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Biodiversity and Emerging Zoonoses
Abstract
This chapter examines the links between biodiversity and worldwide patterns of zoonotic disease outbreaks. We find that biodiversity appears to be a major contributing factor determining the diversity of human infectious diseases, and that zoonotic disease outbreaks should be considered with the indices of human development and biodiversity loss. Increasing population and wealth (i.e., GDP) both threaten biodiversity and favour epidemics, leading us to conduct an analysis showing the deleterious impacts of development (and globalization) on health. Our results support this premise in contrast to most studies showing generally negative effects of biodiversity reduction on the spread of infectious diseases. Biodiversity has a complex relationship with human infectious diseases, serving both as a source of pathogens and as a regulating factor, keeping the incidence down.
... Human activities like deforestation and the construction of settlements in sylvan environments have increased human interaction with different animal species, resulting in spillover events (Morand, Owers & Bordes, 2014;Van Langevelde et al., 2020) (Fig. 1). The exponential human population growth worldwide, resulting in the continuous loss of global biodiversity due to various human activities, hints towards more frequent spillover events in the coming years (Ellwanger et al., 2020;Ramírez et al., 2020). ...
The increasing frequency of zoonotic spillover events and viral mutations in low and middle-income countries presents a critical global health challenge. Contributing factors encompass cultural practices like bushmeat consumption, wildlife trade for traditional medicine, habitat disruption, and the encroachment of impoverished settlements onto natural habitats. The existing "vaccine gap" in many developing countries exacerbates the situation by allowing unchecked viral replication and the emergence of novel mutant viruses. Despite global health policies addressing the root causes of zoonotic disease emergence, there is a significant absence of concrete prevention-oriented initiatives, posing a potential risk to vulnerable populations. This article is targeted at policymakers, public health professionals, researchers, and global health stakeholders, particularly those engaged in zoonotic disease prevention and control in low and middle-income countries. The article underscores the importance of assessing potential zoonotic diseases at the animal-human interface and comprehending historical factors contributing to spillover events. To bridge policy gaps, comprehensive strategies are proposed that include education, collaborations, specialized task forces, environmental sampling, and the establishment of integrated diagnostic laboratories. These strategies advocate simplicity and unity, breaking down barriers, and placing humanity at the forefront of addressing global health challenges. Such a strategic and mental shift is crucial for constructing a more resilient and equitable world in the face of emerging zoonotic threats.
... The recent global emergence of zoonoses, viz. COVID-19, Nipah, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), Ebola, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), etc., exhibited that even the slight imbalances to the ecosystem may result in deadly public health related consequences (Morand et al. 2014). ...
The emerging public health issues of 21st century have clearly warned us that the efficient tackling of these threats need to be done in collaborative manner between relevant public health professionals under the umbrella of One Health. The concept of One Health is longstanding; however, it is gaining due momentum across the globe, especially in context of tackling emerging zoonoses. India remains vulnerable to many of emerging health threats due to demographic, socio-economic and other factors related with globalization, climate change and related biodiversity losses. In India, the various public health agencies which includes human, animal and environmental health professionals have contributed joint efforts in recent past to confront the One Health related issues. However, the bridging of professional silos to act more synergistically need further sustained efforts from all the stakeholders, including policy makers.
... Land-use change and habitat loss together with the biodiversity loss causing the sixth mass extinctions are the climate change reasons behind epidemics [3,4]. As the WWF neatly summarises (Figure 1) [5], as long as the forest ecosystems are healthy and there exists a proper countryside buffer (without intensive farming) to the cities, spill overs to humans are extremely unlikely [6]. ...
COVID-19 escalated into a pandemic posing humanitarians and scientific challenges. We explored the geographical feature of the first wave infection and correlated it with annual satellite and ground indexes of air quality in eight countries: China, U.S.A, Italy, Iran, France, Spain, Germany, and U.K. Controlling for population size, we found more viral infections in those areas which were afflicted by high PM 2.5 and nitrogen dioxide values. Higher mortality was also correlated with relatively poor air quality. This phenomenon also occurs in China when removing, the city of Wuhan and its province from the dataset. For long recognised to be a high-risk factor for several respiratory-related diseases and conditions, air pollution seems to be a risk factor for COVID-19 too. This finding suggests the detrimental impact climate change will have on the trajectory of future respiratory epidemics. Previous Asian epidemics and the Ebola have brought forward evidence of the natural causes of zoonoses which have become more threatening due to land-use change, ensued lack of a buffer zone between the cities and the forests, and our closer proximity to wild pathogens. Together with air pollution, these elements illustrate the need to stick to the UN targets limiting biodiversity loss and climate change.
... Can the fossil fuel economy carry on unabated once we resume the lockdowns? Institutions need to endorse these interventions and speed up reforms more seriously [131,132], together with endorsing collateral and more comprehensive measures [133] playing a role in epidemics and zoonoses [134,135], such as impeding biodiversity loss and land use change [136][137][138][139][140], decreasing intensive livestock farming, and alleviating poverty [141,142]. This new coronavirus shall be an opportunity given to the governments to forcefully revive sustainable development goals. ...
COVID-19 escalated into a pandemic posing several humanitarian as well as scientific challenges. We here investigated the geographical character of the early spread of the infection and correlated it with several annual satellite and ground indexes of air quality in China, the United States, Italy, Iran, France, Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom. The time of the analysis corresponded with the end of the first wave infection in China, namely June 2020. We found more viral infections in those areas afflicted by high PM 2.5 and nitrogen dioxide values. Higher mortality was also correlated with relatively poor air quality. In Italy, the correspondence between the Po Valley pollution and SARS-CoV-2 infections and induced mortality was the starkest, originating right in the most polluted European area. Spain and Germany did not present a noticeable gradient of pollution levels causing non-significant correlations. Densely populated areas were often hotspots of lower air quality levels but were not always correlated with a higher viral incidence. Air pollution has long been recognised as a high risk factor for several respiratory-related diseases and conditions, and it now appears to be a risk factor for COVID-19 as well. As such, air pollution should always be included as a factor for the study of airborne epidemics and further included in public health policies.
... Although it is still difficult to determine exactly how this initial contact was made between humans and animals carrying the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, however, there has been an exponential and rapid increase in the last quarter of the twentieth century of zoonosis. There is a strong correlation between this phenomenon and the number of threatened bird and mammal species according to the criteria of The International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species -IUCN (Morand, Owers & Bordes, 2014). Research suggests that the pressures exerted by these anthropogenic activities on biodiversity, in particular the overexploitation of living resources (including poaching), the fragmentation and rapid reduction of natural habitats leading to a collapse of animal and plant populations and a significant loss of genetic diversity and phylogenetic are at the origin and multiplication of these zoonosis (Morand, Jittapalapong, Suputtamongkol, Abdullah & Huan, 2014). ...
... Although higher animal host and pathogen species diversity is associated with an increased risk of disease emergence (243), complex host, environmental and pathogen relationships ultimately determine spillover risk (206,244). A high level of biodiversity can serve as a source of pathogens, but can also serve as a regulating factor (termed the "dilution" effect), where by loss of habitat specialists and predators due to habitat disturbance or hunting, can allow more generalist reservoir host species, such as some rodent species, to proliferate (240,245). Zoonotic viral richness correlates strongly with mammalian species diversity and abundance (2), and domestic species harbor, on average, 19.3 zoonotic viruses compared to an average for free-ranging wildlife of 0.23 (2). Wildlife make up <1% of the world's non-human mammal biomass, thus, whilst wildlife is of concern as a source of uncommon but significant animal-origin EIDs, land-use change for agricultural intensification to supply human food systems, particularly for livestock, is of concern as a significant driver of EID risk (19,24,238). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has re-focused attention on mechanisms that lead to zoonotic disease spillover and spread. Commercial wildlife trade, and associated markets, are recognized mechanisms for zoonotic disease emergence, resulting in a growing global conversation around reducing human disease risks from spillover associated with hunting, trade, and consumption of wild animals. These discussions are especially relevant to people who rely on harvesting wildlife to meet nutritional, and cultural needs, including those in Arctic and boreal regions. Global policies around wildlife use and trade can impact food sovereignty and security, especially of Indigenous Peoples. We reviewed known zoonotic pathogens and current risks of transmission from wildlife (including fish) to humans in North American Arctic and boreal biomes, and evaluated the epidemic and pandemic potential of these zoonoses. We discuss future concerns, and consider monitoring and mitigation measures in these changing socio-ecological systems. While multiple zoonotic pathogens circulate in these systems, risks to humans are mostly limited to individual illness or local community outbreaks. These regions are relatively remote, subject to very cold temperatures, have relatively low wildlife, domestic animal, and pathogen diversity, and in many cases low density, including of humans. Hence, favorable conditions for emergence of novel diseases or major amplification of a spillover event are currently not present. The greatest risk to northern communities from pathogens of pandemic potential is via introduction with humans visiting from other areas. However, Arctic and boreal ecosystems are undergoing rapid changes through climate warming, habitat encroachment, and development; all of which can change host and pathogen relationships, thereby affecting the probability of the emergence of new (and re-emergence of old) zoonoses. Indigenous leadership and engagement in disease monitoring, prevention and response, is vital from the outset, and would increase the success of such efforts, as well as ensure the protection of Indigenous rights as outlined in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Partnering with northern communities and including Indigenous Knowledge Systems would improve the timeliness, and likelihood, of detecting emerging zoonotic risks, and contextualize risk assessments to the unique human-wildlife relationships present in northern biomes.
This study investigates the potential of ecotourism in fostering sustainable development in Chania, Crete, focusing on environmental conservation, cultural preservation, and economic growth. A mixed-methods approach combines secondary research to establish a global and local theoretical framework with qualitative interviews with key stakeholders in Chania. The study assesses the current state of ecotourism, its impact on natural and cultural heritage, and barriers to sustainable tourism. Findings highlight ecotourism's role in raising environmental awareness and supporting local economies. However, challenges such as infrastructure, stakeholder cooperation, and ecological management persist. The study concludes that strategic planning and stakeholder collaboration are essential for ecotourism's success, balancing growth with resource preservation. Theoretical implications suggest ecotourism as a sustainable tourism model, while practical recommendations call for targeted policies, employee training, and marketing strategies to position Chania as a top ecotourism destination.
The increasing frequency of zoonotic spillover events and viral mutations in low and middle-income countries presents a critical global health challenge. Contributing factors encompass cultural practices like bushmeat consumption, wildlife trade for traditional medicine, habitat disruption, and the encroachment of impoverished settlements onto natural habitats. The existing “vaccine gap” in many developing countries exacerbates the situation by allowing unchecked viral replication and the emergence of novel mutant viruses. Despite global health policies addressing the root causes of zoonotic disease emergence, there is a significant absence of concrete prevention-oriented initiatives, posing a potential risk to vulnerable populations. This article is targeted at policymakers, public health professionals, researchers, and global health stakeholders, particularly those engaged in zoonotic disease prevention and control in low and middle-income countries. The article underscores the importance of assessing potential zoonotic diseases at the animal-human interface and comprehending historical factors contributing to spillover events. To bridge policy gaps, comprehensive strategies are proposed that include education, collaborations, specialized task forces, environmental sampling, and the establishment of integrated diagnostic laboratories. These strategies advocate simplicity and unity, breaking down barriers, and placing humanity at the forefront of addressing global health challenges. Such a strategic and mental shift is crucial for constructing a more resilient and equitable world in the face of emerging zoonotic threats.
Spicier food in hot countries has been explained in terms of natural selection on human cultures, with spices with antimicrobial effects considered to be an adaptation to increased risk of foodborne infection. However, correlations between culture and environment are difficult to interpret, because many cultural traits are inherited together from shared ancestors, neighbouring cultures are exposed to similar conditions, and many cultural and environmental variables show strong covariation. Here, using a global dataset of 33,750 recipes from 70 cuisines containing 93 different spices, we demonstrate that variation in spice use is not explained by temperature and that spice use cannot be accounted for by diversity of cultures, plants, crops or naturally occurring spices. Patterns of spice use are not consistent with an infection-mitigation mechanism, but are part of a broader association between spice, health, and poverty. This study highlights the challenges inherent in interpreting patterns of human cultural variation in terms of evolutionary pressures.
Infectious diseases, biodiversity loss and livestock expansion are increasing globally, and examining patterns that link them is important for both public health and conservation. This study is a first attempt to analysis globally these patterns using General additive modelling and Structural equation modelling. A positive association between the number of infectious and parasitic diseases recorded in humans and the total number of animal species between nations was observed. A similar positive association between the number of outbreaks of human infectious diseases, corrected for the number of surveys, and the number of threatened animal species, corrected for the number of animal species, suggests that outbreaks of human infectious diseases are linked with threatened biodiversity. Results of the analyses over the longest period of the dataset (2000–2019) showed a positive correlation between the increasing number of cattle and the number of threatened species, a positive correlation between the increasing number of cattle and the number of outbreaks of human diseases, and a lack of correlation between the number of outbreaks and the number of threatened animal species. As a result, the growing importance of livestock on the planet, while threatening biodiversity, increasingly puts human and animal health at risk. This study calls for further analyses on the consequences of livestock expansion, which depends on several factors that vary by country, namely the growth of human population, changes in diet linked to the westernization of habits, agricultural industrialization and the integration into the world trade, but also the cultural values of livestock.
Utilitarian arguments concerning the value of biodiversity often include the benefits of animals, plants, and microbes as sources of medicines and as laboratory models of disease. The concept that species diversity per se may influence risk of exposure to disease has not been well developed, however. We present a conceptual model of how high species richness and evenness in communities of terrestrial vertebrates may reduce risk of exposure to Lyme disease, a spirochetal ( Borrelia burgdorferi) disease transmitted by ixodid tick vectors. Many ticks never become infected because some hosts are highly inefficient at transmitting spirochete infections to feeding ticks. In North America, the most competent reservoir host for the Lyme disease agent is the white-footed mouse ( Peromyscus leucopus), a species that is widespread and locally abundant. We suggest that increases in species diversity within host communities may dilute the power of white-footed mice to infect ticks by causing more ticks to feed on inefficient disease reservoirs. High species diversity therefore is expected to result in lower prevalence of infection in ticks and consequently in lower risk of human exposure to Lyme disease. Analyses of states and multistate regions along the east coast of the United States demonstrated significant negative correlations between species richness of terrestrial small mammals (orders Rodentia, Insectivora, and Lagomorpha), a key group of hosts for ticks, and per capita numbers of reported Lyme disease cases, which supports our “dilution effect” hypothesis. We contrasted these findings to what might be expected when vectors acquire disease agents efficiently from many hosts, in which case infection prevalence of ticks may increase with increasing diversity hosts. A positive correlation between per capita Lyme disease cases and species richness of ground-dwelling birds supported this hypothesis, which we call the “rescue effect.” The reservoir competence of hosts within vertebrate communities and the degree of specialization by ticks on particular hosts will strongly influence the relationship between species diversity and the risk of exposure to the many vector-borne diseases that plague humans.
Resumen: Argumentos utilitarios relacionados con el valor de la biodiversidad frecuentemente incluyen los beneficios de animales, plantas y microbios como recursos para medicinas y como modelos de enfermedades en laboratorio. Sin embargo, la idea de que la diversidad de especies por sí misma puede influenciar el riesgo de exposición a enfermedades no ha sido bien desarrollada. Presentamos un modelo conceptual de cómo la riqueza de especies y la uniformidad en comunidades de vertebrados terrestres puede reducir el riesgo de exposición a la enfermedad de Lyme, una enfermedad causada por una espiroqueta ( Borrelia burgdorferi) y transmitida por una garrapata ixódida. Muchas garrapatas nunca son infectadas debido a que los huéspedes son altamente ineficientes en la transmisión de espiroquetas a las garrapatas que se alimentan de ellos. En Norte América, el huésped reservorio más competente del agente de la enfermedad de Lyme es el ratón de patas blancas ( Peromyscus leucopus), una especie de amplia dispersión y localmente abundante. Sugerimos que los incrementos en la diversidad de especies dentro de las comunidades de huéspedes pueden diluir el potencial de infección de las garrapatas por el ratón de patas blancas al ocasionar que más garrapatas se alimenten de reservorios ineficientes en la transmisión de la enfermedad. Por lo tanto, se esperaría que una alta diversidad de especies resulte en una prevalencia de infección de garrapatas reducida y, por lo tanto, en una disminución del riesgo de exposición de humanos a la enfermedad de Lyme. Un análisis por estado y de varios estados a lo largo de la costa este de los Estados Unidos demostró correlaciones significativamente negativas entre la riqueza de especies de mamíferos terrestres pequeños (órdenes Rodentia, Insectivora, y Lagomorfa), un grupo clave de huéspedes para garrapatas, y los números per capita de casos de la enfermedad de Lyme reportados, lo cual apoya nuestra hipótesis de efecto de dilución. Contrastamos estos resultados con lo que se podría esperar cuando los vectores adquieren eficientemente agentes de la enfermedad de muchos huéspedes, caso en el cual, una alta diversidad causaría la prevalencia de infección de garrapatas permaneciendo alta aún cuando la diversidad de huéspedes disminuyera. Una correlación positiva entre los casos de la enfermedad de Lyme per capita y la riqueza de especies de aves residentes del suelo apoya esta hipótesis, que hemos llamado efecto de rescate. La capacidad de reservorio de huéspedes dentro de las comunidades de vertebrados y el grado de especialización de las garrapatas en huéspedes particulares, influenciaría fuertemente la relación entre la diversidad de especies y el riesgo de exposición a muchas de las enfermedades transmitidas por vectores que infectan a humanos.
Biogeographers have noted many strong patterns in the diversity and distribution of animal and plant taxa. Human cultural diversity also exhibits strong geographical patterns. Here we analyse the global distribution of 3814 human cultures in relation to latitude and climatic parameters. The density and diversity of human cultures declines with latitude and increases with temperature and rainfall. Human cultures in tropical, wetter or warmer areas have smaller ranges and are more densely packed and differentiated. These relationships can be documented statistically in ways that parallel species diversity among other organisms. The global nature of these patterns implies ecological equilibrium independent of evolutionary history in different continents, and has implications for the interpretation of human genetic diversity, as well as for the understanding of processes of human cultural diversification and their relationship to evolutionary and ecological mechanisms.
Forest destruction and fragmentation in the United States recently have been shown to reduce mammalian species diversity and to elevate population densities of white-footed mice ( Peromyscus leucopus ). One potential consequence of reduced species diversity and high mouse density in small fragments is an increase in human exposure to Lyme disease. Increased risk of exposure to this disease is expected because of the role of the white-footed mouse as the principal natural reservoir of the Lyme bacterium, Borrelia burgdorferi. Blacklegged ticks ( Ixodes scapularis ) feeding on mice have a higher probability of becoming infected with the bacterium than do ticks feeding on any other host species. We hypothesized that small forest patches ( <2 ha ) have a higher density of infected nymphal blacklegged ticks, which is the primary risk factor for Lyme disease, than larger patches ( 2–8 ha ). In the summer of 2000, we sampled tick density and B. burgdorferi infection prevalence in 14 maple-dominated forest patches, ranging in size from 0.7 to 7.6 ha, in Dutchess County of southeastern New York state. We found a significant linear decline in nymphal infection prevalence with increasing patch area and a significant exponential decline in nymphal density with increasing patch area. The consequence was a dramatic increase in the density of infected nymphs, and therefore in Lyme disease risk, with decreasing forest patch size. We did not observe a similar relationship between the density of larval ticks and patch size. These results suggest that by influencing the community composition of vertebrate hosts for disease-bearing vectors, habitat fragmentation can influence human health.
By studying Bartonella prevalence in rodent communities from 23 geographic sites in the western United States and one site in northern Mexico, the present study focused on the effects of rodent community diversity (measured by richness and Shannon index) and composition on prevalence of Bartonella infections. The analysis showed negative correlations of Bartonella prevalence with rodent richness and Shannon index. Further, Bartonella prevalence varied among rodent genera/species. Three models were applied to explain the observations. (1) Within-species/genus transmission: Bartonella strains usually are host-specific and adding non-host species would decrease Bartonella prevalence in its principal host through reduction of host contact (encounter reduction); (2) Frequency-dependence: Adding hosts would decrease the proportion of all infected individuals in the community, resulting in a reduction in the number of contacts between susceptible and infected individuals that usually leads to transmission (transmission reduction); and (3) Dominant species effect: Dominant species, if not susceptible to Bartonellae, can constrain the abundance of susceptible hosts (susceptible host regulation). These mechanisms work in concert; and the level of Bartonella prevalence is an outcome of regulation of all of these mechanisms on the entire system.
Several studies provide evidence of a link between vector-borne disease outbreaks and El Niño driven climate anomalies. Less investigated are the effects of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Here, we test its impact on outbreak occurrences of 13 infectious diseases over Europe during the last fifty years, controlling for potential bias due to increased surveillance and detection. NAO variation statistically influenced the outbreak occurrence of eleven of the infectious diseases. Seven diseases were associated with winter NAO positive phases in northern Europe, and therefore with above-average temperatures and precipitation. Two diseases were associated with the summer or spring NAO negative phases in northern Europe, and therefore with below-average temperatures and precipitation. Two diseases were associated with summer positive or negative NAO phases in southern Mediterranean countries. These findings suggest that there is potential for developing early warning systems, based on climatic variation information, for improved outbreak control and management.
Accelerating rates of species extinctions and disease emergence underscore the importance of understanding how changes in biodiversity affect disease outcomes. Over the past decade, a growing number of studies have reported negative correlations between host biodiversity and disease risk, prompting suggestions that biodiversity conservation could promote human and wildlife health. Yet the generality of the diversity-disease linkage remains conjectural, in part because empirical evidence of a relationship between host competence (the ability to maintain and transmit infections) and the order in which communities assemble has proven elusive. Here we integrate high-resolution field data with multi-scale experiments to show that host diversity inhibits transmission of the virulent pathogen Ribeiroia ondatrae and reduces amphibian disease as a result of consistent linkages among species richness, host composition and community competence. Surveys of 345 wetlands indicated that community composition changed nonrandomly with species richness, such that highly competent hosts dominated in species-poor assemblages whereas more resistant species became progressively more common in diverse assemblages. As a result, amphibian species richness strongly moderated pathogen transmission and disease pathology among 24,215 examined hosts, with a 78.4% decline in realized transmission in richer assemblages. Laboratory and mesocosm manipulations revealed an approximately 50% decrease in pathogen transmission and host pathology across a realistic diversity gradient while controlling for host density, helping to establish mechanisms underlying the diversity-disease relationship and their consequences for host fitness. By revealing a consistent link between species richness and community competence, these findings highlight the influence of biodiversity on infection risk and emphasize the benefit of a community-based approach to understanding infectious diseases.
This book combines mathematical models with extensive use of epidemiological and other data, to achieve a better understanding of the overall dynamics of populations of pathogens or parasites and their human hosts. The authors thus provide an analytical framework for evaluating public health strategies aimed at controlling or eradicating particular infections. With rising concern for programmes of primary health care against such diseases as measles, malaria, river blindness, sleeping sickness, and schistosomiasis in developing countries, and the advent of HIV/AIDS and other `emerging viruses', such a framework is increasingly important. Throughout, the mathematics is used as a tool for thinking clearly about fundamental and applied problems relating to infectious diseases. The book is divided into two major parts, one dealing with microparasites (viruses, bacteria, and protozoans) and the other with macroparasites (helminths and parasitic arthropods). Each part begins with simple models, developed in a biologically intuitive way, and then goes on to develop more complicated and realistic models as tools for public health planning. A major contribution by two of the leaders in the field, this book synthesizes previous work in this rapidly growing area with much new material, combining work scattered between the ecological and medical literature.
Much as Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring" was a call to action against the pesticides that were devastating bird populations, Charles S. Elton's classic "The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants" sounded an early warning about an environmental catastrophe that has become all too familiar today-the invasion of nonnative species. From kudzu to zebra mussels to Asian long-horned beetles, nonnative species are colonizing new habitats around the world at an alarming rate thanks to accidental and intentional human intervention. One of the leading causes of extinctions of native animals and plants, invasive species also wreak severe economic havoc, causing $79 billion worth of damage in the United States alone. Elton explains the devastating effects that invasive species can have on local ecosystems in clear, concise language and with numerous examples. The first book on invasion biology, and still the most cited, Elton's masterpiece provides an accessible, engaging introduction to one of the most important environmental crises of our time. Charles S. Elton was one of the founders of ecology, who also established and led Oxford University's Bureau of Animal Population. His work has influenced generations of ecologists and zoologists, and his publications remain central to the literature in modern biology. "History has caught up with Charles Elton's foresight, and "The Ecology of Invasions" can now be seen as one of the central scientific books of our century."-David Quammen, from the Foreword to "Killer Algae: The True Tale of a Biological Invasion"
Over the past decade, the field of biocultural diversity has arisen as an area of transdisciplinary research concerned with investigating the links between the world's linguistic, cultural, and biological diversity as manifestations of the diversity of life. The impetus for the emergence of this field came from the observation that all three diversities are under threat by some of the same forces and from the perception that loss of diversity at all levels spells dramatic consequences for humanity and the earth. Accordingly, the field of biocultural diversity has developed with both a theoretical and a practical side, the latter focusing on on-the-ground work and policy, as well as with an ethics and human rights component. This review provides some background on the historical antecedents and beginnings of this field and on its philosophical and ethical underpinnings, and then surveys the key literature on biocultural diversity, concentrating on three main aspects: global and regional studies on ...