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Urban Forest Impacts on Regional Cooling and Heating Energy Use: Sacramento County Case Study
Abstract
Urban forests impact energy use for cooling and heating as a result of their moderating influence on climate. To evaluate the regional magnitude of these impacts, a large-scale analysis framework was developed and applied to Sacramento County, California, as a case study. Heating, cooling, and peak electrical energy use changes resulting from modification of solar radiation, air temperature, and wind speed by the existing urban forest were estimated for representative residential and commercial buildings. This is combined with building age and size, canopy and tree cover, and tree density (trees/ha) for 71 county subdivisions. Annual cooling savings are approximately 157 GWh (US$18.5 million) per year - 12% of total air conditioning in the county. Net effects on heating are small, with 145 TJ (US$1.3 million) saved annually. Peak energy-use reductions result in avoided costs of US$6 million. The resulting large-scale analysis incorporates a manageable level of detail not previously available. Sensitivity of results to selected input data is demonstrated.
... Studies in western countries mainly focus on energy savings, which can be caused by urban forest climate regulation effects on annual heating and cooling consumption in low-density residential neighborhoods [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33]. The emphasis is put on shading, air-temperature regulation, and windspeed reducing effects provided by city trees placed near and in the right direction of buildings. ...
... The emphasis is put on shading, air-temperature regulation, and windspeed reducing effects provided by city trees placed near and in the right direction of buildings. Several forest-related indicators such as leaf area index (LAI, defined as the ratio of leaf surface area to the land area of green cover), tree density, potential evapotranspiration rate, albedo, and land surface emissivity are involved in the estimating process [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]. ...
... However, in western studies, the amount and type of energy savings associated with city trees are not only highly site-specific but also highly speculative. The estimated savings are sensitive to the location of planting sites and building characteristics, and the actual energy consumption for cooling and heating demand is highly affected by other factors like location of buildings, preference for indoor air temperature, energy efficiency of cooling or heating equipment, paying ability, etc. [19,32,35]. More importantly, the results of the estimations are highly conditional and time-sensitive because the conditions of prototypical buildings change over time. ...
Suburban forest ecosystems have a great influence on local climate, especially for mitigating urban heat island effects and dry island effects. To quantify the climate regulation value of forest ecosystem, and provide a reference for regional ecosystem accounting and scientific land management, a new estimation method based on actual evapotranspiration (AET) is proposed and applied in this work. Based on remote sensing, meteorological, and soil data in the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, the annual AET of the forest ecosystem and its dynamic changes were calculated in the new urban area, Guanshanhu District, Guiyang, Guizhou Province, SW China. The climate regulation value is derived from differences in the annual AET of forest ecosystems relative to impervious surfaces. The results showed that: (1) the area of forest ecosystem in Guanshanhu District increased from 2000 to 2010 as a result of ecological engineering but decreased from 2010 to 2020 due to the establishment and expansion of the new urban area, while the area of the impervious surface increased rapidly; (2) the differences in annual AET of forest ecosystem relative to the impervious surface were calculated and subdivided according to different forest types. In 2000, 2010, and 2020, coniferous forests contributed the most to the annual AET difference, followed by coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forests, broad-leaved forests, shrubs, and other forests, respectively; (3) the total climate regulation value of forest ecosystem showed an increasing trend, on the whole, the estimation results were ¥ 8.78 × 108 in 2000, ¥ 12.62 × 108 in 2010, and ¥ 14.75 × 108 in 2020; (4) The average per unit area climate regulation value of all types of forests in the area, based on electricity price in the year 2000, was ¥ 8.06 × 104/ha in 2000, ¥ 8.11 × 104/ha in 2010, and ¥ 10.58 × 104/ha in 2020, the highest portion of per unit area climate regulation value was of coniferous forest, as ¥ 8.59 × 104/ha in 2000, ¥ 9.28 × 104/ha in 2010, and ¥ 11.05 × 104/ha in 2020. This study is a beneficial exploration of forest ecosystem climate regulation value estimation in Guanshanhu District, and the results can provide references for ecological construction in new urban areas.
... Conversely, it has also been shown that in cold climates the addition of trees can increase energy demand, specifically for heating, because of irradiation reduction by tree shade McPherson et al., 1988). Accounting for both the penalties and the energy savings provided, it is commonly accepted that trees provide a positive net energy saving for homes when they are strategically planted (Akbari, 2002;Akbari and Taha, 1992;Hwang et al., 2016;Simpson, 1998;McPherson, 1998, 1996). Trees' energy saving effects are considered one of the major ecosystem services of urban forests (Roy et al., 2012). ...
... Simulation (21) SPS and Micropas 10 (25.0%) (Ko et al., 2015a;McPherson et al., 2011McPherson et al., , 1988McPherson and Rowntree, 1993;McPherson and Simpson, 2003;Sawka et al., 2013;Simpson, 2002Simpson, , 1998McPherson, 1998, 1996) DOE-2 6 (15.0%) (Akbari, 2002;Akbari and Taha, 1992;Huang et al., 1987;Rosenfeld et al., 1998Rosenfeld et al., , 1998) SOLEST 2 (5.0%) (Thayer and Maeda, 1985;Thayer et al., 1983) EnergyPlus 2 (5.0%) (Hwang et al., 2017(Hwang et al., , 2016) ESP-r 1 (2.5%) (Nikoofard et al., 2011) Empirical (19) Statistical analysis 12 (30.0%) (Abbott and Meentemeyer, 2005;Clark and Berry, 1995;Donovan and Butry, 2009;Jensen et al., 2003;Kliman and Comrie, 2004;Ko and Radke, 2014;Láveme and Lewis, 1996;Nelson et al., 2012;Pandit and Laband, 2010b,a;Wilson, 2013) Experiments 5 (12.5%) (Akbari et al., 1997;Laband and Sophocleus, 2009;Mattingly et al., 1979;McPherson et al., 1989;Parker, 1983 (2009) used a statistical analysis of empirical data, employing summer household electricity consumption data, and found a 2.3% summer electricity reduction by a residential yard tree (82 kW h, equivalent to an average 20.5 kW h per month in summer) and a 5.2% reduction by multiple trees planted in the west and south of an average single family house in Sacramento, California (185 kW h, equivalent to an average 46.3 kW h per month in summer). ...
... In addition to the direct cooling effects, trees also reduce peak electricity demand (Huang et al., 1987;Rosenfeld et al., 1998;Simpson, 1998;Simpson and McPherson, 1996), thus potentially preventing a community-wide blackout. Given increasing attention to climate change mitigation and adaptation, future studies would be necessary to assess how much strategic tree planting in these underserved areas could reduce the heat-related health risk of vulnerable resident populations (Maller and Strengers, 2011;Stone et al., 2014). ...
... Several previous studies stressed the considerable influence of trees on both cooling and heating energy demand. Simpson (1998) and Simpson and McPherson (1998) showed for Sacramento, California that in the summer, in areas shaded by trees there was a significant reduction in air conditioning; in a residential area, they quantified the reduction in annual energy use and peak use of cooling energy, respectively, as 153 kWh (7.1%) and 0.08 kW (2.3%) per tree. Tsiros (2010) showed that street trees in Athens, Greece, might reduce air conditioning energy consumption in a hot summer day by 2.6-8.6% during the day and by 2.9-9.7% during Fig. 6. ...
... Urban Climate 24 (2018) 94-110 peak hours. For the winter, Simpson (1998) and Simpson and McPherson (1998) found the net effect of tree shading on heating energy use to be very different because of opposing influences. On the one hand, tree shading intercepts solar energy that would otherwise heat the shaded structure. ...
... Moreover, though several of the studies looked at PCI magnitude during the cold season, almost none dealt with the impact of trees and UGI on the thermal comfort of pedestrians and on energy consumption of buildings under cold weather conditions. This is in spite of the considerable influence of trees on both cooling and heating energy demand, as shown by Simpson (1998) and Simpson and McPherson (1998) for Sacramento, California and by Tsiros (2010) for Athens, Greece (see Section 3.4, above). ...
... Vegetation also cools the air around buildings and this has an indirect effect on the need of energy for cooling inside the buildings. When these two processes act at city or district level, the positive cooling process induced by vegetation can generate relevant electrical energy savings (Simpson 1998;Wang et al. 2019) with performances that can be further increased by the evapotranspiration effect (Hsieh et al. 2018). ...
... Ideally, trees planted for summer shade should shelter western and eastern windows and walls, and be tall enough not to block views or breezes. The shading effect tends to decrease as the building-to-tree distance increases: this implies that, where possible, new trees should be planted so that, when reaching their maturity stage, the edge of the canopy is close to the building wall (Simpson 1998). Energy savings do not scale linearly with distance, and there is often a maximum impact on energy reduction for a distance between 4.6 and 15 m (Simpson 2002). ...
Over the past decades, intense urbanisation processes resulted in built environments with a severe lack of green spaces and thus with low potential for mitigating the heat stress. Green spaces are the main providers of ecosystem services in cities and play a relevant role, among others, in regulating the local microclimate and in mitigating the urban heat island effect. However, despite their importance, the implementation of green infrastructure still struggles and is challenged by the lack of available open spaces to be set as new urban green areas.
... Many studies support findings that show that urban areas with a greater urban forest cover have significantly increased property values [22][23][24]. The reverse is true, due to the loss of associated ecosystem services, such as wildlife habitats, carbon sequestration, air quality, temperature regulation, energy savings from shading, and increased storm water retention [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32]. However, if a forest pest outbreak occurs, these services can be reduced or potentially disappear completely, resulting in substantial costs to local governments, management agencies, and homeowners [33]. ...
Invasive forest pests can cause environmental and economic damage amounting to billions of dollars (US) in lost revenues, restoration and response costs, and the loss of ecosystem services nationwide. Unfortunately, these forest pests do not stay confined to wildland forest areas and can spread into suburban and urban areas, imposing significant costs on local governments, homeowners, and management agencies. In this study, a contingent valuation experiment is used to estimate Florida residents’ willingness to pay (WTP) a monthly utility fee that would protect urban forests from invasive pests by implementing a monitoring and prevention program for their early detection and eradication. On average, the respondents are WTP US $5.44 per month to implement the surveillance program, revealing an aggregate WTP in the order of US $540 million per year. The results also reveal that respondents are sensitive to the scope of the program, with higher rates of participation and higher WTP for a program that is more effective at preventing forest pest invasions.
... Among the many parameters influencing building energy, vegetation morphology is critical (Ko, 2018). Numerous studies have confirmed that strategic planning of vegetation morphology can shade the solar radiation absorbed by walls in summer and block the infiltration of cold wind as windbreaks in winter, thus saving the cooling and heating energy to a great extent (Heisler, 1986;Meier, 1990;Pan et al., 2018;Simpson, 1998). Since the cooling intensity of vegetation is affected by its size, spatial pattern and canopy type, its energy-saving efficiency is affected by these characteristics (Balogun et al., 2014;Du et al., 2017;Hwang et al., 2016). ...
Studies have shown that urban vegetation can be an effective strategy for reducing energy consumption in urban buildings by regulating the microclimate and shading solar radiation on building surfaces. However, an understanding of the potential energy savings of vegetation morphological planning at the urban scale is still lacking, particularly regarding the quantitative correlation between urban vegetation morphology and its impact on urban building energy use. The morphology of the metropolitan area in Nanjing, a typical hot summer/cold winter city in eastern China, was statistically analyzed, and 40 urban building-vegetation morphological prototypes were extracted. Using the proposed co-simulation technique for urban microclimate and urban building energy, the summer and winter building energy consumption of the prototypes were simulated. A quantitative analysis was conducted on the relationship between urban vegetation morphology indexes and building energy consumption. The results indicate that strategically planned urban vegetation morphology can significantly reduce urban building energy consumption. In the summer, vegetation close to the geometric center of the site, uniformly distributed and highly mixed with buildings, can significantly reduce the building energy consumption; in the winter, the opposite is true. The presented findings provide designers and planners with strategies for incorporating urban vegetation morphology design into the construction of energy efficient cities.
... m of open green space for each inhabitant, so that all residents can have access to an open space within a walking distance of 15 min (Town and Country Planning Table 6.1 Manifold benefits reaped from urban greenery Parameters Beneficial aspects Ecological Acts as source of oxygen, absorbs pollutants improving air quality (Brack 2002;Nowak et al. 2006) Plays important role in carbon sequestration through carbon storing (McPherson and Simpson 1999) Helps in lowering temperature, reducing urban heat island impact (Gill et al. 2007) Improves micro-urban climate in general (Vailshery et al. 2013) Preserves limited urban biodiversity (Attwell 2000) Reduces surface water runoff, flood control (Armson et al. 2013) Mitigates effects of climate change (Munang et al. 2013) Controls the noise impact in urban regions (Fang and Ling 2003) Social Provides refreshing contrast in the monotonous urban landscape creating aesthetic appeal (Attwell 2000) Acts as space for social interaction for people of different age groups like youngsters and elderlies (Konijnendijk et al. 2013) Encourages persuasion of cultural life through local festivals, fairs leading to social cohesion and boosting of local economy (Konijnendijk 2000) Helps refresh the health and minds of the urban dwellers through creation of recreation spaces reducing stress and anxiety and helping in general wellbeing (Maas et al. 2006) Economic Plays a vital role in alleviating poverty, advancing livelihoods and improving wellbeing for the marginalised poor people in developing countries by offering environmental services like grazing and fuelwood collection (Kuchelmeister and Braatz 2001). Helps in creating pricier residential units with neighbourhood parks where posh urban dwellers are eager to pay a fortune to live within or nearby urban greenery (Grinspan et al. 2020) Aids in reducing building air-conditioning load by keeping the surroundings cool through shady trees (Simpson 1998) Boosts the local economy with increased paid leisure visits to the parks generating urban leisure and tourism (Konijnendijk et al. 2013) Provides shelter to the roadside vendors under the shady trees (Bhattacharya and Nigam 2010) Source: Compiled by authors, 2021 ...
Widespread urbanisation has depleted green cover increasing vulnerability to climate change, especially in the developing countries with India being no exception. While a handful of cities have been able to come up with integrated urban greenery provisions; the megalopolis of Kolkata having rich colonial legacy have failed to hold on to its green spaces due to rampant urbanisation waves. Urban greens
and urban forestry are probable ways to bridge the gap between city dwellers and their much-needed greenery, which has now been actively taken up by the governmental agencies. But urban greenery development relies largely on the attitude and involvement of urban residents. The apt species selection for plantation in the
heavily built-up milieu is lacking in the city. Kolkata is trying hard to have its desired share of man-made urban forest through the sprawling greens of over 7 acres, in New Town Rajarhat-east Kolkata, mirroring the centralised ‘Nagar Van’ scheme. This paper attempts to describe the global, national urban green scenario and specifically concentrates on Kolkata’s Urban Green Spaces (UGS) through preparation of tree-inventory, analytical study of spatio-temporal changing green cover with the help of land use and land cover (LULC), Normalized Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) analysis from LANDSAT imageries. The indices clearly show the declining trend of the green cover (1980–2020), and the regression analysis of NDVI and land surface temperature (LST) shows a strong
negative correlation. After investigating the loopholes in arboricultural practices, zones for peri-urban forest development have been chalked out. The perception studies of urban dwellers about the diverse role of urban forestry bring out that the residents are aware of the dire need to protect the green and have been taking part in developing the green spaces in the city.
... In a hot-humid climate, extensive energy is used for cooling, and traditional air conditioning is common [49]. Although UGI may potentially increase heating energy consumption in winter, since these are very low, the energy savings provided by UGI in the cooling season usually outperform the losses in a warm climate [50][51][52]. Several studies evaluated the annual impact of UGI on building energy consumption through simulation and confirmed the positive benefits of UGI in a warm climate [19,22,53]. ...
Urban green infrastructures (UGIs) play an essential role in reducing urban building energy consumption by cooling surrounding areas and shielding buildings from direct solar radiation heat gain. Although the energy-saving effect of UGIs is widely agreed upon, there is a lack of systematic knowledge about how UGI morphology affects urban building energy consumption. Consequently, an effective method to design UGI morphology to reduce urban building energy consumption in urban design is not available. A grading system was proposed to evaluate the strength of evidence for the findings and conclusions in studies that pertain to the cooling and energy-saving effects of UGI. The evidence-based literature review found that strategically designing the morphology of UGI, including its size, shape, location, connectivity, spatial pattern, and configuration, can effectively reduce the air temperature surrounding the UGI area and building energy demand. This study formulated a morphological design framework for UGI as part of the urban design process to reduce urban building energy consumption. Based on the evidence-based answers to the key questions in the framework, design strategies are provided as visual charts and technical principles. The study includes an urban design case in Nanjing, China, which applied this framework to achieve the goal of urban energy savings.
... The size and location of vegetation affect the energy consumption of buildings [11]. Appropriate UGI layout (crown shape, type and relative location to buildings) improves solar radiation and wind, saving energy to a certain extent [8][14] [15]. However, UGI does not always save energy. ...
Studies have confirmed that urban green infrastructure (UGI) profoundly impacts urban building energy consumption by regulating urban microclimate, providing shading to buildings, and other mechanisms. This impact is largely dependent on the morphology of UGI. Although this conclusion is widely accepted there lacks a systematic approach to quantify the impact and thus the knowledge regarding its magnitude. This paper discusses the influencing mechanisms of UGI on urban building energy consumption. The city of Nanjing, a Chinese city in the hot-summer-cold-winter climate, is morphologically analyzed to extract prototypes of UGI forms. These prototypes are simulated for their microclimate and urban building energy consumptions using a co-simulation technique, which links ENVI-met to EnergyPlus. The simulation results are statistically analyzed to quantify the impact of UGI morphology on urban building energy consumption. The energy consumption of different morphological groups in summer and winter is compared to determine the impact of UGI morphological features on urban building energy.
... Considérés souvent à tort comme seulement une charge pour les communes, on ne mesure pas suffisamment les bénéfices qu'apportent les arbres à leur environnement. Le plus important est surement l'ombre et la fraicheur qu'ils produisent ; des études ont démontré l'impact des arbres sur la diminution de la consommation d'électricité (climatiseur) entre les zones arborées et les zones totalement minérales (Simpson 1998) ...
... Trees have the potential to decrease energy consumption through shading by decreasing solar radiation exposure (Akbari, 1997). Trees also have a considered effect on evaporation and transpiration and wind speed reduction (Simpson, 1998) (Norford, 2017). The shading effect of trees differs per season since leaf growth only occurs in spring and summer and a tree loses its leaves in winter. ...
A research about the relevance of sustainability in building design and the search for measures within the limits of the supervising company. The supervising company is an Archi�tectural and (spatial) design company located in Shanghai, China. The report describes sustainability in general, the role of China and explores the Building shape and orien�tation as suitable measures in enhancing energy efficiency of buildings. The report includes a checklist what could be implemented for larger design scales which generates a de�sign in with building shape and orientation are parmount.
... e.g. Dwyer et al., 1992;Simpson, 1998;Kuo, 2003;McPherson, 2003;Donovan and Butry, 2010;Slater, 2011;Van Wassenaer et al., 2012;Duinker et al., 2015;Watkins, 2015). Moreover, urban forest contributes to as many as nine sustainable development goals identified by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Table 2.1). ...
Large cities around the world are faced with severe challenges that make life difficult for the growing population. These problems include air pollution, flooding, urban heat island effect and windstorms. Now there is a strong emphasis on resilience. Urban forestry, generally defined as the management of trees in cities for human well-being, has been suggested as a strategy that can help cities manage these problems. However, urban forestry especially in developing countries faces several problems and research gaps that must be addressed before the benefits can be realized. Across Ghana, a crisis of urban forest decline prevails. Increasingly, problems in urban forestry are related to land access and exclusion, unclear institutional framework for governance and challenges related to low public support and participation in decision making processes and the use of urban forests resources. It was against these backgrounds that the study was conducted. The specific objectives were to: (1) assess public perceptions and attitudes toward urban forestry, (2) analyse the institutional framework for urban forest governance and (3) explore how access to land affects urban forestry development. These are crucial but little studied issues in Ghana to date. Drawing on a case study approach with mixed methods in the city of Kumasi, Ghana, the overall goal of the dissertation was to contribute to policy recommendations for improving urban forestry in the study area as well as to contribute to scientific literature on access and institutions. Data for the study were collected over a period of six months using both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods and techniques. Sources of secondary data included journal articles, monographs, archival records, Ghanaian newspaper publications as well as published and unpublished official reports of government organizations in Ghana. Primary data sources included a survey of 396 randomly selected urban residents from three different residential classes in Kumasi using questionnaires and Likert scales. It also involved interviews with 57 experts and key informants who were selected on the basis of their level of knowledge and involvement on the subject matter. Specifically, for objective one, that public perception and attitude toward urban forestry were being assessed, the study used stratified random sampling technique to interview as many as 132 respondents per each residential class in Kumasi. For objectives two and three, institutional and access analysis involved interviews with experts using purposive sampling technique. Data collected in the study was analysed using content analysis, descriptive statistics and two types of statistical tests; (a) 'the Pearson’s Chi-square Test of independence (χ2) and (b) Kruskal Wallis H test' of differences between responses of respondents. For objective one, the results showed that citizens in Kumasi genuinely care about urban forest and trees and found them important but were not satisfied with the current state of management. The respondents found issues related to lack of safety in public parks and gardens, destruction of utility lines and buildings by urban trees among the most pressing problems associated with urban forestry in Kumasi. There were more similarities in opinion than differences between respondents in terms of perception. Moreover, socioeconomic and demographic factors explained perceptions only to some extent. Many respondents were willing to pay money for urban forestry development. The results revealed that the age of respondents, education and income were not significant factors affecting people’s perception and attitude towards urban forestry in the study area. For objective two, the study found out that institutions in terms of rules and regulations affect urban forestry outcomes. In spite of the benefits derived from urban forestry, Ghana's urban forestry management efforts are being undermined by institutional challenges such as lack of tenure security for parks and gardens, overconcentration of land property rights to chiefs and traditional authorities, overreliance on common fund for urban forestry development and ineffective decentralization system in Ghana. For urban forestry institutions to succeed, six action situations including financing, planning, policy and strategic direction, conflict resolution as well as monitoring needed to be considered. For objective three, the results from access analysis showed that legal means (right based way) constitute only one set of mechanisms amongst many other factors by which access to land affects urban forestry development. Other means such as violent evictions and theft (rights-denied mechanisms of access) also characterized how access to land affects urban forestry development in the case study area. Against these backgrounds, policy makers in Ghana should consider a mix of recommendations to help improve urban forestry in the study area. These include access regulations and creation of land banks for urban forestry development; security of tenure and simplification of land allocation procedures for establishing parks and gardens; adequate financing and budgeting for urban forestry development; institutionalization of urban forestry activities in spatial and development plans; active public and private sector engagement as well as selection of tree species that will provide continuous ecosystem services such as shade provision and reduction of temperature in the city. In addition, the institutional arrangement for urban forestry in Ghana is not well structured and needs a proper restructuring.
... Street trees modify climate and conserve building energy use in three principal ways: (1) through shading that reduces the amount of radiant energy absorbed and stored by built surfaces; (2) through transpiration that converts moisture to water vapor and thus cools by using solar energy that would otherwise result in heating of the air; and (3) through wind speed reduction that reduces the infiltration of outside air into interior spaces and conductive heat loss where thermal conductivity is relatively high such as glass windows (Simpson 1998). Buildings and pavement, along with little canopy and/or soil cover, increase the ambient temperatures within a city. ...
Final Report to the National Urban and Community Forestry Advisory Committee. Revised June 3, 2005.
... Sprawling housing and development infrastructure have been blamed for numerous environmental problems, such as decreased biodiversity, recreational opportunity loss, aquifer contamination, and the fragmentation, isolation, and destruction of both human and wildlife landscapes (Hylton, 1995, p. 9). Simpson (1998) affirms that the lack of green space planning means increased public costs for services and disaster recovery, a drop in community reputation, lower property values, and increased public distress. Unplanned development and sprawl furthered by the lack of intermunicipal cooperation has continued to compromise opportunities for green space. ...
This issue of the Journal of Biourbanism is devoted to the relevance of rural otherness for establishing a lifeworld design.
... There has been great focus on assessing urban ecosystem services in recent years, because of the critical role of ecosystem services in the health and well-being of urban residents (Matias et al. 2019;Larondelle and Haase 2013;Haase et al. 2014;Derkzen, Teeffelen, and Verburg 2015;Bolund and Hunhammar 1999). Urban cooling ecosystem services are delivered by urban green infrastructure such as forests or parks and provide many benefits such as reducing temperature and the urban heat island effect (Lin et al. 2015;Hardin and Jensen, 2007) and the expense of air conditioners in summer seasons (Simpson 1988), resulting in reduced greenhouse gas emissions for urban residents in dense cities (Chaparro and Terradas 2009;Rosenzweig et al. 2005). Urban cooling ecosystem characteristics depend on the canopy size, wind, location, environmental conditions, climate of the area, and amount of irrigation (Pataki et al. 2011). ...
Given the important role of environmental amenities such as ecosystem services on human well-being, this study investigates the unfair distribution of access to urban cooling ecosystem services in Tehran in order to examine urban environmental justice through the following methodological steps: (1) mapping socio-economic inequality through eleven indicators reflecting socio-economic status ranked by TOPSIS, (2) exploring urban land surface temperature (LST) by applying the mono-window algorithm, (3) estimating canopy cover, and (4) applying distributional justice dimensions through demand, supply, and access to urban cooling ecosystem services. The results revealed that urban cooling ecosystem service demand was high in districts with lower socio-economic status ranking. Cooling ecosystem service supply was high in northern districts with higher socio-economic status. This study indicates that residents of Tehran are confronting urban injustice in terms of the distribution pattern of urban cooling ecosystem services.
... ESs at the urban level contribute in several ways to human wellbeing. They ensure a better quality of life in cities by providing a myriad of benefits such as air and water purification, flood mitigation, noise reduction, local climate regulation, CO 2 sequestration, water and food provision, renewable energy supply, and higher physical and psychological wellbeing [14][15][16]. Several classifications of ESs have been provided, including those presented by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) [2], the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) [21], the Common International Classification of ES (CICES) [22], and the Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES)-Urban ecosystems, 4th report [23]. ...
This paper critically analyses the methodologies that can be adopted to value ecosystem services (ESs) at the urban level through a literature review. While literature on ES valuation has grown in recent years, its application to urban contexts is still limited. Twenty-five papers, which include 29 different case studies, carry out an economic valuation and have undergone an in-depth analysis. The papers have been selected out of 80 papers detected through keywords. Six different valuation methodologies have been employed in the case studies. The most common ESs valued at the urban level are air quality regulation, local climate regulation, carbon sequestration and storage, and aesthetic appreciation and inspiration for culture, art, and design. The methodologies recur with different frequencies in the valuation of ESs at the urban level. Choice modeling and contingent valuation methodologies are used to value a variety of ESs, including regulating, cultural, and supporting services. Other methodologies are used to value only specific ESs. The replacement cost and damage cost avoided methodologies are used for the assessment of regulation services only; the travel cost method and contingent valuation are used for cultural services only. The results indicate that the considered valuation methodologies show different levels of appropriateness with respect to specific ES categories. Therefore, there is a need to expand the application of valuation methodologies to capture the value of all ESs provided by natural resources, in order to protect and enhance them.
... Vegetation also cools the air around buildings and this has an indirect effect on the need of energy for cooling the inner parts of buildings. If looked at city or district level, effects of vegetation can generate relevant electrical energy savings (Simpson 1998;Wang et al. 2019) with energy performances that can be further increased by the evapotranspiration effect (Hsieh et al. 2018). The positive effect depends on the multiple different configurations among urban environments, landuse configurations, and micro-climate conditions (Calcerano and Martinelli 2016). ...
Over the past decades, intense urbanization processes have generated built environments with a low energy efficiency and a severe lack of green spaces. These represent the main providers of ecosystem services in cities, especially for the regulation of local microclimate. Despite their importance, the implementation of a green infrastructure from public administrations often faces the lack of economic resources to acquire and manage the land to be used as new green spaces.
This article investigates the suitability of open spaces located in private residential areas to be components of a green infrastructure through a trees planting strategy. A high-res GIS Land Cover analysis models the potential of private residential areas to host new greenery by comparing the actual availability of open spaces near residential buildings and the mutual position between buildings and new trees. The method is tested in a portion of the Metropolitan Area of Catania (Italy).
Results for private residential areas, which represents a relevant percentage of the built environment, show that the implementation of the Green Infrastructure depends on the configurations of buildings and open spaces, and is limited by the actual room of open space around residential buildings. The work allows identifying different scenarios and alternatives for a Green Infrastructure to better balance public and private costs and generated benefits
... energy savings (Akbari et al. 1992;Gartland 2011;Simpson 1998); carbon dioxide reduction; air pollution reduction (Scott et al. 1999;Gartland 2011); decreased stromwater run-off (Xiao et al. 1998 More than 75% of the world's residents live in urban areas (United Nations 2002) and urban trees are the only trees most people see from day to day. Increasing vegetation coverage could bring significant benefits to urban areas. ...
The paper presents an experiment on green wall performed to apprehend its thermal and hydrological behavior and its impact inside building. The experiment is based on a living wall set up in a classroom of the faculty in TUKE campus in Košice where the interior green wall is situated. Monitoring of temperature, humidity and CO2 variations within the living wall and a reference case enable us to analyze effects of green walls. During the measurements, set of questions were answered. The data of respondents are used for gaining the goal of this interdisciplinary research, the effect of green wall on the well-being of people. The measurements were carried out in the classroom between January 04, 2018 and February 08, 2018. It can be stated that women are more sensitive to changes than men. Following the measurements, the green wall is very favorable for the indoor environment.
... Urban forests provide a range of ecosystem services such as microclimate mediation 55 (Simpson, 1998;, mitigating stormwater runoff (Sanders, 1986;Berland et al, 56 2017), noise pollution reduction (Islam et al 2012), and enhancement of local societal and 57 aesthetic valuation (Maco and McPherson, 2002;Nowak, 2006). Further, urban forests aid with 58 localized trace metal pollution (Livesley et al 2016). ...
Mercury is a global pollutant that harms human and wildlife health through chronic exposure. The role of urban forests in Hg biogeochemistry has been understudied in cities without historical mining or current coal combustion. This study aimed to quantify total Hg concentrations and pools in urban forests to determine whether adjacent land-use impacts Hg accumulation. Three cities in the northeastern United States were studied: Hartford, Connecticut; Poughkeepsie, New York; and Springfield, Massachusetts. We identified ~20 urban forests sites in a ~10 km by ~10 km grid for each city and sampled foliage and soil at each site. Foliage from Populus exhibited significantly lower Hg concentrations (15.6 ± 2.1 ng g-1) than mean foliar Hg concentrations (23.7 ± 0.6 ng g-1) but most deciduous genera had comparable concentrations. Average forest floor Hg concentrations (195 ± 21 ng g-1) and Hg pools (1.9 ± 0.5 mg m-2) were similar to previous, non-urban studies in the region. Average A horizon (182 ± 19 ng g-1) and B horizon (125 ± 14 ng g-1) Hg concentrations were double those of regional forest soils. Mineral soil Hg pools for the top 30 cm (49 ± 6 mg m-2) averaged two to ten times higher than rural, montane forests in the region. Soil pH, LOI, and %clay were poorly correlated with mineral soil Hg concentrations. Instead, highest foliar and soil Hg concentrations and pools were in urban forests adjacent to high and medium intensity developed areas in Springfield and Hartford. To differentiate the impact of land-uses not captured by the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) system, we implemented new land-use categories. Industrial areas had highest foliar and soil Hg concentrations and pools of any land use. Our results show increasing land-use increases Hg accumulation in urban forests.
... energy savings (Akbari et al. 1992;Gartland 2011;Simpson 1998); carbon dioxide reduction; air pollution reduction (Scott et al. 1999;Gartland 2011); decreased stromwater run-off (Xiao et al. 1998 More than 75% of the world's residents live in urban areas (United Nations 2002) and urban trees are the only trees most people see from day to day. Increasing vegetation coverage could bring significant benefits to urban areas. ...
This book discusses how climate change and heat islands are a main contributor to water related problems in urban areas in Košice, Slovakia. Green roofs are used as a tool to assist in solving these water related issues. The need to provide housing in urban areas is expected to rise to 66% in 2050, according to the United Nations. Many urban areas have seen natural permeable green areas replaced with concrete constructions and hard, non-permeable surfaces. The densification of existing built-up areas is responsible for the decreasing vegetation, which results in the lack of evapotranspiration cooling the air, thereby creating urban heat islands. Several studies, discussed in this book, have shown that natural and permeable surfaces, as in the case of green roofs, can play a crucial role in mitigating this negative climate phenomenon and providing higher efficiency for buildings, leading to savings such as water, one of the focal points of this research.
... energy savings (Akbari et al. 1992;Gartland 2011;Simpson 1998); carbon dioxide reduction; air pollution reduction (Scott et al. 1999;Gartland 2011); decreased stromwater run-off (Xiao et al. 1998 More than 75% of the world's residents live in urban areas (United Nations 2002) and urban trees are the only trees most people see from day to day. Increasing vegetation coverage could bring significant benefits to urban areas. ...
The most important thing about chapter Colors is an introduction and explanation of the combination of the main idea of the research, blue-green color cooperation. The chapter explains theory of 4 infrastructures represented by 4 basic colors – green, blue, red and grey. The basic division of this work is according to the roof components, green roof benefits and green considerations. The theory of colors in a smaller scale (a building with a green roof and retaining water on/in it) can also be implemented in a bigger scale (urbanism of the city with the potential to change traditional roofs into green roofs).
... energy savings (Akbari et al. 1992;Gartland 2011;Simpson 1998); carbon dioxide reduction; air pollution reduction (Scott et al. 1999;Gartland 2011); decreased stromwater run-off (Xiao et al. 1998 More than 75% of the world's residents live in urban areas (United Nations 2002) and urban trees are the only trees most people see from day to day. Increasing vegetation coverage could bring significant benefits to urban areas. ...
The aim of the chapter Heat Islands is to provide the reader basic information about this ongoing problematic. Description, causes, terminology, history. The chapter is a continuation of a previous one – Climate Change Is Not a Threat of Future, It Is Already Happening Now, but in a smaller scale. The chapter presents reasons and the causes of creating heat islands in specific areas. In the end, possibilities how to beat heat island are listed. The chapter explains theoretically, how roofing materials, paving materials and trees and vegetation may cause the change. Again, with the focus on a green roofs.
... energy savings (Akbari et al. 1992;Gartland 2011;Simpson 1998); carbon dioxide reduction; air pollution reduction (Scott et al. 1999;Gartland 2011); decreased stromwater run-off (Xiao et al. 1998 More than 75% of the world's residents live in urban areas (United Nations 2002) and urban trees are the only trees most people see from day to day. Increasing vegetation coverage could bring significant benefits to urban areas. ...
Chapter Modeling Košice Green Roofs Map refers to the humidity input data that are used to create second graphical outcome of this work, first Košice Humidity Map another graphical outcome of this research, Košice Green Roofs Map. The chapter uses as an example 6 typical types of green roofs that may be used on a building following the map of humidity. In this chapter, analytical hierarchy process of choosing a green roof by the user and his preferences is shown on few examples. The chapter also lets the reader see the possibility to continue research to verify data missing in this book.
... energy savings (Akbari et al. 1992;Gartland 2011;Simpson 1998); carbon dioxide reduction; air pollution reduction (Scott et al. 1999;Gartland 2011); decreased stromwater run-off (Xiao et al. 1998 More than 75% of the world's residents live in urban areas (United Nations 2002) and urban trees are the only trees most people see from day to day. Increasing vegetation coverage could bring significant benefits to urban areas. ...
The aim of the chapter Questionnaire is to introduce following chapters of the work and the reason of their logical order. It is focusing on Climate change, Ecology, Microurbanism, Legislation, Green Roofs, Retention and Economy what are the main ideas of the following chapters. Different methods are used for questionnaire data evaluation and defining partial conclusions of each named topic. The partial evaluations of the questionnaire are the driving torques for some chapters or subchapters. The data from the questionnaire are used to complete the practical example – comparison of expert and non-expert point of view on the problematic using special evaluation method. AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process) method is using data from the questionnaire.
... energy savings (Akbari et al. 1992;Gartland 2011;Simpson 1998); carbon dioxide reduction; air pollution reduction (Scott et al. 1999;Gartland 2011); decreased stromwater run-off (Xiao et al. 1998 More than 75% of the world's residents live in urban areas (United Nations 2002) and urban trees are the only trees most people see from day to day. Increasing vegetation coverage could bring significant benefits to urban areas. ...
The aim of the chapter Climate Change Is Not a Threat of Future, It Is Already Happening Now is to describe in a very big scale the primary reason of the book – climate change. In the chaos theory, the butterfly effect is a sensitive dependence on initial conditions. Small change (building a green roof) in one state can result in very large differences in a later state (climate change). The chapter is very topical with many political messages such as water problematic, hurricanes, droughts. The chapter provides the reader also new coming terminology – climate refugees. Three climate disaster scenarios – 8.5 RCP, 4.5 RCP and 6 RCP, 2.6 RCP are explained.
... In the United States alone, it is estimated that trees provide $18.3 billion in annual value due to air pollution removal, reduced building energy use, carbon sequestration, and avoided pollutant emissions (Nowak & Greenfield, 2018 (Laverne & Winson-Geideman, 2003). A properly planted tree can also reduce energy use (Akbari, 2002;Donovan & Butry, 2009;Pandit & Laband, 2010;Simpson, 1998), which can reduce the cost of energy bills. ...
We live in an era influenced by humans to the point that the Earth's systems are now altered. In addition, a majority of the world's population live in cities. To meet the needs of people in a changing world, The United Nations General Assembly created the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDG) to improve the quality of life for people. These broad goals outline the greatest challenges of our time. An effective strategy to assist in meeting these goals is to plant and protect trees, especially in cities where the majority of people live. This paper serves as a critical review of the benefits of trees. Trees promote health and social well‐being by removing air pollution, reducing stress, encouraging physical activity, and promoting social ties and community. Children with views of trees are more likely to succeed in school. Trees promote a strong economy and can provide numerous resources to the people that need them. While cities are getting hotter, trees can reduce urban temperatures. They provide habitat and food for animals. Finally, trees are valuable green infrastructure to manage stormwater. Money spent on urban forestry has a high return on investment. As we navigate this human‐dominated era, we need skilled people who understand the nuances of the built environment and trees as we strategically plan the cities of the future. The overwhelming evidence from the scientific literature suggests that investing in trees is an investment in meeting the UN SDG, and ultimately an investment for a better world.
... Urban leaf area is particularly important and has attracted more and more attention, because of its important role in micro-climate regulation, heat island effects mitigation, buildings cooling (reducing energy consumption), air quality improvement, and ozone formation (Alonzo et al. 2015;Benjamin and Winer 1998;Najjar et al. 2015;Peper and McPherson 1998;Simpson 1998). Accurate leaf area measurement for urban trees is required for properly accessing the magnitude of these benefits. ...
Leaf Area Index (LAI), defined as one half of the total leaf area per unit ground surface area, is a key parameter of vegetation structure for modeling Earth's ecological cycle and its acquisition accuracy always has the need and opportunity for improvement. Active laser scanning provides an opportunity for consistent LAI retrieval at multiple scales because terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and airborne laser scanning (ALS) have the similar physical mechanism. However, the three-dimensional information of laser scanning is not fully explored in current methods and the traditional theories require adaptation. In this thesis, the path length distribution model is proposed to model the clumping effect, and it is applied to the TLS and ALS data. The method of obtaining the path length distribution of different platforms is studied, and the consistent retrieval model is established. This method is found to improve the individual tree measurement in urban areas and LAI mapping in natural forest, and its results at consistent at different scales. The model is expected to facilitate the consistent retrieval of the forest leaf area index using ground and airborne data.
... Urban trees and forest provide a unique opportunity to address both climate-change mitigation and adaptation (Clean Air Partnership, 2007) as Nowak et al., (2010) reported, urban trees and forest function as a mitigation option by absorbing carbon dioxide and some other pollutants from the atmosphere (Donovan & Butry, 2010;Kuo, 2003;Simpson, 1998;Wolf, 2004). The urban forest can also help communities reduce the impacts of a changing climate, by reducing heat gain in buildings through shading, cooling ambient air temperatures through evapotranspiration, and providing storm water control. ...
Urban trees and urban forests play important roles in the ecology of human habitats and the wider environment. However, these roles may be undermined by the community and resulting decline in urban forest cover over time. This study analyses the value of trees and forests in improving the urban environment and assesses the awareness level of communities of the value of trees and forests in Hawassa City, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional survey design was applied and data were obtained from a structured questionnaire survey of 200 respondents and from twenty-two interviews with key stakeholders. The collected data were analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square test, and multiple linear regression models. Educational level and an annual income of the residents had strongly significant (p = 0.000) association with the awareness level of residents of the value of urban trees and forest. About 99% of the respondents noted that trees and forest have shading and cooling effects, 93% perceived trees as for recreational value, and 88% of them stated that trees and forests are important for city beautification. The chi-square test showed that there is a significant difference between forest-related services users and non-users. Multiple regression models indicated that sex, age, annual income and education level were found statistically significant (p = 0.000) and positively affect respondents’ level of understanding about the value of urban trees and forest in improving the urban environment. Urban trees and forests have also played crucial roles, around reducing Urban Heat Island effect, improving shading and cooling services and reducing soil erosion, and this was statistically significant (p = 0.001). Lack of awareness on the use of urban trees and forest, limited public support for urban green infrastructure, poor policy and strategic guidance were found to be influential factors affecting the management of urban trees and forest. Rapid city-expansion has also contributed to lesser understanding and poor management practices of urban trees and forest. This implies that comprehensive inventories of urban trees and forest resources across the city should be conducted using geospatial technologies. Thus, systematic and integrated stakeholder involvement is crucial to address those issues at local, regional and national levels.
... If the proposed areas of the city are forested, the existing tree canopy cover will increase by approximately 2%. The maximum temperature at noon will decrease by 0.04 and 0.2°C with every 1% increase in tree cover (Simpson 1998). Moreover, locations including single trees or small-sized tree groups are 0.7 and 1.3°C cooler than open areas (Souch and Souch 1993). ...
Impermeable surfaces are getting larger in Turkey, as they are in most parts of the world as urban sprawl increases. The increase in impermeable surfaces leads to air pollution, floods, and overflows due to changes in urban landscapes and ecosystems. In order to prevent such damages, impermeable surfaces must be reduced by the means of urban afforestation. The main purpose of this study is to determine which areas are suitable for urban afforestation, and thus to improve the ecological conditions of the city. Accordingly, the study adopts a method that takes urban density into account. Satellite image classification, canopy measurement and determination of potential afforestation areas have been performed within the boundaries of Bartın Municipality. The IKONOS satellite images have been taken as a base for the study, which has been carried out via ENVI, GIS, and SPSS techniques and Tree Canopy Cover. By excluding the too-small spaces within the study area, as well as the ones too close to infrastructural facilities, I have been able to identify potential planting areas using GIS-based decision-making mechanisms. The existing trees and other plant covers have been noted in order to plan the potential plant cover.
Considering the locational suitability of the planting areas and the canopy of the trees, the planting areas have been set out using three grid types: 15 × 15 m (large tree), 10 × 10 m (medium tree), and 5 × 5 m (small tree). A total of 29,773 potential trees have been planned for. After corrections, the potential canopy cover has been calculated to be 0.71 km2. Of the potential trees, 93.34% are small, 5.23% are medium, and 1.43% are large trees. If the potential planting areas determined in this study are forested as calculated, the canopy in Bartın city will increase by approximately 2%. In the city, where impermeable surface areas have expanded because of rapid urban sprawl, this new increase will make an important contribution to the improvement of the city’s ecosystem.
... If the proposed areas of the city are forested, the existing tree canopy cover will increase by approximately 2%. The maximum temperature at noon will decrease by 0.04 and 0.2°C with every 1% increase in tree cover (Simpson 1998). Moreover, locations including single trees or small-sized tree groups are 0.7 and 1.3°C cooler than open areas (Souch and Souch 1993). ...
Impermeable surfaces are getting larger in Turkey, as they are in most parts of the world as urban sprawl increases. The increase in impermeable surfaces leads to air pollution, floods, and overflows due to changes in urban landscapes and ecosystems. In order to prevent such damages, impermeable surfaces must be reduced by the means of urban afforestation. The main purpose of this study is to determine which areas are suitable for urban afforestation, and thus to improve the ecological conditions of the city. Accordingly, the study adopts a method that takes urban density into account. Satellite image classification, canopy measurement and determination of potential afforestation areas have been performed within the boundaries of Bartın Municipality. The IKONOS satellite images have been taken as a base for the study, which has been carried out via ENVI, GIS, and SPSS techniques and Tree Canopy Cover. By excluding the too-small spaces within the study area, as well as the ones too close to infrastructural facilities, I have been able to identify potential planting areas using GIS-based decision-making mechanisms. The existing trees and other plant covers have been noted in order to plan the potential plant cover.
... Urban forests can have a particularly dramatic effect on cooling costs. Tree impacts on cooling costs within Sacramento County, California saved an estimated $18.5 million, or 12% of the annual expenditure on cooling costs for residents and businesses within the county (Simpson, 1998). ...
In 2010, the University of Minnesota Forest Resources Department implemented a community engagement program that drew upon community volunteers. This program sought to help greater Minnesota communities assess and mitigate the potential damages brought upon by the arrival of the invasive emerald ash borer. Volunteers were trained to survey their local urban forest, collecting information on species, size, age, and condition of the city trees as part of the process. A growing number of environmental monitoring programs and natural resource managers have begun to utilize and incorporate volunteer-collected data as part of their comprehensive management strategies. Volunteer-driven programs can help to enhance community capacity and participation in future municipal resource management challenges while providing cost-effective alternatives for local municipalities. However, little information exists regarding the real and perceived accuracy of volunteers undertaking urban forest survey initiatives. An evaluation of nine community tree surveys and two training protocols has provided assessment of volunteer accuracy regarding tree survey data collection.
Green cover has a more significant role in linking the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and anthroposphere on the earth. The reduction of green space has consequential liability in most of the environmental issues we are facing. ‘Impervious land covers,’ the characteristic features of the cities and the prime swallower of urban green cover, are prominent environmental indicators for a wide range of urban environmental issues. The previous literature shows that instigating appropriate green cover could alleviate the urban environmental problems, such as air pollution, water scarcity and urban heat island, the three major issues that tremble the urban quality of life. Ecological spatial strategies in the green cover plan could strengthen the urban ecosystem by protecting environmentally sensitive areas, connecting the fragmented natural areas and easing the flow or movement of energy, matter and species across the urban landscape. Trees are essential biophysical elements; considering the ecological concepts in the ‘green cover restoration’ is critical to assure the future sustainability of our cities. Through adapting the patches, corridor and matrix-based spatial concepts, this study developed four-level strategies for the urban green cover restoration of Chennai city.KeywordsEcosystem serviceUrban green spaceNatural processEnvironmental performanceRestorationNatural process
Aims: This study aimed to investigate the effect of different planting plans, especially trees with varying characteristics of branch and leaf structure, height, canopy diameter, and density, leaf shape, and size, and compare the cooling effect under similar conditions to a suitable planting plan for maximum productivity.
Methods: The data collection method in this field and library research and the analysis method used are simulations, and the findings and comparison of results are quantitative and qualitative. Vegetation information of the site in the first stage is harvested, and the current situation is simulated, and its impact is determined. Then two new planting plans with the same amount of greenery in the current situation are designed and manufactured in the environment, and the results are compared.
Findings: The simulation results show that group planting mode is completely similar conditions in terms of plant species and the number of trees 0.85 ° C reduces the average air temperature compared to the linear planting mode and the biggest difference is in the average radiant temperature, which is more than 3 (3.18) ° C There is a temperature difference between group planting mode compared to linear planting mode and group planting mode has a lower average radiant temperature.
Conclusion: This study revealed the effect of the group planting plan factor, despite creating a full shade of trees and reducing the shading area of trees, improved the PMV thermal comfort index and improved environmental variables.
O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar a diferença da temperatura superficial terrestre (LST) do zoneamento e uso e cobertura do solo do município de Sorocaba-SP, por meio de sensoriamento remoto. Foram obtidas duas cenas do sensor Landsat 8, sendo uma do mês de fevereiro e outra de outubro, ambas de 2017, assim como arquivos vetoriais do zoneamento e do uso e cobertura do solo. Realizou-se correções atmosféricas, radiométricas e a transformação da temperatura superficial (utilizando a banda
do infravermelho termal) e uma análise exploratória foi realizada. Com as sobreposições das imagens termais os vetores foram calculados as LST. O zoneamento municipal é dividido em onze classes e o uso e cobertura do solo em nove. Com os resultados obtidos, notou-se que o mês de fevereiro apresenta temperaturas mais amenas e com menores variações quando comparada ao mês de outubro. As zonas Predominantemente Institucional e Central são ambientes sem vegetação e que apresentaram as maiores temperaturas em ambos meses. Sendo assim, as ilhas de calor podem estar relacionadas à quantidade de vegetação em uma determinada área. O que corrobora com o uso e cobertura do solo, em que ambientes urbanizados chegam aproximadamente 10ºC de diferença entre a vegetação e edificação. Assim, espera-
se que estes resultados contribuam para a tomada de decisão para futuros planejamento em políticas públicas relacionadas a planos de arborização do município a fim de melhorar a qualidade de vida da população.
As Unidades de Conservação (UCs) representam a principal ferramenta de conservação da biodiversidade.
No entanto, sua efetividade em proteger e garantir a manutenção das espécies nativas a longo prazo depende da conectividade destas com outros elementos na paisagem (outras UCs, fragmentos
florestais menores e matas ripárias), além da permeabilidade da matriz. No ambiente urbano, a conectividade das UCs muitas vezes é dificultada pela baixa permeabilidade da matriz e pela falta de
elementos naturais dispersos na paisagem. O município de Sorocaba possui UCs municipais criadas para contribuir com a conservação da biodiversidade regional. A conectividade dessas UCs na paisagem e
com UCs de níveis estadual e federal do entorno (Floresta Nacional de Ipanema e parte da Área de Proteção Ambiental de Itupararanga) é necessária para a efetividade destas áreas protegidas. Nesse sentido,
esse estudo apresenta uma proposta de rede ecológica entre as UCs de Sorocaba e entorno, avaliando a estrutura da paisagem e dos fragmentos florestais e identificando áreas para restauração florestal que aumentem a conectividade entre elas. Para tanto, gerou-se um mapa de uso e cobertura do solo e calculou-se métricas de Ecologia de Paisagem para os fragmentos florestais. A rede ecológica foi traçada com base na aplicação da Teoria dos Grafos para identificação de caminhos de ligações ótimas (CLOs) entre as UCs, utilizando informações de espécie de aves florestais endêmicas da Mata Atlântica. O uso do solo predominante de Sorocaba e entorno é o urbano, com 25% da área total, seguido por campos antrópicos (20,4%). Os remanescentes florestais estão localizados principalmente nas zonas periféricas do município. Sorocaba e entorno possui 22,9% de cobertura florestal, sendo a FLONA de Ipanema o maior fragmento florestal na paisagem. Os fragmentos florestais pertencentes às propriedades privadas representam 80% da cobertura florestal e os 20% restantes estão sob proteção na forma de UCs. As UCs municipais representam 3,60% das florestas sob proteção. Os CLOs traçados entre as UCs indicaram áreas importantes para ações de conservação de fragmentos florestais existentes e restauração de áreas importantes para o aumento da conectividade entre as UCs na paisagem. A rede ecológica traçada com base nos CLOs é formada predominantemente por áreas de baixa impedância (86%, de áreas florestais, campos antrópicos de vegetação pioneira e várzea / zonas ripárias), com 7,6% de áreas agrícolas de média impedância (Eucalyptus sp. ou Pinus sp., culturas agrícolas temporárias e anuais), e apenas 6,4% formado por áreas de alta impedância, como as áreas urbanizadas e corpos d’água. O planejamento de redes ecológicas que conectam UCs é atualmente reconhecido como uma ação estratégica mundial para a manutenção da biodiversidade e dos serviços ecossistêmicos. A rede ecológica proposta para Sorocaba e entorno pode contribuir para o melhor planejamento da paisagem garantindo essas conexões entre as UCs.
Urban ecosystems are composed of biological components (plants, animals, microorganisms, and other forms of life) and physical components (soil, water, air, climate, and topography) which interact together. In terms of “Urban Green infrastructure (UGI)”, these components are in a combination of natural and constructed materials of urban space that have an important role in metabolic processes, biodiversity, and ecosystem resiliency underlying valuable ecosystem services. The increase in the world’s population in urban areas is a driving force to threat the environmental resources and public health in cities; thus, the necessity to adopt sustainable practices for communities are crucial for improving and maintaining urban environmental health. This chapter emphasizes the most important issues associated with urban ecosystem, highlighting the recent findings as a guide for future UGI management, which can support city planners, public health officials, and architectural designers to quantify cities more responsive, safer places for people.
Since the beginning of civilisation, good and healthy places have been inevitably linked to spaces containing different forms and variations of greenery. This led to the fictional concept and the incessant search of “paradise”. Depictions of man-made paradise have been recorded throughout history by architectural visionaries. In the lack of such a perfect place in reality, paradise was sought in paintings, literature, and music. In all the artistic forms it is always linked to nature. It is part of our well-being to be connected to vegetation, with the environment.
As the global population becomes more urbanized, cities continue to expand and consume valuable agricultural and forested land as well as biologically diverse wetlands. Urban development degrades natural ecosystems through fragmentation, pollution, the introduction of barriers, exposure, and destruction of natural elements. These disturbances cause changes to wildlife/species composition and distribution resulting in a significantly altered ecological system that is not only influenced by humans but also specifically designed and created by them. This urban ecosystem is dominated by various forms of infrastructure that provide services for humans including green infrastructure that is made up of both natural vegetative systems and green technologies. Green infrastructure provides a multitude of provisional, regulating, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services. This includes, but is not limited to, agricultural production, pollution abatement, and storm water mitigation. The value of these services to the inhabitants of the city justifies more consideration of green infrastructure during the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of urban spaces. Geographic information systems (GIS) provide an excellent mechanism for assessing urban growth and determining the extent of important green infrastructure components and their associated ecosystem services provided.
Os governos locais através de suas agências ambientais têm o dever de
desenvolver políticas públicas de proteção à biodiversidade. Para se efetivar tal
processo, conhecer a biodiversidade existente em um município é fundamental.
Para tanto o envolvimento das universidades e os seus laboratórios de pesquisa
aliado aos esforços dos pesquisadores é de extrema importância nesse processo.
A publicação da segunda edição do livro “A Biodiversidade de Sorocaba” amplia
o número de espécies conhecidas, inventaria novos grupos que não haviam sido
estudados como as abelhas nativas e a paleobiodiversidade e aborda novas meto-
dologias para o estudo e incremento da biodiversidade do município, além de uma
proposta de conexão de fragmentos e unidades de conservação.
O presente livro apresenta 495 novas espécies inventariadas do que a pri-
meira edição, sendo 195 espécies vegetais, 117 espécies de abelhas nativas, 10
espécies de peixes, 9 espécies de anfíbios e répteis, 30 espécies de aves e 17 espé-
cies de mamíferos. Além disso, fornece capítulos que subsidiam os tomadores de
decisão a elaborar leis, decretos, programas e projetos para conservar a biodiver-
sidade do município bem como seus serviços ambientais. Esta obra diminui ainda
mais a lacuna de conhecimento e contribui para que a proteção da biodiversidade
seja ampliada no município a partir de ações concretas a serem desenvolvidas pelo
poder público e por todos os seguimentos da sociedade.
A human in urban areas has depended on ecosystem for well-being, so it is important to evaluate urban ecosystem services which contribute significantly to human well-being. In this study we classified ecosystem functions and set indicators used for evaluating ecosystem services of urban park by Delphi method. As a result, it derived 12 items and 14 indicators of ecosystem services to evaluate them such as vegetable garden, canopy cover, biodiversity, and educational programs. Based on the derived evaluation indicators, the feasibility of the indicators was examined by applying to two urban parks, Maetan park and Seoho-Ggotme park, in Suwon City. We also suggested strategies to improve each ecosystem services based on the results of evaluation. It is significant to recognize unknown services in urban parks. The results can be used for improving urban ecosystem services consistently in response to current rapid urbanization. In the future, the city should make a master plan on ecosystem service on urban area, beyond urban park, considering both of quality and quantity.
This article covers two years of research into the factors that determine the success or failure of initiatives taken by companies, citizens or municipalities in or for greenspace in urban regions in the Netherlands. The researchers investigated fourteen initiatives and selected five of them for more exhaustive case studies. Semi-open interviews were conducted with initiators, local government officers, elected municipal councillors and members of the municipal executive board. Websites and policy documents were also studied and initiatives were visited.The study uses the policy arrangement approach which identifies actors and their coalitions, discourses, resources, and rules and regulations. The research investigates the development of the initiatives, the initiators’ ambitions, and identifies the success and failure factors, local government involvement and views of the latter on how to approach societal initiatives in general. Do local authorities perceive a transition in the way their municipalities address societal initiatives? A short reflection on the applicability of change theories completes the research: Strategic Niche Management theory and change theory according to the Policy Arrangement Approach.This review of initiatives combined with case study research provides in depth insights into the relations that exist or may develop around initiatives in greenspace. The research showed that the initiatives lead to a broader meaning and involvement of more actors around green spaces. They integrate greenspace with social and economic development. The greenspace which the initiatives develop includes among others vegetable production, letting out of greenspace for yoga or to schools, and wadis. Among the factors of success are the agreement with the municipality and whether the discourse is in tune with the current social climate. A failure factor is e.g. that ‘green space has no value’ compared to the value of land and buildings accrued by municipal real estate development, according to citizens and local officers.The article contains recommendations to local governments and prospects for further research. Pragmatism, and thinking together with the initiators about how to turn an initiative into a success are part of these recommendations. The involvement of more actors and the broader meaning and integration of greenspace with social and economic development is possibly making it more resistant to building. This deserves investigation.
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Trees in cities affect air quality and greenhouse gases in numerous ways and consequently affect environmental quality and human health. Urban vegetation can directly and indirectly affect local and regional air quality by altering the urban atmospheric environment. The main ways that urban trees affect air quality and greenhouse gases are through (a) air temperature reduction and other microclimatic effects, (b) removal of air pollutants and atmospheric carbon, (c) emission of volatile organic compounds and emissions associated with tree maintenance, and (d) altering energy use in buildings and consequently pollutant and carbon emissions from power plants. By understanding the effects of trees and forests on the atmospheric environment, managers can design appropriate and healthy vegetation structure in cities to improve air quality and consequently human health and well-being for current and future generations.
O objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar uma avaliação quali-quantitativa da arborização da principal avenida de Baraúna, município de pequeno porte localizado na mesorregião do oeste do Rio Grande do Norte, inserido no bioma caatinga. Para a coleta dos dados foram percorridos aproximadamente 1,7 km,entre os meses de agosto e novembro de 2016. Na via analisada, foram encontrados 408 indivíduos arbóreos, dentre os quais houve a predominância de espécies exóticas (87,5%), sendo Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (68,4%) e Ficus benjamina L. (13,2%) as espécies mais frequentes. Dentre as espécies nativas do bioma caatinga a mais abundante foi Handroanthus caraiba (Mart.) Matto (1,7%). Observou-se a ocorrência de problemas de caráter cultural relacionados ao manejo da arborização, como poda topiaria em 64,8% dos indivíduos, bem como a prática excessiva de caiação, em 96,9% dos indivíduos. Recomenda-se a realização de trabalhos de educação ambiental junto à população voltados para a conscientização da importância do uso de espécies nativas no ambiente urbano, assim como do estresse causado às árvores por práticas de poda topiária e caiação.
Urban leaf area measurement is crucial to properly determining the effect of urban trees on micro-climate regulation, heat island effect, building cooling, air quality improvement, and ozone formation. Previous works on the leaf area measurement have mainly focused on the stand level, although the presence of individual trees is more common than forests in urban areas. The only feasible ways for an operational non-destructive leaf area measurement, namely, optical indirect methods, are mostly limited in urban areas because light path is constantly intercepted by surrounding buildings or other objects. A terrestrial laser scanner (TLS), which can extract an individual tree by using its unique distance information, provides a possibility for indirectly measuring the leaf area index (LAI) in urban areas. However, indirect LAI measurement theory, which uses the cosine of an observation zenith angle for path-length correction, is incompatible for an individual tree because the representative projected area of LAI changes while the observation zenith angle changes, thus making the results incomparable and ambiguous. Therefore, we modified a path length distribution model for the leaf area measurement of an individual tree by replacing the traditional cosine path length correction for a continuous canopy with real path length distribution. We reconstructed the tree crown envelope from a TLS point cloud and calculated a real path length distribution through laser pulse-envelope intersections. Consequently, leaf area density was separated from the path length distribution model for leaf area calculation. Comparisons with reference measurement for an individual tree showed that the TLS-derived leaf area using the path length distribution is insensitive to the scanning resolution and agrees well with an allometric measurement with an overestimation from 5 m 2 to 18 m 2 (3-10%, respectively). Results from different stations are globally consistent, and using a weighted mean for different stations by sample numbers further improves the universality and efficiency of the proposed method. Further automation of the proposed method can facilitate a rapid and operational leaf area extraction of an individual tree for urban climate modeling.
Under scenarios of climate change the likelihood of more intensive extreme weather events like tropical cyclones is expected to increase and many tropical regions most at risk from cyclones are still developing economically. With increased urbanisation predicted over the next 20-50 years to cope with population growth, it is important that planning for urban development in these regions considers amelioration of danger, especially the impacts associated with cyclone damage. Approaches to risk management can learn a lot from past experiences with cyclonic events. The knowledge that was accumulated after the devastation of Darwin, Australia by Cyclone Tracy in 1974 provides important evidence that can contribute towards risk mitigation and disaster management in the future. Applying a mixed methods approach, this study examines historical information collected at the time of Cyclone Tracy to help understand the role of the urban forest and positioning of housing in reducing cyclone damage. It includes a review of whether the pattern of tree cover, which is influenced by geophysical and socio-cultural factors, mitigates or exacerbates cyclone damage. The results of the study show that although the relationship is complex, trees appear to have a role to play in ameliorating cyclone damage under certain conditions. This potential gain, along with the other benefits trees offer to tropical urban areas, means that trees are an important consideration for future urban planning in developing regions.
The US Department of Energy (DOE) has funded several research projects, including this study, to assess the effects of site design on building space conditioning energy use. An important strategy being investigated is the use of vegetation for shading, wind control, and temperature modification. The study described in this report has been conducted concurrently with a closely related research project at the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station of the USDA Forest Service in Pennsylvania. The objective of that project is to measure wind-speed reductions and solar obstructions caused by trees around representative houses within typical neighborhoods and to develop an empirical model for estimating these effects based on the physical characteristics of different neighborhoods (Heisler 1989). The objective of this work is to combine the results of the on-site microclimate measurements from the 1989 Heisler study with work in building energy simulation to calculate the energy impacts of the observed microclimatic changes due to trees.
An observational and modeling study of the microclimate of a suburban area, as related to the physical and biological nature of the site, is presented. The measurements and calculations are made in comparison with a nearby open agricultural location or “control site”. The measurement program was conducted during the summer of 1981 in Davis, CA, and consisted of a series of paired observations in which simultaneous measurements were made at a control site, located in a nearby rural area, and one suburban site at a time. Results indicate that this methodology was generally successful. The various suburban sites were as often cooler than the rural site as they were warmer. In one case, a suburban site was found to be substantially cooler, averaging 7.38°C over a 5 day period, than the rural site. This special case was observed to be associated with unusually dry environmental air resulting in large evaporative cooling in the plant canopy. Comparison between the suburban temperature deficit and the physical nature of the various sites reveals that canopy height explained most of the variance of this data set. Two generally important mechanisms are hypothesized to be operating in this system: the effect of canopy size on turbulent mixing and on site shading, especially of paved areas. A simple energy balance model was applied to study the processes that control the daytime suburban temperature deficit. In particular, it is found that suburban sites can be as cool as observed when the following conditions are obtained: low-canopy humidity, large canopy size, low wind speed and high radiation load. The model simulated the overall average suburban temperature deficit of all sites for physically reasonable choices of model parameters. It is pointed out that the fact that suburban areas may be cooler than surrounding rural areas may have significance to the problem of assessing the role of the urban heat island in relation to possible global warming.