media,$ Public$ Space,$ and$
Emerging$Logics$of$Aggregation,”$American%Ethnologist$39,$no.$2$(2012):$259–79;$Isabelle$Côté,$
“Fieldwork$ in$ the$ Era$ of$ Social$ Media:$ Opportunities$ and$ Challenges,”$ PS:% Political% Science% &%
Politics$46,$no.$03$(2013):$615–19;$Annette$Markham,$“Fieldwork$in$Social$Media:$What$Would$
Malinowski$Do?,”$Qualitative%Communication%Research$2,$no.$4$(2013):$434–46.$
68$Stefan$Eklöf,$Pirates%in%Paradise:%A%Modern%History%of%Southeast% Asia’s%Maritime%Marauders$
(NIAS$Press,$2006).$
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
69 $Mike$ Thelwall,$ Kevan$ Buckley,$ and$ Georgios$ Paltoglou,$ “Sentiment$ in$ Twitter$ Events,”$
Journal%of%the%American%Society%for%Information%Science%and%Technology$62,$no.$2$(2011):$406–
18.$
70$Carlyle$Alan$Thayer$and$Greg$Fealy,$“Problematising$‘linkages’$between$Southeast$Asian$and$
International$ Terrorism,”$in$ Security% Politics% in% the% Asia-Pacific:%A% Regional-Global% Nexus?,$ ed.$
William$T.$Tow$(Cambridge$University$Press,$2009),$226.$
71$Collier,$“Terrorism:$Evolving$Regional$Alliances$and$State$Failure$in$Mindanao,”$30.$
72$Hsinchun$Chen$ et$ al.,$ “Introduction$to$Special$Issue$on$Terrorism$Informatics,”$Information%
Systems%Frontiers$13,$no.$1$(January$13,$2011):$1–3,$doi:10.1007/s10796-010-9293-6.$
73$Hsinchun$Chen$ et$al.,$Terrorism%Informatics:%Knowledge% Management% and% Data% Mining%for%
Homeland%Security$(Springer$Science$&$Business$Media,$2008).$
74$Arie$ Perliger$ and$ Ami$ Pedahzur,$ “Social$ Network$ Analysis$ in$ the$ Study$ of$ Terrorism$ and$
Political$ Violence,”$ PS:% Political% Science% &% Politics$44,$ no.$ 01$ (January$ 2011):$ 45–50,$
doi:10.1017/S1049096510001848.$
75$Andrés$ Monroy-Hernández$ et$al.,$ “The$ New$ War$ Correspondents:$ The$ Rise$of$ Civic$ Media$
Curation$ in$ Urban$ Warfare,”$ in$ Proceedings% of%the% 2013% Conference% on% Comp uter%Supported%
Cooperative% Work,$ CSCW$ ’13$ (New$ York,$ NY,$ USA:$ ACM,$ 2013),$ 1443–52,$
doi:10.1145/2441776.2441938.$
76 $Onook$ Oh,$ Manish$ Agrawal,$ and$ H.$ Raghav$ Rao,$ “Information$ Control$ and$ Terrorism:$
Tracking$the$Mumbai$Terrorist$Attack$through$ Twitter,”$Information% Systems%Frontiers$13,$no.$
1$(September$25,$2010):$33–43,$doi:10.1007/s10796-010-9275-8.$
77$José$ Van$ Dijck,$ “Users$ like$ You?$ Theorizing$ Agency$ in$ User-Generated$ Content,”$ Media,%
Culture,% and% Society$31,$ no.$ 1$ (2009):$ 41;$ Neil$ Thurman,$ “Forums$ for$ Citizen$ Journalists?$
Adoption$of$User$Generated$Content$Initiatives$by$Online$News$Media,”$New%Media%&%Society$
10,$no.$1$(2008):$139–57.$
78$Michael$Stohl,$“Don’t$Confuse$Me$with$the$Facts:$Knowledge$Claims$and$Terrorism,”$Critical%
Studies%on%Terrorism$5,$no.$1$(April$1,$2012):$47,$doi:10.1080/17539153.2012.659908.$
79$Nadia$ Yusuf,$Nisreen$ Al-Banawi,$ and$ Hajjah$ Abdel$ Rahman$ Al-Imam,$ “The$ S ocial$ Media$ As$
Echo$Chamber:$The$Digital$Impact,”$Journal%of%Business%&%Economics%Research%(JBER)$12,$no.$1$
(2013):$ 1–10;$ Vincent$ Fella$ Hendricks,$ “Is$ Anyone$ Immune$ to$ the$ Social$ Media$ Echo$
Chamber?,”$ The% Conversation,$ 2014,$
http://forskningsbasen.deff.dk/Share.external?sp=S24dee0f2-1ad3-441b-9a47-
a2a963b86be2&sp=Sku;$Lisa$Harris$ and$ Paul$Harrigan,$“Social$Media$ in$ Politics:$The$Ultimate$
Voter$ Engagement$ Tool$ or$ Simply$ an$ Echo$ Chamber,”$ Journal% of% Political% Marketing,$ 2011,$
http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/71357/;$ David$ Goldie$ et$ al.,$ “Using$ Bibliometric$ and$ Social$ Media$
Analyses$to$Explore$the$‘Echo$Chamber’$Hypothesis,”$Educational%Policy$28,$no.$2$(2014):$281–
305.$
80$GMA$News,$“NDF.”$
81$For$ a$ exhaustive$ breakdown$ of$ the$ timeline$ of$ the$ Wikileaks$ cable$ releases$ and$ their$
relevance$to$the$Philippines$see$$“Interactive$Timeline:$WikiLeaks$Cables$and$the$Philippines,”$
accessed$ March$ 7,$ 2015,$ http://www.dipity.com/jojomalig/Timeline-WikiLeaks-cables-and-
the-Philippines/.$
82$Carlos$H$Conde,$“How$the$US$Really$Views$the$Philippines,”$Asia%Times%Online,$September$7,$
2011,$http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/MI07Ae01.html.$
83$Jojo$Malig,$ “WikiLeaks$ Cables:$ US$ Forces$ Directly$ Involved$ in$ Mindanao$ Terror$ Hunt,”$ Abs-
cbnNEWS.com,$ September$ 14,$ 2011,$ http://www.dipity.com/jojomalig/Timeline-WikiLeaks-
cables-and-the-Philippines/.$
84$Collier,$“The$Philippines’$Sanctuaries$of$Terror.”$
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
85$East,$Terror%Truncated:%The%Decline%of%the%Abu%Sayyaf%Group%from%the%Crucial%Year%2002,$xii.$
86$Ibid.$
87$P.$N.$Abinales$and$Nathan$Gilbert$Quimpo,$ The%US%and%the%War%on%Terror% in%the%Philippines$
(Anvil,$2008).$
88$Angel$Rabasa,$ Political% Islam% in% Southeast% Asia:% Moderates,% Radicals% and% Terrorists$(Oxford;$
New$York:$Oxford$University$Press$for$the$International$Institute$ for$ Strategic$Studies,$2003),$
48.$
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