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Spanglish as Literacy Tool: Toward an Understanding of the Potential Role of Spanish-English Code-Switching in the Development in Academic Literacy
Abstract
This article reports findings from a qualitative study of Spanish-English code-switching- or Spanglish- among bilingual Latina/Latino sixth graders at a middle school in East Los Angeles. Analysis of the data revealed significant parallels between the skills embedded in students' everyday use of Spanglish and the skills that they were expected to master according to California's sixthgrade English language arts standards. In particular, students displayed an impressive adeptness at (1) shifting voices for different audiences, and (2) communicating subtle shades ofmeaning. It is argued that this skillful use of Spanglish could potentially be leveraged as a resource for helping students to further cultivate related academic literacy skills. The article concludes with a discussion of specific implications for how teachers might begin to leverage Spanglish as a pedagogical resource by helping students to recognize, draw on, and extend the skills already embedded in their everyday use of language. Copyright © 2010 by the National Council of Teachers of English. All rights reserved.
... Grounded in the current scholarship of sociolinguists (Gort, 2019;Makoni & Pennycook, 2007;Martínez, 2010), I consider language a verb, not a noun, focusing on what has been referred to as languaging. At its core, translanguaging (García & Wei, 2014) builds on the term languaging by normalizing the hybrid and multimodal nature of sociolinguistic practices enacted by multilinguals. ...
... It is also important to note that even within mainstream classrooms, practices and approaches that foster dynamic bilingualism can be implemented to support emergent bilinguals. In fact, just allowing EBs to translanguage in unrestricted ways can make a difference in mediating everyday academic tasks and performance, and in the learning of the targeted language for bilingual education (Alvarez, 2017;Creese & Blackledge, 2010;Martínez, 2010;Velasco & García, 2014). This, however, would involve intentionally making flexible classroom language policies that value the language(s) and varieties represented, and allowing students to read, write, speak, and engage in more than one language to support language, literacy, and content knowledge development (García & Wei, 2014;Velasco & García, 2014). ...
... Las ideologías lingüísticas se han estudiado desde perspectivas diversas. Se han analizado, por ejemplo, en relación con la inmigración humana (Medvedeva, 2012;Parsons Dick, 2011);el bilingüismo (Casielles-Suárez, 2017;Curzan, Queen, VanEyk y Weissler, 2023;Deveraux y Wheeler, 2012;Emerick y Goldberg, 2023;Flores y Schissel, 2014;Martínez, 2010); el contacto lingüístico (Guzzardo, Rivera y Walicek, 2017;Kramer, 2017;Zurita y Henríquez, 2019); la identidad étnica (Alvarado, 2020); el mantenimiento y el desplazamiento lingüístico (Barnes, 2017;Cavanaugh, 2004;Skrobot 2014); la educación (Loza, 2017;Randolph, 2017); la autenticidad y legitimación lingüística (Gal y Woolard, 2001;Marimón, 2019;O'Rourke, 2015;Santamaría, 2019,), la legislación (Haviland, 2003;Mertz, 1988), entre otras. Además, las ideologías lingüísticas se han catalogado por subcategorías, según las ideas sobre la lengua que fomenten. ...
The concepts of linguistic ideologies and attitudes have been crucial for explaining the linguistic behaviors of individuals and social groups. This study will analyze the role of language in power relations and the importance of ideologies on discourse, focusing on two novels about Mexican immigration and three Spanish-language newspapers published in Texas during the first half of the 20th century. Through these printed publications, I will examine how the linguistic ideologies that emerged in southwestern communities at the beginning of the last century are reflected in the literary and journalistic production of the time. The analysis reveals that bilingual speech is depicted negatively in the printed discourse and evokes, since the early 20th century, ideas about “what is correct” and “what is pure”, alongside notions concerning the role of language in shaping national, cultural and linguistic identities.
... Because Spanglish is an everyday language practice in Latino communities, Ramón Martínez (2010) has urged that it be used to boost the academic literacy development of emergent bilingual students who still lack fluency in English. After observing a sixth-grade Los Angeles classroom for an academic year, Martínez concluded that Spanglish is a semiotic tool that allows students to shift voices for different audiences and to communicate subtle nuances of meaning, both specific literacy skills. ...
... Its strict diglossic language arrangement that determines when and to what extent to use any language in a bilingual program obscures authentic opportunities to fully leverage emergent bilinguals' fluid linguistic repertoires and latent potentials that are resourceful for their language and literacy development (Fielding, 2016;Garcia, 2011;Garcia & Sylvan, 2011;Palmer & Martinez, 2016). Bilinguals demonstrate mastery of important skills that are equivalent to the state language standards when they are given the opportunity to creatively deploy different codes, registers, and genres to communicate meaning with diverse audiences and contexts (Martínez, 2010). ...
This article examines Washington State’s growing dual language program through the lens of heteroglossia. A heteroglosic lens is significant to understanding the contemporary linguistic landscape and framing language policies that will equitably serve multilingual learners and communities. With the increasing multilingual complexities of today’s classrooms and the history of academic achievement gaps between monolingual and multilingual learners, heteroglossia illuminates the contextual ways in which language practices and policies hegemonize certain groups and create educational and social inequities. The article argues that unless the state’s language policy is structurally revised and informed with a heteroglossic ideology and theorization of language education, its aspirational goals of equitable education for its multilingual learners may never be attained. It offers an overview of the theoretical lens of heteroglossia that must guide the planning of an equitable language policy/program that reflects multilingual learners’ authentic fluid language practices.
... 2). Several authors (Martínez 2010;Toribio 2002, 115;Velasquez 2010) also describe English-Spanish codeswitching as an expression of Latina identity in diverse contexts, though Toribio (2002, 115) also notes that some individuals may reject codeswitching due to associated stigma. Haitian Creole is the only language in this survey that is not described as having emerged for expressive purposes or as an ethnic identity. ...
This chapter examines eight criteria used to define mixed languages through both their diachronic development and resulting structures. Through a thematic analysis of these criteria, involving 13 contact languages, it becomes apparent that no single criterion definitively categorizes a language as 'mixed'. Rather the 'mixed language' designation is better understood as a descriptive term based on the accumulation of criteria that places a language near the extreme end of a language contact continuum. This perspective supports Thomason's claim that mixed languages are extraordinary outcomes resulting from ordinary processes of language contact.
... These perfectly valid varieties have often been scorned by English and Spanish speakers alike as "Tex-Mex" or "Spanglish," although such terms have often merely become fodder for reclamation by the speakers of these varieties." (2015: 219-220) These varieties are growing in visibility and numbers of speakers in the United States, and certainly present significant both educational challenges and opportunities (see Briceño et al., 2018;Chappell & Faltis, 2007;Martínez, 2010Martínez, , 2013. ...
In this article, the nature of Spanglish as a Spanish-English contact language in the United States is explored. The common phonological, lexical, and morphosyntactic characteristics of different varieties of Spanglish are presented, and the case for understanding Spanglish as a distinctive and legitimate set of language varieties in the US context is offered. Finally, the role played by raciolinguistic ideologies in the marginalization of Spanglish in the United States will be discussed and critiqued.
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... Together with other studies on children's translingual writing (Choi & Cho, 2019;Machado & Hartman, 2019;Zapata & Laman, 2016), this motherscholar research disrupts traditional notions of literacy and literacy instruction by urging literacy teachers and scholars to create room for translingual writing for multilingual children whereby "the innovative and creative abilities of individuals to move back and forth among a variety of language resources" are nurtured rather than being suppressed (Alvarez, 2017, p. 9). Not recognizing and further incorporating these home and community-based literacy practices in which multilingual children write creatively and effectively with a clear sense of audience to communicate their messages by drawing on all available resources is an opportunity missed to optimize school learning for multilingual children (Martínez, 2010). Admittedly, Gyuan was privileged with extraordinary support for multilingualism and literacy in all languages at home and as a result of his access to HL schools in a highly diverse geographic area, which would be different from most multilingual children growing up in the U.S. ...
School literacy in North America continues to focus on society’s dominant languages. Literacy curriculum — particularly during early grades — has an urgency for children to quickly master emergent literacy skills in the official languages, vindicating the exclusion of literacy in other minoritized languages that multilingual children bring to school. Guided by a translingual approach to literacy, this motherscholar research explores how and why a multilingual child utilized his Korean linguistic resources in translingual compositions across scripts, genres, modalities, and contexts during kindergarten and first-grade years. The qualitative analysis of the child’s compositions brought from school and completed at home revealed that he solidified social relationships with others through letter writing and asserted multicultural affiliations and identities in various genres. He did so through natural attunement to differences and laborious orchestration of resources. His minimal engagement with translingual writing at school compared to home practices has implications for literacy teachers and parents of multilingual children.
... Most PSTs did not frame their views within the critical intent of translanguaging as a pathway to resist asymmetries of linguistic hierarchies and power, re-constitute students' identities, or "involve and give voice" to students to foster social justice outcomes (García & Leiva, 2014, p. 210). An underlying theme suggests that PSTs needed additional support if they were to develop ideological clarity to validate minoritized students' funds of knowledge and fluid languaging practices in ways that do not re-inscribe English language hegemony (Martínez, 2010). Although the authors view this study as an initial foray into questioning the larger ideological goals of prescribed TESOL curriculum, questions arise about the critical efficacy and realistic expectations from an introductory sojourn into translanguaging pedagogy, especially considering that most PSTs came from an English monolingual background. ...
Global Englishes Language Teaching (GELT) is still in its infancy in Japan as educators struggle to implement tangible and practical classroom methods to promote its principles. The lack of awareness regarding GELT and lingering attitudes that privilege monolingual orientations to teaching and conceptualizing the English language—exacerbated by the construct of native speakerism—persist among teachers, learners, and other educational stakeholders alike. This chapter examines how three Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) practitioners teaching in three different university contexts in various regions of Japan attempted to instill GELT-informed principles in their classrooms. As the reflective teaching movement has helped to enhance the knowledge base by high- lighting the importance of reflection on classroom practices, this chapter adopts a collective narrative approach to reflect on the materials choice, curriculum design, and lesson activities to share the strategies undertaken by the teachers to promote multilingualism, diversity, and pluralism in the GELT classroom. We discuss the implications for curriculum development and program administration in fostering the use of multilingualism in other English language teaching (ELT) settings outside of Japan
... Latinx students face persistent obstacles in their educational achievement. Overcoming these will require educating them in ways that are inclusive of their rich linguistic and cultural repertoires (Martínez, 2010, Valdès 1994, 1996, treating their bilingualism and multiculturalism as an asset rather than a deficit (Alim, 2005;Orellana, 2001;. Educators need to question what can be done to ensure that immigrant-origin Latinx students are having positive experiences in schools to increase their opportunities to learn. ...
This dissertation documents the elements that characterize the perspectives and practices of four high school teachers identified as highly effective educators working with immigrant-origin Latina and Latino students in urban settings. They are distinguished in consistently taking into account their students' cultural backgrounds and personal narratives. Using portraiture methodology, this study examines the development of their cultural competencies and the myriad ways each one promotes, supports, and celebrates the learning of their immigrant-origin Latinx students. Data sources include semi-structured interviews with the teachers, administrators, and members of the community, classroom observations and audio files, extensive field notes, and demographic data about the local context of the school where the four teachers have been teaching.
The teachers' commitment to serve immigrant-origin students was manifested in their persistent efforts to get to know their students well, to build strong relationships and to validate their voices. With rigor and thoughtfully planned lessons, they engaged their students in Socratic discourse about controversial current political issues and debates.
These teachers demonstrated cariño, an ethical and moral foundation of teaching and education more generally. The ethic of cariño is explored and further conceptualized throughout this work. Eight emergent themes were found to demonstrate the ethic of cariño—four focused on perspectives and four on practices. The four perspectives that drove these teachers ranged from critical consciousness and equity-driven perspectives to embracing a reflective ethos viewing their students wholistically. The practices they manifested included curricular rigor and building relationships with students as well as engaging them and developing relevant curricula.
The four perspectives and practices were not fixed categories, and all four teachers illustrated them in different degrees. The data sources revealed a fluid and dynamic relationship between the teacher practices and the teacher perspectives—a cyclical process that was generative in nature and informed the teacher's instructional choices. What was the same was how these eight themes combined in their teaching to illustrate the ethic of cariño that teachers used in approaching their immigrant-origin students.
The portraits of the four teachers affirm existing research on the potential equity and culturally responsive contributions that teachers who work with immigrant-origin Latinx youth can provide in their classroom context. This work raises questions to the field about how teachers understand and make sense of the lived experiences of immigrant-origin youth and how they might develop their teaching craft to promote equity and social justice in their approaches to culturally and linguistically diverse students.
... In aligning with the current study, we observed that this was the same exercise in the investigated sites, as teachers seemed to resort on switching to learners' home language whenever new or difficult words were to be unpacked. Hence, learners from diverse communities began to actively engage during English language learning sessions (Martinez, 2010;Gort, 2008). ...
This paper explores how code-switching can be meaningfully used as an empowerment approach towards improving learners' performance in English language. In cultures with people using more than one language as a way of communication, code-switching exists. Bilinguals as speakers of more than one language, code-switch, thereby using their languages resourcefully at conveying meaning in a variety of ways. Code-switching occurs every day during the processes of teaching and learning as most subjects in the curriculum are offered in English language. Teaching and learning English language in South Africa is characterised by serious challenges because the government is advocating for the use of home languages for all subjects of the lower grades in primary schools. However, teachers still encounter challenges when they use English as a medium of instruction in the preceding grades because learners fail to comprehend challenging English concepts and terminologies presented to them in a language which is not their home language. Qualitative research methods were used to collect data and the findings reveal that using code-switching can be a worthwhile approach to be used in bilingual classrooms. A possible recommendation is that English language teachers should utilize code-switching as an approach to assist language development as learners in the schools investigated emanate from diverse cultures, underpinned by different linguistic backgrounds and linguistic constituencies.
... In her statement, Yukie is concerned that her child will lose her home language or culture because of the subtractive schooling environment in schools and English-only monoglossic ideologies (Fillmore, 2000). On the other hand, teachers and schools spend much time worrying about CLD students' home languages and cultures impeding on their English development, while in actuality, the knowledge children have of their home languages and cultures can be leveraged for their development in learning English (Mart ınez, 2010). This is why it is important for teachers to encourage and support students and their families to use and develop their home languages, even as they learn to speak and write in English in the classroom. ...
This study explores the use of teacher narrative sketches in a graduate level course titled, Language Diversity and Literacy Instruction. The narrative assignment asked students to write stories of their own experiences with language diversity in literacy or other content areas. The shared teacher narratives, which drew on their teacher knowledge, allowed the teachers to reflect on their personal experiences as multilinguals or while working with culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students. This reflection spurred conversations and strategies for how they could support CLD students better in the future through the creation of caring and supportive classroom environments to promote social justice.
... lass, or "correcting" students' spoken or written language to match the "standard". Regardless of their intentions, when writing teachers police students' language, they also deny part of students' identities, positioning students, their families and their communities as less-than (Baker-Bell, 2020;Durán, 2020;Flores & Rosa, 2015;D. Martinez, 2017;R. Martínez, 2010;Metz, 2018Metz, , 2019. Educators, and many others across society, maintain beliefs about SL even without being able to specifically define the contours of that language (Flores & Rosa, 2015;Lippi-Green, 2012;Smakman, 2012). This means positioning standardised language practices as a pathway to social mobility and power is even more comp ...
In this study, we use qualitative research methods to explore how discourses about language manifested within two university writing teacher education classes, one in New Zealand and one in the United States. We used a collaborative teaching journal and student work as main sources of data, which were analysed inductively at key points before, during and after the focal classes. Findings showed that in these two geographically and culturally distinct contexts, practices related to “correctness” and “academic” language or writing were similarly hard to displace, even when the underlying ideas were unsettled. Our analysis suggests teachers and teacher educators have similar struggles of balance—to both prepare students to succeed within the world as it is now and to prepare them to push against the systems that maintain inequities.
... Our findings show multimodal composing affording opportunities for EBS to learn about rhetorical possibilities, such as addressing varied audiences and adding nuanced meanings. This reflects other work in translingual pedagogies that shows potential for building students' metalinguistic awareness through discussions about language choices (Jiménez et al., 2015;Martínez, 2010), as well as multimodal pedagogies that use exemplar texts and retrospective design interviews to encourage students to consider modal affordances (Dalton et al., 2015). We argue that when instruction encourages students to draw on multiple modes and linguistic resources and reflect on their decisions for doing so, multimodal composition has the potential to strengthen students' knowledge about language and their translingual competence, or their understanding of varied resources and awareness of these resources' relationships to a communicative situation (Canagarajah, 2014;Pacheco et al., 2019). ...
Digital multimodal composition affords emergent bilingual students (EBs) distinct opportunities to engage with content, develop aspects of identity, and learn about new technology and composing processes. Multimodal composition also offers opportunities for students to leverage the full range of their linguistic repertoires. This study seeks to better understand how EBs deploy, mesh, and orchestrate varied linguistic resources in composing processes and products. More specifically, it systematically analyzes the empirical research on multimodal composing and adolescent EBs, attending to ways that students translanguage within composing processes and products. In composing processes, EBs translanguaged to access and establish information, collaborate with classmates, and interact with communities. In composing products, EBs translanguaged to express identity, add nuance to and augument meaning, and engage audiences. Implications for classroom practice and theories of composition and translanguaging are then discussed, suggesting the importance of pedagogy that is designed for and responsive to students’ language practices.
... While much of the work on translanguaging has been theoretical, there are a number of researchers that are engaging in examining the pedagogical implications of this framework (García, Johnson & Selzer, 2017;Martínez, 2010;Menken & Garcia, 2010). These studies aim to push boundaries of traditional immersion bilingual programs that separate the languages for instructional purposes, claiming that by doing that it constrains students' opportunities to use both codes for various purposes (Lee, Hill-Bonnet & Gillispie, 2008). ...
Accents are sociocultural markers that signal identity and influence communication, and multicultural individuals may be more likely to encounter a variety of accents across different languages. This article reviews and integrates research on the psychology of accent and multicultural experiences. We first examine the social and communicative meanings of accents for multicultural individuals. Specifically, we discuss accents as cues for multicultural frame‐switching and examine how accent switching, a form of multicultural frame‐switching, facilitates multicultural communication. Next, we discuss how multicultural experiences shape accent attitudes. We analyze both positive outcomes, such as increased acceptance of accent diversity, and negative outcomes, such as reinforcement of accent hierarchies. We conclude by outlining promising avenues for future research to enhance our knowledge of accent diversity and multicultural experiences, with the goal of encouraging a more systematic exploration of this important and understudied topic.
A R T I C L E I N F O The use of two languages in language learning classrooms by English as a second language (ESL) teachers is called code switching. In Pakistan, where English is a compulsory subject and taught as a second language (L2) in its primary, secondary and tertiary level institutions, the educational policy states that ESL teachers must use English Only (EO) as the mode of instruction. However, in reality, most Pakistani ESL teachers opt to code switch to facilitate teaching and learning in their ESL classrooms. This could be due to their L2 learners' lack of expected proficiency in English particularly in the speaking skill even at the tertiary level. In this respect, the aim of this study is to investigate the extent of code switching by three ESL teachers teaching students at three different levels of proficiency (low, medium, and high) in Pakistan. This entails exploring the frequency of turns the ESL teachers code switched, the occurrences of code switched words and phrases in Urdu, and the frequency of types of words and phrases code switched in Urdu according to the three different levels of proficiency. The data includes recordings of four classroom lectures from each ESL teacher which were transcribed and then analysed quantitatively. Analysis of the transcribed lectures revealed that the use of code switching was prevalent, and it was recognised that the ESL teachers practiced code switching based on the learners' proficiency levels. The results suggest that the higher the proficiency of the ESL learners, the lower the frequency of code switching by ESL teachers in the classrooms in terms of the number of teachers' turn which contains code switching, code switched words and phrases, and types of code switched words and phrases. Thus, this research indicates that code switching does exist at different proficiency levels of ESL classrooms in Pakistan in spite of the EO policy by its educational ministry.
A large body of scholarship focuses on how to prepare White teachers to teach students of Color and guide them to make sense of their Whiteness. Using testimonio, this article adds diversity to teacher preparation literature and makes space for Kelly, a Mexican American preservice generalist teacher, to share her story. In particular, I highlight how her relationships and language ideology influence her ethnic identity construction while participating in the figured worlds of 1) her family, 2) personal K-12 schooling experience, and 3) pre-service student teaching experiences. Kelly’s testimonio is a call to subvert monoglossic language ideologies, value translanguaging, and ultimately prepare PSTs with the self-reflexive capacity to engage in linguistically responsive and sustaining pedagogy.
With the everchanging focus on different methodologies of teaching a foreign or second language, researchers have been arguing for or against the use of mother-tongue, especially in the context of English language classrooms from teachers' perspectives. Those against codeswitching liken second language learning with first language acquisition or consider the target language and mother tongue as two very distinct entities in the brain and favor its exclusive use in the classroom for maximizing students' exposure to the target language. However, recent research in bilingualism and multilingualism favors a moderate use of the mother tongue. The question arises what is the best practice to adopt for instructors or to what extent the use of L1 is justified to make the process of learning L2 more effective. To investigate students' attitudes towards code-switching, we collected data from the students of various linguistic and cultural backgrounds. They included: Pakistani learners of EFL at a Pakistani University with a Pakistani teacher where students and teachers share the same L1 or lingua franca, that is, Urdu; Afghan EFL students having Pashto/Persian as their L1 and being taught at a Pakistani university by a Pakistani instructor having Urdu as L1; and International multilingual learners learning Hindi as a foreign language at an American University i.e., Michigan State University with an Indian instructor whose mother tongue is Hindi but she uses English with family and in everyday conversations. The students in this group speak English or Spanish as their languge of conversation at home. They use English as a lingua franca while studying with American students. Anova used to analyse the data revealed that no matter what the cultural background of the students is, they have a positive attitude towards codeswitching, and consider it a beneficial tool to improve their linguistic abilities in the target language and to clarify some concepts. Introduction: Recent interest in codeswitching by learners and teachers in Foreign or Second/Additional Language Classrooms is an essential topic as it is related to the theory of SLA (Second Language Acquisition), language teaching policy and training and methodology, and student practices and expectations. Moreover, rapid globalization, increasing bilingualism, multiculturalism, mediatization of society, and the increased use of technology in the recent decades have resulted in a significant change in the trends of L2 research.
Aims
The authors develop a contrast between grounded and ungrounded language ideologies, defining grounded ideologies as those which are anchored empirically and ungrounded ideologies as those which are not. This framework guides a description of the history of translanguaging theory from early translanguaging theory, grounded in empirical research on codeswitching and other scholarship on bilingualism, to late translanguaging theory, which changed under the influence of a postmodernist approach to language policy known as deconstructivism. The authors further discuss charges of “abyssal thinking” attributed to those who do not accept deconstructivism.
Approach
The approach is argumentative.
Data and Analysis
The authors draw on a wide range of previously published empirical work to support their conclusions.
Conclusions
The authors conclude that late translanguaging theory is at odds with empirical research and holds negative consequences for pluralist language ideologies and civil rights advocacy.
Originality
The article makes original contributions to language ideology, the history of translanguaging theory, and the relationship between language theory and language ideology.
Significance
The article makes a significant critical contribution to the literature on multilingual language theory by drawing attention to significant limitations of translanguaging theory as a resource for language ideology.
En este capítulo abordo la enseñanza equitativa con vistas a mejorar las
oportunidades de un buen desempeño académico para los estudiantes que compartimos entre Estados Unidos y México. Defino la enseñanza equitativa como
una instrucción de alta calidad que resuena con las experiencias vividas, los
valores y los conocimientos, las prácticas y las identidades culturales de los estudiantes (Jensen, Grajeda y Haertel, 2018; Jensen, Pérez Martínez y Aguilar
Escobar, 2016); ofrezco ejemplos de enseñanza equitativa en las aulas de ambos
países, principalmente a nivel primaria, y concluyo con una serie de recomendaciones
para que los educadores estadounidenses y mexicanos, los formadores
de docentes, los investigadores y las autoridades colaboren en la búsqueda de un
programa de enseñanza equitativa.
Exploring language ideology and pedagogy, this article details two approaches utilized to bridge theory and practice in a class on second language acquisition for preservice teachers.
The purpose of this study was to conduct a bibliometric analysis including citation performance in the research topic of literacy within education, by using an innovative method including details of article title, author keyword, KeyWords Plus, and abstracts. This novel study is to our knowledge, the first of its kind within the field of literacy and can therefore provide valuable insights for professionals and others interested in literacy in terms of who and what to read, and where to focus. Data were retrieved 17 December 202217 December 2022 from the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) of Clarivate Analytics for studies published from 1992 to 2021. To evaluate research trends, the distribution of keywords in the article title and author‑selected keywords was used. The search yielded 539 documents in SSCI, of which 489 were document-type “articles”. These articles were published in 142 journals. The analysis of the articles showed that “academic writing,” “higher education,” “writing,” and “assessment” are the most used keywords by the authors. The most frequently cited study was published in 1998 by Lea and Street. Most articles were published in English and originated in the USA and the UK. Most studies in the field of professional literacy are produced in the USA and UK, that is, countries with a long tradition of research in professional education and having English as the main language. Most publications are single-country productions because literacy, to a high extent, are local in nature.
According to the National Education Association, one out of every four children in the U.S. public education system will be an English Learner (EL) by 2025, with at least half of these students likely being Spanish-speaking EL students. As school populations become more ethnically, racially, and linguistically diverse, current and future music teachers must increase awareness of the barriers that the growing population of Spanish-speaking EL students may encounter. In this article, the author describes the language acquisition stages that Spanish-speaking EL students typically go through, providing insights into possible strategies for addressing their language barriers and socio-emotional needs, as well as fostering a culturally responsive and sustainable environment in the music classroom. In doing so, the author describes several concrete methods that music educators could use to engage with and learn more about the rich Spanish-speaking communities. Thus, becoming more responsive to the current demographic changes and challenges.
This volume brings together the perspectives of new and established scholars who have connected with the broad fields of first language (L1) and second language (L2) writing to discuss critically key methodological developments and challenges in the study of L2 writing processes. The focus is on studies of composing and of engagement with feedback on written drafts, with particular attention to methods of process-tracing through data such as concurrent or stimulated verbal reports, interviews, diaries, digital recording, visual screen capture, eye tracking, keystroke logging, questionnaires, and/or ethnographic observation. The chapters in the book illustrate how progress has been made in developing research methods and empirical understandings of writing processes, in introducing methodological innovations, and in pointing to future methodological directions. It will be an essential methodological guide for novice and experienced researchers, senior students, and educators investigating the processes of writing in additional languages.
This study provides a portrait of Ms. Grace, a veteran English teacher at a high school in Silicon Valley. I examine how Ms. Grace’s perspectives on her immigrant-origin Latine students informed her teaching, highlighting the perspectives and practices that guided her pedagogy. Analysis of the data demonstrates the cyclical nature of how this teacher’s perspectives on her students led her to embody a cultural competence that demonstrated a moral ethic of cariño. Through Ethnographic Case Study methodology, this study highlights the importance of cultivating cultural competencies in the teaching of immigrant-origin Latine youth, and the ways in which teachers enact and embody such competencies. I highlight how a moral ethic of cariño emerges in both the teaching practices and in the perspectives toward her immigrant-origin students, demonstrating the critical role that teachers play in providing a more inclusive learning space for the teaching of immigrant-origin Latine youth.
Drawing on life stories and classroom observations, this qualitative study examined how six bilingual maestras enacted and embodied critical biliteracies through bilanguaging love. These maestras were born, raised, and now teach bilingual education on the Texas–Mexico border. Their stories revealed contradictory and complex beliefs about literacy learning in Spanish and English, demonstrating how critical biliteracies teach children to read and write through the concept of bilanguaging love, a way of living between languages and epistemologies. Using qualitative methods like convivios and pláticas, rooted in other subaltern knowledges, the maestras articulated the nuanced realties of literacy learning. This study grounds critical biliteracies in border theories as a way of reading and writing the word and world.
Running counter to prevailing monolingual instruction practices, a multilingualism‐as‐a‐writing‐resource orientation views the development of writing expertise as closely interdependent across languages and encourages multilingual writers to shuttle across languages, modalities, and communities by drawing on their entire linguistic repertoires as a resource for composing. Empirical and theoretical support for this orientation arises from research at the intersection of bilingual education, multilingualism, literacy, and second language writing studies. To be successful, pedagogical implementation must go beyond instructional strategies in the classroom and also assess possibilities and enact changes at the curricular and institutional levels in specific contexts.
Research has shown the benefits of peer interaction to scaffold learning of disciplinary literacies. We extend knowledge in this area to examine peer interaction and the affordances it creates when emergent bilinguals engage with multimodal texts in disciplines to make meaning. Using discourse analysis of the interactions of a small group of third graders carrying out a project in science class, we explored how four emergent bilinguals collaborated to design, produce, and distribute traditional and alternative texts. We found that translanguaging and transmodal collaborative structures support learning processes and comprehension to make sense of and contextualize disciplinary knowledge. A dynamic and recursive translanguaging pattern emerges in which the introduction and contextualization of knowledge happens in Spanish, the interaction occurs mainly in English, and the creation is in both English and Spanish. We discuss the affordances of these collaborative structures for supporting students in science and promoting Spanish and student bilingualism.
This case study of two secondary English teachers integrates a critical translingual approach in two urban classrooms. Our inquiry is guided by two questions: (1) How did two teachers engage critical translingual approaches in their classrooms? (2) How did their positionalities shape implementation of these approaches? This article illustrates how teachers’ stances and practices can be affected by their identities, pointing to the ways that diverse teachers must approach their translanguaging pedagogies with an understanding of raciolinguistic ideologies. We end with a call for teacher educators to help teachers engage the transgressive elements of translanguaging in English classrooms and hone their raciolinguistic literacies so that they can design classroom learning in more humanizing ways.
Despite the increased acknowledgment of multilingualism in the United States, Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) teacher education courses remain non-inclusive of many languages spoken by multilingual learners (MLs). Instead, they focus mainly on the study of the English language system. Neglecting to support MLs’ heritage languages (HLs) inadvertently reinforces prevalent monolingual ideologies and marginalizes MLs in classrooms (Barros et al., Journal of Language, Identity & Education 20:239–254, 2020; Flores, N., & Aneja, G. (2017). “Why needs hiding?” Translingual (re)orientations in TESOL teacher education. Research in the Teaching of English, 51(4), 441–463. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44821275 ; Tian, Z. (2020). Faculty first: Promoting translanguaging in TESOL teacher education. In S. M. C. Lau & S. Van Viegen (Eds.), Plurilingual pedagogies: Critical and creative endeavors for equitable language in education (pp. 215–236). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36983-5_10). Translanguaging pedagogy with its heteroglossic approach creates a language ecology in which all students enrich teaching and learning experiences with more democratic approaches (Deroo and Ponzio, Bilingual Research Journal 42:214–231, 2019; Khote and Tian, Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts 5:5–28, 2019); however, both teachers and teacher educators know little about how to integrate translanguaging pedagogy into their coursework. In this case study, drawing upon (Bakhtin, M. (1981). Dialogic imagination: Four essays. University of Texas Press.) heteroglossia, we explore how pre-service teachers (PSTs) responded to translanguaging pedagogy in a TESOL education course. Data were collected through course assignments and interviews with 11 PSTs. Findings showed that PSTs embraced translanguaging in multiple ways that reflected heteroglossic perspectives in education. First, PSTs operationalized translanguaging as translations used to teach language and content lessons. Second, they took an active role in preparing lessons. Third, they understood translanguaging as a classroom ecology. While PSTs recognized the benefits of translanguaging for MLs, they also struggled with the translanguaging pedagogy because they could not imagine the full potential of translanguaging for themselves and their students. This study has implications for teacher educators, curriculum developers, and language teachers who grapple with bringing multilingualism to the center of TESOL that has traditionally privileged English-only.
A resounding emphasis on learning loss has pervaded popular discourse and academic research as children return to in-person instruction after COVID-related schooling interruptions, most notably including remote schooling. This paper examines how this emphasis links to persistent deficit-oriented views of children as lacking literacy and language. It proposes an expanded, anti-deficit conception of teacher noticing based upon four domains that deserve more visibility especially at this time in the literacy classroom: children’s emotions, children’s funds of knowledge, children’s relationships, and children’s purposes. It provides examples of how teachers might adopt deliberate noticing practices that attend to these domains.
Language assessments are often framed as benign mechanisms needed to objectively classify people’s linguistic proficiencies. In this article, I argue for the need to critically re-examine how purportedly objective institutional language assessments and our participation in them deceptively reify historical and contemporary inequities. I offer the analytic of linguistic confinement that is structured by an ideological bundle of race, language, and disability. Linguistic confinement aims to re-think the racialized interplay between educational language learning and carcerality. I show this through examination of the ‘long-term English learner’ (LTEL) category. More specifically, I explore what insights we gain into the experiences of racialized students when we consider how colonial and carceral strategies structure educational language learning and access to broader learning opportunities. By doing this, I urge educational language scholars to attend to carcerality and scholars of carcerality to reckon with language.
Although there has been increasing commitment towards equalizing the researcher-participant relationship in Indigenous tourism research, practices that transform this commitment into reality are still scarce. In this reflective paper, I argue that food sovereignty principles and a researcher's reflexivity can improve this situation. To support this argument, I draw from my experience of working collaboratively with Kichwa Napo Runa people in Ecuador while exploring the impacts of tourism on their food sovereignty. I examine my reflexivity in two aspects of my work: 1) research journaling to develop awareness of how my values and relationships influence the research process and outcomes; and 2) using this journal's content to reflexively analyse how my research contributes to food sovereignty goals surrounding the development of social relations that are free of oppression and inequality. My journal's passages show that constant attention to reflexivity can equalize power relationships in research and promote an ethical space between researchers and participants. Overall, this paper contributes to critical Indigenous tourism research approaches and the growing literature on practices involving the implementation of food sovereignty in various fields and contexts. This paper brings together reflexivity and food sovereignty in the context of Indigenous tourism research. Reflexivity requires an active examination of how one's own values and practices may influence the research process and unintentionally marginalize research
Codeswitchingching, well known as a speech style in which bilinguals alternate languages between or within sentences, has recently been joined by a new term, translanguaging, which is widely used in bilingual education with a similar meaning. Among a variety of perspectives within the translanguaging literature, some scholars have adopted deconstructivism, the view that discrete languages and multilingualism do not actually exist. Deconstructivists see translanguaging as a theoretical alternative to codeswitching, as codeswitching implies internalized linguistic diversity. In this chapter, the author argues that the political use of language names (a concern of deconstructivists) can and should be distinguished from the social and structural idealizations used to study linguistic diversity, favoring what the author calls an Integrated Multilingual Model of bilingualism, contrasted with the Unitary and Dual Competence models. The author further distinguishes grammars from linguistic repertoires, arguing that bilinguals, like everybody, have a single linguistic repertoire but a richly diverse mental grammar, a viewpoint the author calls a multilingual perspective on translanguaging.
Language contact - the linguistic and social outcomes of two or more languages coming into contact with each other - starts with the emergence of multilingual populations. Multilingualism involving plurilingualism can have various consequences beyond borrowing, interference, and code-mixing and -switching, including the emergence of lingua francas and new language varieties, as well as language endangerment and loss. Bringing together contributions from an international team of scholars, this Handbook - the second in a two-volume set - engages the reader with the manifold aspects of multilingualism and provides state-of-the-art research on the impact of population structure on language contact. It begins with an introduction that presents the history of the scholarship on the subject matter. The chapters then cover various processes and theoretical issues associated with multilingualism embedded in specific population structures worldwide as well as their outcomes. It is essential reading for anybody interested in how people behave linguistically in multilingual or multilectal settings.
This article reports on a study that we conducted in a sixth-grade Language Arts classroom. We worked with a first-year teacher to develop curricular activities that leveraged her students’ translating experiences to develop academic writing skills. Our goal was to help students recognize that their ability to shift voices when translating in everyday contexts could also be applied to writing for different audiences.
Drawing on a mixed-method program of research including the survey responses of 236 Spanish-speaking children, as well as extensive interviews, participant observation, and audiotaped data gathered in four different communities, we unpack the ways in which bilingual youth use their knowledge of English and U.S. cultural/institutional practices to speak, listen, read, write, and do things for their immigrant parents, mostly from Mexico. We demonstrate how immigrant children's work as translators and interpreters opens families' access to resources, knowledge, and information in a wide range of domains: educational, medical/health, commercial, legal/state, financial/employment, housing/residential, and cultural/entertainment. In discussing the realm of each domain, we consider how negotiations both within the family and between the family and the public sphere are variously shaped by power relations. We consider how youth's social positions as children, and as children of immigrants, may constrain their ability to access certain institutional goods, at the same time as we demonstrate their active and powerful involvement in family decision-making processes both inside and outside the home.
The occurrence of codeswitching, or the seemingly random alternation of two languages both between and within sentences, has been shown (Gumperz, 1976; Pfaff, 1975; Wentz, 1977) to be governed not only by extralinguistic but also linguistic factors. For the balanced bilingual, codeswitching appears to be subject to an ‘equivalence constraint’ (Poplack, 1978): i.e. it tends to occur at points in discourse where juxtaposition of L1 and L2 elements does not violate a surface syntactic rule of either language. If correct, the equivalence constraint on codeswitching may be used to measure degree of bilingual ability. It was hypothesized that equivalence would either be violated by non-fluent bilinguals, or that switch points which are ‘risky’ in terms of syntactic well-formedness (i.e. those which occur within a sentence) would tend to be avoided altogether. To test this hypothesis, I analysed the speech of 20 Puerto Rican residents of a stable bilingual community, exhibiting varying degrees of bilingual ability. Quantitative analysis of their switches revealed that both fluent and non-fluent bilinguals were able to code-switch frequently and still maintain grammaticality in both Lx and L2. While fluent bilinguals tended to switch at various syntactic boundaries within the sentence, non-fluent bilinguals favoured switching between sentences, allowing them to participate in the codeswitching mode, without fear of violating a grammatical rule of either of the languages involved. These results suggest that the codeswitching mode proceeds from that area of the bilingual's grammar where the surface structures of Lx and L2 overlap, and that codeswitching, rather than representing debasement of linguistic skill, is actually a sensitive indicator of bilingual ability.
In this article we provide a perspective on hybridity both as a theoretical lens for understanding diversity and a method for organizing learning. We argue that the use of multiple, diverse, and even conflicting mediational tools promotes the emergence of Third Spaces, or zones of development, thus expanding learning. Using examples from our ethnographic study of the literacy practices of one dual immersion elementary school classroom, we illustrate through an analysis of the discourse and literacy practices of the teacher and students in this culture of collaboration, how hybrid activities, roles, and practices can lead to productive contexts of development.
This article addresses a challenge faced by those who study cultural variation in approaches to learning: how to characterize regularities of individuals’ approaches according to their cultural background. We argue against the common approach of assuming that regularities are static, and that general traits of individuals are attributable categorically to ethnic group membership. We suggest that a cultural-historical approach can be used to help move beyond this assumption by focusing researchers’ and practitioners’ attention on variations in individuals’ and groups’ histories of engagement in cultural practices because the variations reside not as traits of individuals or collections of individuals, but as proclivities of people with certain histories of engagement with specific cultural activities. Thus, individuals’ and groups’ experience in activities—not their traits—becomes the focus. Also, we note that cultural-historical work needs to devote more attention to researching regularities in the variations among cultural communities in order to bring these ideas to fruition.
The organization of taking turns to talk is fundamental to conversation, as well as to other speech-exchange systems. A model for the turn-taking organization for conversation is proposed, and is examined for its compatibility with a list of grossly observable facts about conversation. The results of the examination suggest that, at least, a model for turn-taking in conversation will be characterized as locally managed, party-administered, interactionally controlled, and sensitive to recipient design. Several general consequences of the model are explicated, and contrasts are sketched with turn-taking organizations for other speech-exchange systems.
Abstract 1 Focusing on issues of class identity, this paper explores the relationship between sociolinguistics and Raymond Williams’ view of hegemony as “relations of domination and subordination… [that saturate] the whole process of living…: Our senses and assignments of energy, our shaping perceptions of ourselves and our world” (1977: 109-110). It assesses the kinds of insight afforded in both variationist and interactional sociolinguistics, and then turns to an analysis of London adolescents putting on exaggerated ‘posh’ and ‘Cockney’ accents in situated interaction. Underpinning the contingencies of particular instances, there was a set of well-established dualisms shaped in relations of class inequality (high vs low, mind vs body, reason vs emotion), and the resonance and reach of these was attested both in corporeal performance and in the fantastical grotesque. Can theories of interactional ‘identity projection’ do justice to this, or can sociolinguistics accommodate the cultural analyst’s wider concern for ‘subjectivity’? The paper looks at ways of drawing these perspectives together, and concludes with an emphatic rejection of claims that in late modernity, class identities are losing their significance. Keywords: Class, Inequality, Hegemony, Stylisation, Interactional sociolinguistics
Code-switching - the alternating use of several languages by bilingual speakers - does not usually indicate lack of competence on the part of the speaker in any of the languages concerned, but results from complex bilingual skills. The reasons why people switch their codes are as varied as the directions from which linguists approach this issue, and raise many sociological, psychological, and grammatical questions. This volume of essays by leading scholars brings together the main strands of current research in four major areas: the policy implications of code-switching in specific institutional and community settings; the perspective of social theory on code-switching as a form of speech behaviour in particular social contexts; the grammatical analysis of code-switching, including the factors that constrain switching even within a sentence; and the implications of code-switching in bilingual processing and development.
In this article, the authors use and further elaborate a cultural modeling framework to juxtapose two distinct yet analogous literacy practices:
The out‐of‐school practice of translating and interpreting across languages, or “para‐phrasing”
The cross‐disciplinary and school‐based practice of paraphrasing or summarizing written texts
Data are from field notes based on two years of ethnographic observations conducted in the homes and classrooms of 18 fifth‐, sixth‐, and seventh‐grade students; the students' journals about their translation experiences; focus group discussions with the students; audiotapes of para‐phrasing interactions that involved written text; interviews with the students' teachers; and audiotaped process‐focused literacy assessments that provided insights on how children read and interpreted two different kinds of texts, putting both in their own words. Through grounded theorizing, the authors first analyze the skills involved in the everyday para‐phrasing or translation activities performed by immigrant youth. They then identify analogues between these skills and those required for practices of translation, interpretation, and paraphrasing as they are enacted across disciplines and in an array of discourse practices. Finally, they examine classroom practices to identify points of leverage between home and school practices. The authors contribute to the elaboration of the cultural modeling framework by exploring a set of language and literacy practices that frequently occurs in immigrant communities and yet has been little explored to date, and by considering how schools can better engage the skills of bilingual youths.
في هذه المقالة يستخدم و يطور المؤلفون إطارا ثقافيا تمثيليا حيث تتجاور ممارستان مختلفتان لمعرفة القراءة و الكتابة و لكنهما في نفس الوقت متماثلتان:
ممارسة الترجمة من لغة إلى لغة أو ما يسمى بإعادة الصياغة
إعادة صياغة النصوص المكتوبة كممارسة مدرسية في كل التخصصات
المواد هي عبارة عن ملاحظات ميدانية جُمِّعت خلال سنتين من المعاينات الاثنوغرافية في منازل و بيوت 18 طالب في الصف الخامس والسادس والسابع و يوميات الطلاب خلال تجاربهم في الترجمة و مناقشات مركزة مع الطلاب و كذلك أشرطة تسجيلية لمحاورات تفاعلية في إعادة صياغة لنصوص مكتوبة بالإضافة إلى محادثات مع أساتذة الطلاب و أشرطة مسجلة تقيم عملية القراءة و الكتابة أمدتنا برؤيا حول كيفية تعامل الطلاب مع نصوص مختلفة و كيف يترجمونها بكلماتهم و عباراتهم الخاصة. و من خلال عملية تنظيرية محكمة يحلل المؤلفون المهارات المستخدمة في عمليتي إعادة الصياغة و الترجمة التي يقوم بها مجموعة من الشباب المهاجرين. ثم يتعرفون على أوجه التشابه و المماثلة بين هذه المهارات و المهارات اللازمة في الترجمة و الترجمة الفورية و إعادة الصياغة كما هي مطبقة في مختلف الاختصاصات و في خطابات متعددة. و في الأخير يتنبهون إلى الممارسات داخل الصف ليتعرفوا على نقاط التفاعل بين ممارسات البيت و المدرسة . و يساهم المؤلفون في تطوير الإطار الثقافي التمثيلي من خلال فحص مجموعة من الممارسات المتعلقة بالقراءة و الكتابة التي تظهر عند مجموعات المهاجرين و التي لم يتم استغلاها بعد من خلال معرفة كيف يمكن للمدارس أن تستغل مهارات الطلاب الثنائيي اللغة.
本文作者利用及加以阐述一个文化模塑框架，从而并列出两个不同却可类比的阅写应用:
在校外的跨语言翻译及传译的，或所谓的“意译”。
在校内跨学科及一般文本的意译或总结。
研究资料是研究者两年来从民族志学研究观察中取得：包括观察18名就读第五、六、七年级学生在家和教室所得的场地摘记、有关这些学生翻译经验的日志、焦点组学生的讨论记录、有关文本意译互动的录音、与这些学生的老师的访谈、有关以过程为焦点的阅写能力评估的录音等。这些研究资料有助于了解儿童如何以自己的言语去阅读和诠释两种不同的文本。通过扎根理论方法，作者首先分析新移民青少年在日常意译和翻译活动中所涉及的技能。然后，作者识别出这些技能与落实在跨学科及种种话语中的一般翻译、传译及意译所需技能之间的类比。最后，作者考查教室里的阅写应用，以识别出家庭与学校应用之间的杠杆支撑点。作者的贡献是：通过探讨一套常用于移民社区中而至今仍鲜被研究的语言与阅写技能应用，以及考虑到学校如何更好地衔接这些双语青少年的阅写技能，从而阐述该文化模塑框架。
Dans cet article, les auteurs utilisent et poursuivent l'élaboration d'une structure du modelage culturel afin de juxtaposer deux pratiques de lettrisme distinctes mais voisines:
La pratique extra scolaire de traduction et d'interprétation d'une langue à l'autre, ou ce que nous appelons « paraphrase »
La pratique interdisciplinaire et scolaire de paraphrase et de résumé de textes écrits
Les données sont des notes de terrain reposant sur deux années d'observations ethnographiques effectuées au domicile et à l'école auprès de 18 élèves de CM2, de 6ème, et de 5ème; les journaux des élèves relatifs à leurs expériences de traduction; des discussions ciblées avec des groupes d'élèves; des enregistrements audio d'interactions de paraphrases impliquant des textes écrits; des entretiens avec des enseignants des élèves; et des enregistrements audio d'évaluations de lettrisme centrées sur les processus et qui donnent des idées sur la façon dont les élèves lisent et interprètent deux types de textes différents en les disant tous deux avec leurs propres mots. En s'appuyant sur des bases théoriques, les auteurs analysent d'abord les compétences inclues dans la paraphrase ou dans les activités de traduction que réalisent quotidiennement de jeunes immigrants. Ils identifient ensuite des analogies entre ces compétences et celles qui sont nécessaires pour les situations de traduction, d'interprétation et de paraphrase telles qu'elles apparaissent d'une discipline à l'autre et dans le domaine des pratiques discursives. Ils examinent enfin les pratiques scolaires pour identifier des leviers entre les pratiques domestiques et scolaires. Les auteurs contribuent à l'élaboration d'une structure du modelage culturel en explorant un ensemble de pratiques de langage et de lettrisme qui se produisent souvent dans les communautés immigrées et qui ont cependant été peu étudiées à ce jour, et en considérant comment les écoles peuvent mieux s'investir dans les compétences des jeunes bilingues.
В настоящей статье авторы используют и творчески расширяют понятие культурного моделирования, в котором сочетаются два различных и, в то же время, сходных способа общения со словом:
Практика перевода с языка на язык и пересказа идей на другом языке – так называемое “перефразирование” – вне школы.
Перефразирование или суммирование содержания письменных текстов, практикуемые на уроках.
Собранные данные представляют собой рабочие записи этнографических наблюдений, которые проводились в течение двух лет на уроках и дома у 18‐и учащихся пятых, шестых и седьмых классов; дневниковые записи учеников о собственном “переводческом” опыте; стенограммы дискуссий с учащимися в режиме фокус‐группы; аудиозаписи устного пересказа письменного текста; интервью с учителями, работающими в этих классах, а также аудиозапись процесса оценивания навыков и умений детей читать тексты двух различных видов и пересказывать их своими словами. Авторы предлагают серьезные теоретические обоснования и анализируют на их базе те навыки перефразирования и перевода, которые юные иммигранты практикуют ежедневно. Затем они выявляют сходства между этими навыками и теми, которые требуются для перевода, пересказа и перефразирования на различных школьных уроках и в рамках разнообразных типов дискурса. Наконец, они исследуют методы обучения, чтобы найти возможность сочетать домашний опыт детей с теми требованиями, которые им предъявляются в классе. Авторы вносят вклад в копилку культурного моделирования, поскольку исследуют практику общения через слово, которая имеет место в иммигрантской среде и к настоящему моменту очень мало изучена, и размышляют о том, как школа могла бы использовать языковые навыки двуязычных учеников.
En este artículo los autores usan y reelaboran un marco de formación cultural para yuxtaponer dos prácticas de alfabetización distintas pero análogas:
La práctica extra escolar de traducir e interpretar distintas lenguas o lo que llamamos parafrasear
La práctica transdisciplinaria y escolar de parafrasear o resumir textos escritos
Los datos provienen de notas de campo basadas en dos años de observaciones etnográficas conducidas en los hogares y aulas de 18 estudiantes de quinto, sexto y séptimo grado, los diarios personales de los estudiantes sobre sus experiencias de traducción, discusiones con los estudiantes, grabaciones de audio de interacciones en las que se parafrasea incluyendo texto escrito, entrevistas con los docentes y evaluaciones de procesos de lectoescritura audio grabadas que proporcionan información sobre cómo los niños leen e interpretan dos tipos distintos de texto, poniendo ambos en sus propias palabras. A partir teorías fundamentadas, los autores analizan en primer lugar las habilidades implicadas en las actividades cotidianas de parafraseo o traducción realizadas por jóvenes inmigrantes. Luego identifican analogías entre estas habilidades y las requeridas para prácticas de traducción, interpretación y parafraseo tal como se ponen en uso entre disciplinas y en un conjunto de prácticas discursivas. Finalmente, examinan las prácticas del aula para identificar puntos de apoyo entre el hogar y las prácticas escolares. Los autores contribuyen a la elaboración de un marco de formación cultural explorando un conjunto de prácticas de lenguaje y alfabetización que se dan con frecuencia en comunidades de inmigrantes y que, sin embargo, han sido poco exploradas hasta hoy; también se considera cómo las escuelas podrían aprovechar mejor las habilidades de los jóvenes bilingües.
This study investigated the efficacy of signifying, a form of social discourse in the African American community, as a scaffold for teaching skills in literary interpretation. Specifically, the hypotheses of this study were that skill in signifying and prior knowledge about social conventions, themes, and values on which the instructional texts were based would positively influence skill in interpreting fiction. Prior to instruction, two tests were administered to measure prior social knowledge and skill in signifying. Pretest and posttest essay exams were administered to test progress in literal and inferential reading categories. Rasch scale analysis was used to calibrate the tests and to estimate person measures. Six classes of average level seniors from two high schools in a large midwestern urban district participated in the project: 4 experimental classes and 2 control or no-treatment classes. The majority of students, however, scored below national norms on standardized reading tests. The experimental group achieved a statistically significant mean gain over the control group. The experimental group achieved statistically significant gain in two of the inferential reading categories. Signifying and prior social knowledge measures showed statistically significant correlations with achievement at both the pretests and posttests.
Tochon, F. V. (2009). The Key To Global Understanding: World Languages Education. Why Schools Need to Adapt. Review of Educational Research. 79(2), 650-682. 2010 AERA Award of Best Review of Research published in 2009.
This review essay is a plea for the education community to reconsider the place of world languages teaching within the schools. With globalization, languages education should be one of the strategic goals of public as well as private education. The article reviews research on the best age level for learning a language, the assets of bilingualism, the problems that arise from lack of recognition for other languages and cultures, the ways to change current language education, and the integration of international language policies. The literature reviewed points at how the issues discussed can be resolved to increase global understanding.
As scholars examine the successes and failures of more than 50 years of court-ordered desegregation since Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, and 25 years of language education of Black youth since Martin Luther King Elementary School Children v. Ann Arbor School District Board, this article revisits the key issues involved in those cases and urges educators and sociolinguists to work together to revise pedagogies. After reviewing what scholars have contributed, the author suggests the need for critical language awareness programs in the United States as one important way in which we can revise our pedagogies, not only to take the students’ language into account but also to account for the interconnectedness of language with the larger sociopolitical and sociohistorical phenomena that help to maintain unequal power relations in a still-segregated society
The recent syntactic literature contains three major proposals concerning the syntactic status of adnominal adjectives: 1.(1) that they are heads,2.(2) that they are phrasal adjuncts, and3.(3) that they do not form a uniform class.
Given this lack of consensus, it is not surprising that the distribution of adnominal adjectives had remained an unsolved problem in the study of intrasentential codeswitching. In this paper, we propose a solution by exploiting the formal model of intrasentential codeswitching developed in Mahootian (1993), which is based on the null hypothesis that codeswitching sequences are not subject to structural constraints beyond the general principles of phrase structure that govern monolingual sequences. We first show that a blanket treatment of adnominal adjectives as heads is untenable, and then argue that the distribution of adnominal adjectives described in the codeswitching literature provides a new source of evidence in favor of the view that there are two distinct classes of adjectives. We review a number of alternative treatments proposed in the codeswitching literature and show that our analysis is preferable.