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Enhancing Athletic Performance through the Administration of Peppermint Odor
Abstract
Previous research has indicated that odorant presentations can have both positive and negative effects on psychological perceptions of athletic task performance. The present study extends past research by assessing how the administration of peppermint odor affects actual athletic task performance. Forty athletes undertook a series of physical tasks under conditions of no-odor or peppermint odor. The peppermint odor condition resulted in increases in running speed, hand grip strength, and number of push-ups, but had no effect on skill related tasks such as basketball free-throw shots. The implications are particularly salient in regard to enhancing athletic performance using a nonpharmacological aid and as an adjunct to athletic training and physical therapy.
... Three of the 19 studies explored the effect of peppermint, lavender, or jasmine scents on the performance of precision tasks [16,22,24]. Two of these reported significant results [22,24]. ...
... Two of these reported significant results [22,24]. Peppermint yielded ambiguous results, with different outcomes reported in two studies [16,24]. One study observed no improvement in a basketball free-throw accuracy test [16], while the other reported a significant increase in a dart-throw accuracy test [24]. ...
... Peppermint yielded ambiguous results, with different outcomes reported in two studies [16,24]. One study observed no improvement in a basketball free-throw accuracy test [16], while the other reported a significant increase in a dart-throw accuracy test [24]. Some studies supports the notion that peppermint enhances vigilance and visuomotor accuracy [50,51], making it plausible that the peppermint scent positively impacts precision tasks. ...
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... Hz) and alpha2 waves. In addition, an increase in beta wave power (13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30) was observed in the anterior region of the brain. These results confirm the stimulant effects of rosemary oil and provide evidence that brain wave activity, Vol 16 Iss 1 Year 2023 International Journal of Nutrology autonomic nervous system activity, as well as mood states are all influenced by inhaling rosemary oil [23]. ...
... Yet, a study by Dedeçay, 1995 [29] showed that the aqueous solution containing rosemary and peppermint that was given to French cyclists for muscle relaxation and decreased muscle fatigue. In addition, studies on Peppermint inhalation found that this plant essential oil reduced perceived exertion, temporal workload, physical workload, and frustration [30][31][32]. ...
... analyzed the effects of peppermint administration on the performance of athletes during exercise[30,34]. ...
Introduction: Essential oils (EOs) has been around for years and studies show that they are useful in treating various diseases and improving health. According to the United States OEs Handbook, OEs are a vital part of complementary and alternative medicine and the positive findings of OEs are now becoming a trend in sports performance research for athletes. Objective: It was to list the main scientific findings of clinical studies on the effectiveness of essential oils in improving the health and sports performance of athletes. Methods: A total of 195 articles were found involving clinical studies of the influence of essential oils on human health. After this process, 42 articles were included and 32 were discussed in this study. The present study was prepared following the systematic review guidelines – PRISMA. Results and Conclusion: Essential oils have been used in medicine for decades and have been proven to eliminate toxins from the body. They are also shown to improve the body's ability to absorb essential vitamins and nutrients. In this sense, the application of these oils not only helps to prevent and heal sports injuries but also to stimulate and relax the mind and body, leading to higher levels of fitness. Because of these inherent properties of EOs, there is growing interest in using them to tone the body and mind in a variety of ways, such as musculoskeletal preparation, injury prevention, and improving mood and performance to achieve a higher success rate in sports. sports and fitness, as well as post-exertion recovery. They can be used as an aid to make recovery faster, reducing the effect of fatigue and raising the energy level of the mind and body.
... As presented in Table 1, those studies had between 7 and 104 participants, for a total of n = 421 participants. Out of these 19 studies, 18 had an experimental design [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26], while one study had a quasi-experimental nonrandomized design [27]. All 19 studies assessed the effect of certain odors on PA characteristics like strength, cardiovascular capacity, precision, and balance. ...
... As presented in Table 1, studies took place in Belgium [19], Iran [9,12,18], Japan [13,16], Korea [14,15], Palestine [27], Philippines [20,21], the United Kingdom [22,25], and the United States of America [10,11,17,23,24,26]. Most of those studies were conducted on young athletes [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][24][25][26][27] and the rest on adults [9,23]. ...
... As presented in Table 1, studies took place in Belgium [19], Iran [9,12,18], Japan [13,16], Korea [14,15], Palestine [27], Philippines [20,21], the United Kingdom [22,25], and the United States of America [10,11,17,23,24,26]. Most of those studies were conducted on young athletes [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][24][25][26][27] and the rest on adults [9,23]. Each study had an intervention time ranging from 1 [12,13,[15][16][17][18]24] to 10 [9] sessions. ...
Fewer and fewer people are reaching physical activity recommendations. Therefore, it seems important to make the practice of physical activity more enjoyable to increase the participation rate. Several environmental factors have been studied to see their impact on sports practice, and some studies investigated the effect of odors. This systematic review aims to provide a thorough view of the literature on the effect of different odors on physical activity. The search strategy consisted of using index terms and keywords in MEDLINE, EMBASE, EBM Reviews - Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science search engine. Data from 19 studies that included 421 participants revealed that the odors had different results on strength, cardiovascular, precision, and postural balance tasks depending on the odors' exposition. Among results, an important distinction was made between pleasant and unpleasant odors. Therefore, pleasant odors had better results on physical activity by improving participants' feeling. Even though this review clarified evidence about the effect of odors on physical activity, better methodological consistency is needed across studies such as the odor administration method to produce more meaningful results.
... Peppermint oil was also shown to improve performances in isometric grip force, vertical and long jumps, and visual and audio reaction times in healthy individuals five minutes and one hour following oral administration [2]. The exact mechanisms related to these ergogenic effects of peppermint oilduring exercise are unknown, although it is hypothesized to involve stimulating the reticular activatingsystem, which is responsible for alertness within the central nervous system [2,9]. exercise [2,5,[7][8][9], studies investigating the acute effects of peppermint on the ventilatory threshold during a cycling graded exercise test to exhaustion to our knowledge have not been done. ...
... The exact mechanisms related to these ergogenic effects of peppermint oilduring exercise are unknown, although it is hypothesized to involve stimulating the reticular activatingsystem, which is responsible for alertness within the central nervous system [2,9]. exercise [2,5,[7][8][9], studies investigating the acute effects of peppermint on the ventilatory threshold during a cycling graded exercise test to exhaustion to our knowledge have not been done. Ventilatory threshold is characterized as the point at which ventilation increases out of proportion to metabolic rate at exercise intensities beyond 50% to 60% of maximal oxygen consumption (VO 2max ) [10][11][12][13]. ...
... Hence, the purpose of this pilot study was to examine the acute effects of peppermint oil ingestion on the ventilatory threshold during a graded maximal exercise test in healthy individuals. Due to the previously reported ergogenic effects of peppermint oil administered five to 10 minutes before exercise [2,5,[7][8][9], We hypothesized that oral ingestion of peppermint oil 10 minutes prior to a graded exercise test would increase the percentage of VO2max at which the ventilatory threshold occurred with no change in VO 2max values. ...
... A study of Dedeçay's, 1995 [50] showed that the aqueous solution containing rosemary and peppermint which was given to French cyclists made muscle relaxation and decreased muscular fatigues. Further to this, studies on peppermint inhalation had approved that this plant essential oil reduced the perceived efforts, temporal workload, physical workload and frustration [51][52][53]. ...
... Results of the current study, confirmed with the findings of Meamarbashi andRajabi, 2013 andRaudenbush et al., 2001, who examined the effects of the administration of peppermint on the performance of athletes during exercises [51,55]. ...
... Results of the current study, confirmed with the findings of Meamarbashi andRajabi, 2013 andRaudenbush et al., 2001, who examined the effects of the administration of peppermint on the performance of athletes during exercises [51,55]. ...
Background:
Recently, there has been an increased interest in the effects of essential oils on athletic performances and other physiological effects. This study aimed to assess the effects of Citrus sinensis flower and Mentha spicata leaves essential oils inhalation in two different groups of athlete male students on their exercise performance and lung function.
Methods:
Twenty physical education students volunteered to participate in the study. The subjects were randomly assigned into two groups: Mentha spicata and Citrus sinensis (ten participants each). One group was nebulized by Citrus sinensis flower oil and the other by Mentha spicata leaves oil in a concentration of (0.02 ml/kg of body mass) which was mixed with 2 ml of normal saline for 5 min before a 1500 m running tests. Lung function tests were measured using a spirometer for each student pre and post nebulization giving the same running distance pre and post oils inhalation.
Results:
A lung function tests showed an improvement on the lung status for the students after inhaling of the oils. Interestingly, there was a significant increase in Forced Expiratory Volume in the first second and Forced Vital Capacity after inhalation for the both oils. Moreover significant reductions in the means of the running time were observed among these two groups. The normal spirometry results were 50 %, while after inhalation with M. spicata oil the ratio were 60 %.
Conclusion:
Our findings support the effectiveness of M. spicata and C. sinensis essential oils on the exercise performance and respiratory function parameters. However, our conclusion and generalisability of our results should be interpreted with caution due to small sample size and lack of control groups, randomization or masking. We recommend further investigations to explain the mechanism of actions for these two essential oils on exercise performance and respiratory parameters.
Trial registration:
ISRCTN10133422, Registered: May 3, 2016.
... While aromatherapy has substantial effects on task performance and psychological states, little research has been carried out on the effects of relaxing or stimulating scents on sport performance. One study focuses on the affect of aromatherapy on an actual physical performance task, and it reveals positive improvements in the handgrip strength test, the 400 m run, and the push-up test of subjects; however, no such ameliorations are indicated for the free-throw shooting by subjects exposed to odors (Raudenbush et al. 2001). The current study examines the various effects of popularly used relaxing (lavender) and stimulating (peppermint) scents on actual sport performance and state anxiety. ...
... On the basis of the previous physical performance outcomes, this research assumes that sport performance is significantly influenced by these two aroma groups, with peppermint affecting . performance more than lavender (Raudenbush et al. 2001). In addition, participants in both the lavender and peppermint groups are thought to be less anxious, compared with the control group. ...
... In addition, in preparation for the experiment, the research assistant deposited drops of commercially bought essential oils on the tips of cotton buds. Two drops were placed on each bud, a quantity established to be sufficient by a previous experiment (Raudenbush et al. 2001). The cotton buds with either lavender or peppermint aroma were placed separately in a sealed container to prevent cross contamination. ...
This study investigates the effects of two popular, relaxing and stimulating scents, namely: lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) and peppermint (Mentha cordifolia Opiz.) on the state of anxiety and sport skill performance. One hundred and four healthy university students were randomly assigned to three experimental groups (lavender, peppermint and control) and were asked to perform the sport of dart throwing. Prior to the actual test, anxiety levels were assessed after the inhalation of the designated aromas for each group. Results showed that the participants in the peppermint group were more accurate and consistent than the lavender and control groups. However, no difference was found between the lavender and control groups on performance accuracy and consistency. On the other hand, the participants who inhaled lavender and peppermint aromas showed decreased state of anxiety levels compared to those who did not inhale any scents. The current study demonstrated that scents have various effects, depending on their properties and the tasks performed by the individuals.
... While aromatherapy has substantial effects on task performance and psychological states, little research has been carried out on the effects of relaxing or stimulating scents on sport performance. One study focuses on the affect of aromatherapy on an actual physical performance task, and it reveals positive improvements in the handgrip strength test, the 400 m run, and the push-up test of subjects; however, no such ameliorations are indicated for the free-throw shooting by subjects exposed to odors (Raudenbush et al. 2001). The current study examines the various effects of popularly used relaxing (lavender) and stimulating (peppermint) scents on actual sport performance and state anxiety. ...
... On the basis of the previous physical performance outcomes, this research assumes that sport performance is significantly influenced by these two aroma groups, with peppermint affecting . performance more than lavender (Raudenbush et al. 2001). In addition, participants in both the lavender and peppermint groups are thought to be less anxious, compared with the control group. ...
... In addition, in preparation for the experiment, the research assistant deposited drops of commercially bought essential oils on the tips of cotton buds. Two drops were placed on each bud, a quantity established to be sufficient by a previous experiment (Raudenbush et al. 2001). The cotton buds with either lavender or peppermint aroma were placed separately in a sealed container to prevent cross contamination. ...
This study investigated the influence of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) and peppermint (Mentha cordifolia Opiz.) aromas on sport athletic performance and subjective vitality. Ten collegiate women basketball players performed speed and agility performance tasks under three conditions (lavender, peppermint and placebo) and subjective vitality was tested before and after inhalation of the various scents. Results revealed that the relaxing and pleasant scent of lavender yielded positive effects on athletic performance tasks. Furthermore, the stimulating and pleasant aroma of peppermint significantly improved the participants' subjective vitality. This investigation highlights the importance of lavender and peppermint scents in enhancing performance and vitality and is the first study to assess how aromas influence short duration performance tasks.
... Among the passive methods, aroma exposure showed good results in maintaining alertness in comparison with light and alarm [5]. Furthermore, peppermint scent were proven to significantly increase alertness in activities that require continuous attention [9], on athletic performance [10], while administered on cognitive tests [11] [12], or to prevent drowsiness [13]. Nonetheless, the empirical evidence of the peppermint aroma effectiveness in maintaining drivers' alertness was not conclusively known. ...
... Alertness level was monitored via brainwave activity using electroencephalograph (EEG) along 30 minutes of driving. The brainwave measured were theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13), and beta (13-30 Hz). These waves were chosen to show active condition (beta wave), as well as drowsiness, eyes closed, and sleepy situation (alpha and theta waves). ...
... In this study, peppermint fragrance was given continuously during the driving. In addition, [10], [11], and [19] also administered continuous method of contact. Moreover, other researches applied intermittent method, such as [9] and [13]. ...
The numbers of the traffic accidents related to human factors are increasing rapidly. Among all contributing factors to the accident, fatigue and sleepiness on wheel are the most common reasons. Both conditions decrease drivers’ alertness, resulting in performance decrement and accident risk increment. The alertness degradation is usually not well recognized by the drivers. Peppermint fragrance is commonly known on its freshness as medicine or aromatherapy. This research was conducted to examine the effectiveness of peppermint as a car freshener in order to maintain drivers’ alertness level. A within-subject design experiment was carried out in a car-driving simulator laboratory engaging twelve male participants. There were two driving conditions: with placebo and with peppermint fragrance. Placebo and peppermint fragrance was released continuously using an electric vaporizer. The participants’ alertness level was monitored via brainwave activities using electroencephalograph (EEG) along 30minutes of driving. Frequency analysis on EEG data was conducted to determine the alpha, theta, and beta power band on F3 and F4 of lobus frontal to generate the (α+θ)/β ratio. Results of this study demonstrated that the application of the peppermint car freshener resulted in lower slope of (α+θ)/β ratio rather than placebo condition (0.018 vs. 0.026), though the difference was not significant (p = 0.216). The results suggest that the peppermint is promising to be applied as in-vehicle fragrance in order to maintain drivers’ alertness. Further research can be conducted to test various method of fragrance exposure to get more substantial increase of alertness level.
... Recently, research has focused on the link between olfactory stimuli and cognitive and physical performance in athletes [23,43,44]. ...
... The subcortical pathways that represent these aspects are connected to hippocampal and entorhinal activation, where, the chemoceptive component is relevant [49]. The recent literature has focused on the link between olfactory stimuli and cognitive and physical performance in athletes [23,43,44], highlighting no specific differences between the types of sport, but intensive or competitive athletic activity can be considered as a non-specific sport clustering factor. ...
Many studies have focused on navigation, spatial skills, and the olfactory system in comparative models, including those concerning the relationship between them and physical activity. Although the results are often in contrast with each other, it is assumed that physical activity can affect cognition in different ways—both indirectly and through a certain influence on some brain structures. In contrast, there is little research that focuses on the relationship between spatial abilities and olfactory abilities in humans. This research aimed to evaluate and compare the performance in working memory tasks of athletes and non-athletes who require good visual–spatial navigation, olfactory–spatial navigation, and olfactory–semantic skills. The study involved 236 participants (83 athletes) between the ages of 18 and 40. All subjects were matched by age or sex. The standard Corsi Block Tapping Test (CBTT) was administrated to investigate the visual-spatial memory. Olfactory–spatial navigation and olfactory–semantic skills were assessed with two modified versions of CBTT: Olfactory CBTT (OCBTT) and Semantic–Olfactory CBTT (SOCBTT) respectively. The results show differences between the CORSI conditions in direction of a poor performance for athletes. A gender effect in favor of men was also found, particularly in the classic version of the CBTT. Both groups performed better in the classic version of the CBTT than OCBTT and SOCBTT. The mean of SOCBTT results is markedly lower, perhaps due to the different information processing systems needed to perform this kind of task. It is possible to explain how sports practice can affect tasks that require spatial skills and olfactory perception differently, thus supporting new hypotheses and opening new scientific horizons.
... For example, inhaling peppermint essential oil was found to improve grip, high jump records, long jump records, pulmonary function [22], calm the bronchial smooth muscle, and increase the concentration and consumption of oxygen to the brain [23]. Another study found that speed and push-up count had increased significantly after having 40 adults smell peppermint during exercise [24], while another found that momentum and heart rate recovery had improved after inhaling aromatic fragrances [25]; therefore, it appears clear that aromatherapy improves bodily functions and positively affects athletic performance. ...
... The in-depth interviews supported this and showed that induced positive feelings reduced the subjective intensity of exercise, reduced fatigue while exercising, and improved feelings after exercising. This supports previous results that fragrances have a positive influence on people's subjective stress and feelings [26] and increases the amount people exercise [22,24]. ...
We analyzed participants’ feelings and arousal before, during, and after exercise as per whether they receive aromatherapy. Twenty university students who regularly took part in health exercises were selected through purposive sampling. Changes in feelings were measured through a 2D circumplex model and an in-depth interview. The effects on exercisers who received aromatherapy were more positive than for those who did not receive any treatment. Specifically, it induced positive feelings during exercise, reduced fatigue during exercise, and improved participants’ feelings during the recovery period. Aroma has a key influence on exercisers’ feelings, and it can positively influence exercise satisfaction and persistence.
... Olfaction has proven to play a significant role in human learning and memory. The addition of an olfactory component has been found to reduce stress, increase information processing, enhance memory performance (e.g., enhanced problem-solving, reduced response times and errors, increased recall, recognition, and retention), and enhance productivity, physical performance (e.g., running speed, hand grip strength, number of pushups), and odor identification (Cain, de Wijk, Lulejian, Schiet, & See, 1998;Degel, Piper & Koester, 2001;Herz, 2000;Kole, Snel & Lorist, 1998;Lesschaeve & Issanchou, 1996;Livermore & Lainge, 1996;Rabin, 1988;Raudenbush, Corley, & Eppich, 2001;Parker, Ngu, & Cassaday, 2001;Schab, 1991;Wickens & Hollands, 2000;White & Treisman, 1997;Wood & Eddy, 1996). If olfaction works separate from other modalities, than the addition of an olfactory component may uniquely augment the cognitive processes of human operators experiencing the least optimal stress levels (low or high) for optimal performance without additional cognitive overload (Chu & Downes, 2001;Kole et al., 1998;Parker et al., 2001;Raudenbush et al., 2001;Schab, 1991). ...
... The addition of an olfactory component has been found to reduce stress, increase information processing, enhance memory performance (e.g., enhanced problem-solving, reduced response times and errors, increased recall, recognition, and retention), and enhance productivity, physical performance (e.g., running speed, hand grip strength, number of pushups), and odor identification (Cain, de Wijk, Lulejian, Schiet, & See, 1998;Degel, Piper & Koester, 2001;Herz, 2000;Kole, Snel & Lorist, 1998;Lesschaeve & Issanchou, 1996;Livermore & Lainge, 1996;Rabin, 1988;Raudenbush, Corley, & Eppich, 2001;Parker, Ngu, & Cassaday, 2001;Schab, 1991;Wickens & Hollands, 2000;White & Treisman, 1997;Wood & Eddy, 1996). If olfaction works separate from other modalities, than the addition of an olfactory component may uniquely augment the cognitive processes of human operators experiencing the least optimal stress levels (low or high) for optimal performance without additional cognitive overload (Chu & Downes, 2001;Kole et al., 1998;Parker et al., 2001;Raudenbush et al., 2001;Schab, 1991). ...
This study was part of Research in Augmented & Virtual Environment Systems (RAVES), a cross-disciplinary project researching multi-modal virtual environments. The purpose of this research was to test the impact of olfaction on a human operator's sense of immersion into a virtual environment. The application of which could enhance military training environments to optimize performance in the field. The study was a 2 x 3 x 2 mixed factorial design with gender (i.e., male, female), condition (i.e., control/no scent, experimental/concordant scents, discordant scent), and time (before vs. after) as the independent variables. Scores from an augmented immersion questionnaire served as the dependent variable. The experimental group did not differ significantly from the control or discordant groups in any analyses but the conditions differed significantly on their ratings of the augmented virtual environment and genders differed significantly in their experience in the augmented virtual environment, but not by condition.
... 5 A good fragrance and taste also leads to reflex bronchodilation thus improving exercise potential and physical swiftness of an individual. 6 In many universities it has been recommended that use of peppermint and chewing gum can be used as a remedy. To this day it remains a point of controversy as many studies have been conducted to study its effects on animals as well as humans but most remain inconclusive. ...
... 8 This was unlike the study conducted by Raudenbush B et al who proved that consumption of peppermint did increase the levels of physical fitness in most subjects. 6 Our study also showed no major change in alertness or reaction time. The level of alertness and reaction time also remained unchanged in studies conducted by Stephens R. et.al who also conducted similar tests on university students. ...
Background: Many medical students are dealing with day to day stress in their lives and they need to be both physically and mentally active to counter and overcome their daily problems. In such scenario, a non-pharmacological adjunct could prove useful to counter all of it so that they can work more efficiently. Many universities do recommend the use of peppermints and chewing gums. This study is conducted to see if any of these items actually have an influence on cognitive and physical abilities.Methods: A non-randomized controlled trial was performed on the undergraduate medical students of N.K.P. Salve Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre belonging to the age group of 18-21 years. They were given normal flavoured gum, mint flavoured gum and peppermint. A series of cognitive and physiological tests in both stressful and stress free environments were performed.Results: Consumption of peppermint in a stressful environment showed increase in attention span of the subjects and it increased the intelligence Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-R (WAIS-R) in both stress free and stressful environments. As compared to normal gum, peppermint and peppermint gum proved to be more effective. There was no significant change observed in alertness, reaction time, arithmetic ability, short term memory and fatigue index in any of the subjects.Conclusions: Peppermint has caused increase in the attention span and intelligence of medical students in a stressful work scenario. Peppermint gum was found to be more beneficial than normal gum.
... In the athletic task performance, the peppermint odor significantly increased running speed, hand grip strength, and number of push-ups, but had no effect on skill-related tasks [135]. Raudenbush et al. [136] studied the effects of odor (peppermint oil, jasmine oil and dimethyl sulfide) administration on objective and subjective measures of physical performance of athletes. ...
... [122] 8. Peppermint Enhanced physical performance and generating more push-ups and running faster. [135] 9. Isovaleric acid, thiophenol, pyridine, L-menthol, isoamyl acetate, and 1,8-cineole ...
The influence of fragrances such as perfumes and room fresheners on the psychophysiological activities of humans has been known for a long time, and its significance is gradually increasing in the medicinal and cosmetic industries. A fragrance consists of volatile chemicals with a molecular weight of less than 300 Da that humans perceive through the olfactory system. In humans, about 300 active olfactory receptor genes are devoted to detecting thousands of different fragrance molecules through a large family of olfactory receptors of a diverse protein sequence. The sense of smell plays an important role in the physiological effects of mood, stress, and working capacity. Electrophysiological studies have revealed that various fragrances affected spontaneous brain activities and cognitive functions, which are measured by an electroencephalograph (EEG). The EEG is a good temporal measure of responses in the central nervous system and it provides information about the physiological state of the brain both in health and disease. The EEG power spectrum is classified into different frequency bands such as delta (0.5–4 Hz), theta (4–8 Hz), alpha (8–13 Hz), beta (13–30 Hz) and gamma (30–50 Hz), and each band is correlated with different features of brain states. A quantitative EEG uses computer software to provide the topographic mapping of the brain activity in frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital brain regions. It is well known that decreases of alpha and beta activities and increases of delta and theta activities are associated with brain pathology and general cognitive decline. In the last few decades, many scientific studies were conducted to investigate the effect of inhalation of aroma on human brain functions. The studies have suggested a significant role for olfactory stimulation in the alteration of cognition, mood, and social behavior. This review aims to evaluate the available literature regarding the influence of fragrances on the psychophysiological activities of humans with special reference to EEG changes.
... Olfaction has proven to play a significant role in human learning and memory. The addition of an olfactory component has been found to reduce stress, increase information processing, enhance memory performance (e.g., enhanced problem-solving, reduced response times and errors, increased recall, recognition, and retention), and enhance productivity, physical performance (e.g., running speed, hand grip strength, number of pushups), and odor identification (Cain, de Wijk, Lulejian, Schiet, & See, 1998;Degel, Piper & Koester, 2001;Herz, 2000;Kole, Snel & Lorist, 1998;Lesschaeve & Issanchou, 1996;Livermore & Lainge, 1996;Rabin, 1988;Raudenbush, Corley, & Eppich, 2001;Parker, Ngu, & Cassaday, 2001;Schab, 1991;Wickens & Hollands, 2000;White & Treisman, 1997;Wood & Eddy, 1996). If olfaction works separate from other modalities, than the addition of an olfactory component may uniquely augment the cognitive processes of human operators experiencing the least optimal stress levels (low or high) for optimal performance without additional cognitive overload (Chu & Downes, 2001;Kole et al., 1998;Parker et al., 2001;Raudenbush et al., 2001;Schab, 1991). ...
... The addition of an olfactory component has been found to reduce stress, increase information processing, enhance memory performance (e.g., enhanced problem-solving, reduced response times and errors, increased recall, recognition, and retention), and enhance productivity, physical performance (e.g., running speed, hand grip strength, number of pushups), and odor identification (Cain, de Wijk, Lulejian, Schiet, & See, 1998;Degel, Piper & Koester, 2001;Herz, 2000;Kole, Snel & Lorist, 1998;Lesschaeve & Issanchou, 1996;Livermore & Lainge, 1996;Rabin, 1988;Raudenbush, Corley, & Eppich, 2001;Parker, Ngu, & Cassaday, 2001;Schab, 1991;Wickens & Hollands, 2000;White & Treisman, 1997;Wood & Eddy, 1996). If olfaction works separate from other modalities, than the addition of an olfactory component may uniquely augment the cognitive processes of human operators experiencing the least optimal stress levels (low or high) for optimal performance without additional cognitive overload (Chu & Downes, 2001;Kole et al., 1998;Parker et al., 2001;Raudenbush et al., 2001;Schab, 1991). ...
... Peppermint odour has positive effects on mood [9,28] but there are disagreements on its effect on arousal with both an increase [3] and decrease [39] being reported. Peppermint augments cognitive performance and administrative tasks [3,28] and has been found to enhance athletic performance [27,36,37] with suggestions that both cardiovascular and central nervous system mechanisms are involved [27,46]. ...
... Peppermint odour, when administered as a single stimulus, has been reported to have a variety of effects, from a decrease in the magnitude of beta waves and decrease in the finger-tip skin temperature following a mental task, implying a decrease in arousal response [39], to the oppositean increase in exercise performance, blood pressure and respiratory rate in the young male students [27]. In accord with this latter study, peppermint has been shown to be a stimulating odour, to increase alertness, [19,43,44] and to improve performance in a mental task [3], a visual task [50] and exercise [36,37]. Under the conditions of this present study there was no influence of light-peppermint stimulus on the POMS Vigour-Activity factor possibly because the relaxing effect of the stimulus on cardiovascular parameters. ...
Bright light therapy has been shown to have a positive impact on seasonal affective disorder (SAD), depression and anxiety. Smell has also has been shown to have effects on mood, stress, anxiety and depression. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the combination of light and smell in a non-adaptive cycle. Human subjects were given smell (lemon, lavender or peppermint) and light stimuli in a triangular wave (60 s cycle) for 15 min. Blood pressure and heart rate were monitored before and after each session for 5 consecutive days and a Profile of Mood States (POMS) test was administered before and after the sensory stimulation on days 1, 3 and 5.
The light-smell stimulus lowered blood pressure, both systolic and diastolic, and reduced heart rate for all odours compared to control. Of the two sensory stimuli, the odour stimulus contributed most to this effect. The different aromas in the light-smell combinations could be distinguished by their different effects on the mood factors with lemon inducing the greatest mood changes in Dejection-Depression, Anger-Hostility, Tension-Anxiety.
In conclusion, combined light and smell stimulation was effective in lowering blood pressure, reducing heart rate and improving mood. The combination was more effective than either smell or light stimuli alone, suggesting that a light-smell combination would be a more robust and efficacious alternative treatment for depression, anxiety and stress.
... In other words, there was a positive correlation between strength of odor and benefits from odor but a negative correlation between benefits of odor and exposure trials to odor. Another study directly administered (specific) peppermint odor and found increased performance in athletic tasks [28]. The athletes running speed increased, as did their hand grip strength, and number of push-ups. ...
... The benefits of an olfactory component (ambient and specific) are such things as, increased running speed, hand grip strength, number of push-ups, shortened response times, reduced errors, improved free recall, word recognition, and performance on spatial learning and problem-solving tasks, increased intensity of early stage information processing, and reduced stress [17][25] [28]. ...
... Among these factors, ambient odors (i.e., aromas) have been found to bias an individual's attention towards either global or local representational levels (for reviews, see Herz, 2009;Johnson, 2011). Specifically, it has been suggested that stimulating aromas, such as peppermint (Barker et al., 2003;Colzato et al., 2014;Ho & Spence, 2005;Kovar et al., 1987;Moss et al., 2008;Warm et al., 1991;Raudenbush et al., 2001;Raudenbush et al., 2009;Warm and Dember, 1990), lead to a more focused, exclusive attentional state, whereas relaxing aromas, such as lavender (Basevitch et al., 2011;Diego et al., 1998;Field et al., 2005;Lehrner et al., 2005;Grimes, 1999;Guéguen & Petr, 2006;Moss, Cook, Wesnes, & Duckett, 2003;Sakamoto et al., 2005;Sellaro et al., 2015b) induce a broader, inclusive attentional state. For instance, research has found that being exposed to peppermint aroma improves memory (Moss et al., 2008), sustained visual attention (Warm et al., 1991), dual-task performance (Ho & Spence, 2005), athletic task performance (Raudenbush et al., 2001), and alertness in a driving simulator task (Raudenbush et al., 2009), and affects the allocation of attention in time . ...
... Specifically, it has been suggested that stimulating aromas, such as peppermint (Barker et al., 2003;Colzato et al., 2014;Ho & Spence, 2005;Kovar et al., 1987;Moss et al., 2008;Warm et al., 1991;Raudenbush et al., 2001;Raudenbush et al., 2009;Warm and Dember, 1990), lead to a more focused, exclusive attentional state, whereas relaxing aromas, such as lavender (Basevitch et al., 2011;Diego et al., 1998;Field et al., 2005;Lehrner et al., 2005;Grimes, 1999;Guéguen & Petr, 2006;Moss, Cook, Wesnes, & Duckett, 2003;Sakamoto et al., 2005;Sellaro et al., 2015b) induce a broader, inclusive attentional state. For instance, research has found that being exposed to peppermint aroma improves memory (Moss et al., 2008), sustained visual attention (Warm et al., 1991), dual-task performance (Ho & Spence, 2005), athletic task performance (Raudenbush et al., 2001), and alertness in a driving simulator task (Raudenbush et al., 2009), and affects the allocation of attention in time . In contrast, being exposed to lavender aroma has been found to lessen fatigue (Sakamoto et al., 2005), to promote behavior commitment (Grimes, 1999), to increase the amount of time customers spend in a restaurant and the amount of purchasing (Guéguen & Petr, 2006), and to enhance interpersonal trust (Sellaro et al., 2015b). ...
Recent studies showed that self-other integration, as indexed by the joint Simon effect (JSE), can be modulated by biasing participants towards particular (integrative vs. exclusive) cognitive-control states. Interestingly, there is evidence suggesting that such control states can be induced by particular odors: stimulating odors (e.g., peppermint aroma) seem to induce a more focused, exclusive state; relaxing odors (e.g., lavender aroma) are thought to induce a broader, more integrative state. In the present study, we tested the possible impact of peppermint and lavender aromas on self-other integration. Pairs of participants performed the joint Simon task in an either peppermint- or lavender-scented testing room. Results showed that both aromas modulated the size of the JSE, although they had a dissociable effect on reaction times (RTs) and percentage of errors (PEs). Whilst the JSE in RTs was found to be less pronounced in the peppermint group, compared to the lavender and no-aroma groups, the JSE in PEs was significantly more pronounced in the lavender group, compared to the peppermint and no-aroma group. These results are consistent with the emerging literature suggesting that the degree of self-other integration does not reflect a trait but a particular cognitive state, which can be biased towards excluding or integrating the other in one's self-representation.
... Lavender oil increased the theta and alpha wave activities on EEG, when compared with base oil. In the athletic task performance test, they found that peppermint odour significantly increased running speed, hand grip strength, and number of push-ups, but had no effect on skill-related tasks [35]. In a study the following year, Raudenbush., et al.2002 studied the effects of peppermint and dimethyl sulfide administration on objective and subjective measures of physical performance of athletes [36]. ...
1. Abstract The Mahamrityunjaya mantra is one of the oldest and most powerful mantras in Indian religious tradition, and is considered to have the ability to ward off untimely death. The mantra is quite short, consisting of 12 words, but each word is highly significant as regards the impact on health. The present article hinges around the significance of the three words " Sugandhim pushti vardhanam", that form part of the mantra. These words can be translated as : "Fragrance enhances well-being". It is already known that smells perceived by the brain are inextricably intertwined with emotions and memory, and that odours can affect mental and physical health in several ways. It is also now being recognized that molecules of aromatic compounds and fragrances can easily reach the brain through the nose. In fact, the ancient Indian medical texts and seers have always considered the nose to be the "Gateway to the Brain". Novel pharmaceutical formulations are being currently developed to deliver drug molecules to the brain through the nasal route. The recent discovery of brain lymphatics supports the view that fragrant substances can easily access the brain via the cribriform plate, along the filaments of the olfactory nerve. The brain being the master controlling organ of the body, influences all bodily functions. Thus, any aroma molecule, after entering the brain, can easily impact brain neurons, and thereby modulate other systemic functions, in part through the autonomic nervous system. Aroma compounds can also affect various body tissues through another mechanism involving extra-sensory olfactory (smell) receptors. These smell receptors are present on the cell membranes of tissues of several body organs, and can perceive and respond to the inhaled aroma compounds, reaching the tissues through the blood stream. It is hence apparent that pleasing aromas can positively affect human health, enhancing well-being and longevity.
... Importantly, research suggests that strategic administration of pleasant olfactory stimuli may have beneficial effects on a range of outcomes, including improved memory performance (Herz, 2016), physical endurance (Raudenbush, Corley, & Eppich, 2001;Raudenbush, Meyer, & Eppich, 2002), and craving relief (Sayette, Marchetti, Herz, Martin, & Bowdring, 2019;Sayette & Parrott, 1999). As olfactory research becomes integrated into traditional biomedical research (Herz, 2009), new clinical and conceptual questions emerge. ...
... There is a small body of literature assessing peppermint and menthol's ability to affect alertness. Delivery modes have varied from vapour (as previously outlined under Respiratory health) to chewing gum 3,5,99,115,129 . Both peppermint and menthol odours affects upon reaction time and cognitive tasks have been researched 5,58,91,99,107,138 , but these effects appear to diminish under repeated trials as does the perceived qualitative characteristics of these odours. ...
Mint and to a lesser extent menthol have been used since antiquity for medicinal purposes. Key components of mint and menthol use such as composition and intake, safety and traditional uses are discussed prior to a review of clinical and human performance outcomes in the areas of digestive and respiratory health; antibacterial and anti-fungal properties, nocioception, migraine and headache and emerging evidence regarding COVID 19. Evidence suggests benefit for patients with irritable bowel syndrome and related digestive issues, with analgesic and respiratory effects also noted. Perceptual characteristics relating to thermal comfort and sensation, taste sensitivity and alertness are also considered; these effects are predominantly driven by stimulation of transient receptor potential melastatin 8 (TRPM8) activity resulting in sensations of cooling and freshness, with lesser influence on thirst. Finally, sport performance is considered as a domain that may further elucidate some of the aforementioned underpinning outcomes due to its systemic and dynamic nature, especially when performed in hot environmental conditions.
... Blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate had no signi cant improvement when compared to the placebo group. This was congruent with Raudenbush et al. (2001), who revealed that there is no signi cant impact of peppermint essential oil on blood pressure, blood oxygen saturation, and heart rate. ...
Background
Mechanical ventilation increases stress and anxiety of critically ill patients and subsequently physiological parameters of these patients. Peppermint inhalation reduces stress and improves physiological parameters in many studies, but none of these studies used peppermint inhalation yet for mechanically ventilated patients.
Methods
Randomized placebo controlled trial. Data for this study were collected from 1 June to 12 September 2022. Patients who were conscious on mechanical ventilation via endotracheal tube were randomly assigned to two groups. The intervention group received peppermint inhalation intervention, and the placebo group received almond inhalation intervention. Patients in both groups were assessed for their smell ability by Sniffin Sticks-test before starting the interventions. CONSORT checklist was used to report the study. This study was conducted in six intensive care units.
Results
A total of 52 patients in the intervention group and 54 patients in the placebo group completed the study. Pain score was significantly decreased in the intervention group after starting the intervention in comparison to the placebo group. There was a strong positive correlation between Sniffin Sticks-test score and the decrease in pain score after inhalation of peppermint.
Conclusion/ Implications for practice
Inhalation of mechanically ventilated patients to peppermint decreases pain score. The effectiveness of peppermint inhalation is correlated to the smell ability of the patients.
Trial registration
The identification number of the registered trial to the Clinical Trials Online Registry is: NCTXXXXXXX.
... In one study, athletic young adults ran faster and did more push-ups in the presence of peppermint aroma, and a similar study found that peppermint aroma enhanced self-evaluations of vigor and perceived performance when running on a treadmill. (Raudenbush, 2002;Raudenbush et al., 2001). Relatedly, scents help reduce feelings of fatigue and improve performance when undergoing tiring or difficult cognitive tasks (Ho & Spence, 2005;Raudenbush et al., 2009;Saito et al., 2018). ...
Humans have deliberately scented their environment for purpose or pleasure for millennia. In the contemporary marketplace most consumers prefer and purchase scented versions of common household products. However, the drivers of this consumer preference have not been elucidated. To explain the attraction to scent in household products we propose a novel three-factor framework, comprising functional benefits (malodor mitigation, base odor coverage, freshening), in -use experience benefits (cleanliness, efficacy, pleasure), and emotional benefits (increasing in confidence, mood and nostalgia). To support this framework, we present new data from a market research survey on US consumer purchasing habits and attitudes towards home cleaning, laundry, and air freshening products. Further substantiating our framework, a focused review of olfactory psychological science illustrating the central role of scent in cognition, wellbeing, motivated behavior, and social behavior, as well as sensory marketing research highlights the benefits and implications of scent in consumer household products. Based on our three-factor framework we go on to discuss the potential for scent to influence health and raise issues to consider (such as potential negative responding to fragranced products). We conclude by showcasing new opportunities for future research in olfactory science and on scented household products that can advance the positive impacts of scent.
... Whether through direct nasal inhalation or mixing with the aqueous solution for oral uptake, is MP essential oil has effective in enhancing athletic performance? Previous studies found inhalation of MP essential oil was effective in improving physical fitness (including running speed, handgrip strength, and the number of push-ups) (Raudenbush et al., 2001), increasing oxygen saturation (SpO 2 ), heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), and mean arterial pressure (MAP) during a 15-minute treadmill stress test (Raudenbush et al., 2002), typing performance test (Barker et al., 2003) and aerobic performance and reaction time (Asghar, 2011). ...
This study compares the effects of the uptake or inhalation of 50uL Mentha piperita (MP) essential oil for 10 days on heart rate variability (HRV) and cardiopulmonary regulation during various exercise intensities. Forty-eight healthy male subjects were randomly assigned to MP uptake (MPU; n=16), MP inhalation (MPI; n=16), and control group (C; n=16). All participants were measured resting HRV, respiratory, cardiovascular, and metabolic parameters during aerobic, anaero- bic, and graded exercise tests (GXT) before and after treatment. There were significant increases in the low-frequency area (LFa; 1.8±0.1 vs 2.2±0.2 ms²), the ratio of low frequency to respiration frequency area (LFa/RFa; 0.9±0.1 vs 1.3±0.1) at resting and carbon dioxide production (VCO 2 ; 41.2±4.0 vs 49.2±6.8 mL/min -1 /kg -1 ), ventilation per minute (V E ; 80.2±4.3 vs 97.5±5.5 L/min -1 ), and respiratory rate (RR; 38.2±1.9 to 44.3±2.1 breath/min -1 ) in an anaerobic test following MPU inter- vention. In GXT, maximal carbon dioxide production (VCO 2max; 51.9±3.5 to 59.1±6.4 mL/min -1 /kg -1 ), maximal ventilation per minute (V Emax ; 126.4±6.5 to 138.4±5.4 L/min -1 ) and maximal respiratory rate (RR max ; 52.7±3.6 to 60.1±2.3 breath/min -1 ) significantly increased in MPU. The correlations of ΔLFa with ΔVCO 2max , ΔV Emax , and ΔRR max in the MPU group were signifi- cant. Continuous uptake or inhalation of 50uL MP oil for 10 days does not improve aerobic capacity and maximal exercise performance, but 10 days’ uptake of MP essential oil increased sympathetic activity at rest and may relate to respiratory regulation under high-intensity exercise.
... 36). A concentração de mentol usada na maioria dos estudos foi de A sua utilidade também tem sido testada noutro tipo de protocolos contendo 2 gotas de óleo de menta por debaixo do nariz permitiu realizar uma maior força de preensão da mão(56). No entanto, noutro trabalho, a inalação de aroma a mentol (57) e a ingestão de 5 mL/kg de extrato de hortelã (58) não proporcionaram melhorias em provas de contra--relógio de 400 m. ...
Increased body temperature is one of the major factors contributing to fatigue and decreased performance in sporting events. In consequence, body cooling methods have been investigated to counteract the rise in temperature and enhance performance. In this context, evidence has been accumulating that menthol intake may enhance sports performance through various non-thermal mechanisms, notably through its ability to activate cold receptors and reduce heat perception during intense exercise. Other possible mechanisms include increased expired air volume, decreased perception of cardiopulmonary effort, analgesic and CNS stimulating effects. In general, oral menthol administration seems to improve endurance exercise performance in hot and humid environments, mostly at the end of a competitive event. Menthol appears to be safe at the concentrations commonly used in studies that observed ergogenic effects with this compound. However, by allowing exercise to be prolonged beyond normal thermal limits, menthol supplementation may interfere with the arise of physiological protective responses against rising body temperature. Meanwhile, it is necessary to test the effects of higher menthol concentrations on performance and confirm its safety in athletes.
... This proposal is supported by evidence that peppermint aroma improved performance in sleep deprived drivers to unexpected situations in a simulation experiment [8]. In the field of sport and exercise the inhalation of peppermint aroma has been demonstrated to increase in running speed, hand grip strength, and number of push-ups, but not to impact upon on skill related tasks [9]. However, a later study found no effect of peppermint aroma on the physiological parameters: oxygen consumption, minute ventilation or respiratory exchange ratio during acute exercise [10]. ...
... Improved lung function resulted in better performance in a 1500 m running test [21]. In another study, peppermint odor increased running speed, hand grip strength, and number of push-ups, but had no effect on skill related tasks such as basketball free-throw shots [26]. However, other studies have indicated no impact of peppermint odor on performance in a graded exercise protocol (Bruce test) or related cardiovascular (VO 2 max) and respiratory (respiratory exchange ratio) variables [27]. ...
Essential oils of herbal origin are widely used in the treatment of diseases of the upper and lower respiratory tract primarily due to their antibacterial and antiviral effects. Menthol, the major component of the essential oil of mint (Mentha) species, exhibits antispasmodic activity, which might result in improved lung function. In a randomized experiment, 106 healthy participants received nebulized peppermint, eucalyptus, or rosemary essential oil for 15 min or no treatment (control). None of the essential oils had an impact on the measured spirometric variables (forced vital capacity, peak expiratory flow, the ratio of the volume of air forcibly blown out in the first second to forced vital capacity). Participants' expectations regarding the effects of essential oils did not affect their objective performance, however, they predicted perceived (subjective) changes. Perceived and measured changes were not connected with each other. In conclusion, inhaled rosemary, peppermint, and eucalyptus essential oils' subjective (perceived) effect on spirometry is mediated at least partly by expectations.
... There are numerous potential uses for olfactory VR: For example, olfactory stimuli might be used to put the users of VR equipment into a certain state of alertness (e.g., think of the smell of coffee; Ho & Spence, 2006;Kole, Snel, & Lorist, 1998), to improve their athletic and/or cognitive performance (e.g., Chen, Katdare, & Lucas, 2006;Raudenbush, Corley, & Eppich, 2001), or else to relax them, say, when VR is being used to help alleviate the pain of dressing burns victims -i.e., think of the smell of lavender; see Atanassova-Shopova, & Boycheva, 1973;Lehrner, Eckersberger, Walla, Pötsch, & Deecke, 2000;Spence, 2002Spence, , 2003. It is important to note at this point that people do not necessarily have to be aware of the odour in order for it to affect their behaviour/perception. ...
... Meist wird Pfef-ferminzduft genannt (z.B. Kaneda et al., 1994;Raudenbush et al., 2001). Eine kurzfristige Aktivierung durch Änderungen der Umgebungstemperatur (Reyner & Horne, 1998) (Knipling, Wang & Kanianthra, 1996;Mabbott et al., 1999). ...
Müdigkeit am Steuer stellt im Straßenverkehr eine erhebliche Gefahr dar, von der insbesondere berufliche Langstreckenfahrer im Transportwesen betroffen sind. Systeme zur Müdigkeitserkennung sollen müdigkeitsbedingte Unfälle im Straßenverkehr verhindern. Auf Basis von Risikomodellen wurde die Befürchtung abgeleitet, Fahrer könnten ihr Verhalten in unerwünschter Weise an diese Systeme anpassen und den erstrebten Sicherheitsgewinn wieder nivellieren. Eine unerwünschte Verhaltensanpassung wäre eine Verlängerung der Fahrt trotz starker Müdigkeit des Fahrers. In der vorliegenden Arbeit geht es um die prospektive Evaluation eines Systems zur Müdigkeitserkennung im Fahrzeug, mit dem Ziel, Gestaltungsempfehlungen abzuleiten, die zur Verhaltenswirksamkeit der Rückmeldung und zur Vermeidung von Risikokompensation beitragen. Verhaltensanpassungen in Reaktion auf ein System zur Müdigkeitserkennung wurden in dieser Arbeit in einer Fahrsimulatorstudie nachgewiesen. Personen fuhren signifikant länger, wenn ein System zur Müdigkeitserkennung im Fahrzeug war und sie schätzten sich auch wacher ein. Statt einer Selbstüberschätzung scheint das System zur Müdigkeitserkennung (vor jeder Rückmeldung) aktivierend auf die Fahrer zu wirken, wie objektive Müdigkeitseinschätzungen einer Videoanalyse und Fahrleistungsdaten nahelegen. Eine mögliche Erklärung ist, dass die Beobachtung durch das System eine höhere Leistungsmotivation bewirkt, gegen die Müdigkeit anzukämpfen und weiterzufahren. Der Zweck eines Systems zur Müdigkeitserkennung sollte allerdings nicht darin liegen, die Fahrer zur Weiterfahrt in übermüdetem Zustand zu motivieren. Stattdessen sollte die Systemrückmeldung den Fahrer dazu veranlassen, bei eingeschränkter Fahrtüchtigkeit möglichst umgehend anzuhalten. Bislang fehlen gesicherte Erkenntnisse, wie die Rückmeldung gestaltet sein sollte, um die Motivation zu unerwünschten Verhaltensänderungen zu minimieren. Drei weitere empirische Studien trugen dazu bei, Empfehlungen für die Gestaltung der Systeme zu formulieren. Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Berufskraftfahrer die aus der Theorie zur Risikokompensation abgeleiteten Befürchtungen unerwünschter Verhaltensanpassungen an das System bestätigen, insbesondere, wenn das System durch eine Aktivierung des Fahrers eine Weiterfahrt trotz starker Müdigkeit ermöglicht. Berufskraftfahrer bezweifeln, dass Systeme ihnen dabei helfen könnten, die Selbstüberwachung zu verbessern oder sie sogar dazu zu bringen könnten, mehr Pausen einzulegen. Sie sehen als wichtige Ansatzpunkte für eine verhaltenswirksame Rückmeldung die Einbindung sozialer Kontrolle, die Schaffung unangenehmer Umgebungsbedingungen bei einer Weiterfahrt in übermüdetem Zustand, ein erzwungenes Anhalten des Fahrzeugs im Falle extremer Müdigkeit sowie die Nutzung der Müdigkeitsbewertungen des Systems als legitime Rechtfertigung für mögliche Verspätungen gegenüber Arbeitgeber oder Kunden. Um unerwünschte Verhaltensadaptationen zu vermeiden, sollten übermüdete Fahrer die Aktivierung durch das System nicht zu einer verlängerten Weiterfahrt zweckentfremden können. Darüber hinaus finden sich Hinweise, dass von einer höheren Automatisierung auch eine stärkere Tendenz zur Weiterfahrt in übermüdetem Zustand zu befürchten ist. Bestimmte Rückmeldungseigenschaften können dabei helfen, den Fahrer zu einer baldigen Unterbrechung der Fahrt zu bewegen. Sie können unter den Kategorien Wahrnehmbarkeit, Assoziation mit Ermüdung, vermittelte Gefahr, Akzeptanz, Dringlichkeit und Wichtigkeit zusammengefasst werden. Diese Lösungsvorschläge sind zukünftig daraufhin zu prüfen, inwieweit sie tatsächlich realisierbar und wirksam sind.
... Previous research has shown that the use of smelling salts or ammonia inhalants (AI) have little to no impact on resistance training performance and during anaerobic bouts of exercise (1,2). However, other inhalation substances have also been thought to show ergogenic properties (3,4). The rationale for this project was to determine if inhaling peppermint (potential stimulator) or lavender (potential inhibitor) could have an impact on anaerobic exercise performance (vertical leap and broad jump). ...
... Perfume use is linked directly with our emotions 35 and it is suggested that pleasant fragrances can improve the mood of men and women under real time conditions. 36 Our findings concur with studies showing that odour stimuli have significant influences on stress, 37 and research even suggests that fragrance is powerful enough to counteract stress in a performance task. 38 Another strategy used by nurses concerned personal care, or pampering. ...
There is considerable research on the experience of nurses during both their work and non‐work time. However, we know relatively little about the strategies nurses use immediately before and immediately after their shift. This crossover period, from one shift to another, has critical impact for patient outcomes. The aim of this qualitative study was to explore strategies nurses employ to mentally prepare for their shift (switch on), and mentally disengage after the end of it (switch off).
Eleven Greek hospital nurses were recruited for the study. Interviews were audio‐taped and analysed using a content analysis approach.
Five themes were identified as strategies nurses use to mentally prepare and disengage from their shift: (i) personal care/grooming; (ii) religious rituals; (iii) nicotine/caffeine; (iv) social interaction; and (v) listening to music. Nurses reported using the same strategies before and after their shift, but for different purposes.
The authors propose a ‘switch on–switch off’ model to describe the process of mental preparation and mental disengagement from work. The switch‐on/off approach represents an opportunity to increase nurses' resilience and identify individual and organizational factors that contribute to patient outcomes.
... No significant differences were revealed between the conditions for the accuracy of attention factor. Peppermint has also been demonstrated to enhance performance on a range of physical exercise tasks (Raudenbush et al., 2001). The authors propose that the effects are due to the aroma producing a change in (an unidentified dimension of) mood and consequently in the level of motivation of the participants. ...
... There are numerous potential uses for olfactory VR: For example, olfactory stimuli might be used to put the users of VR equipment into a certain state of alertness (e.g., think of the smell of coffee; Ho & Spence, 2006;Kole, Snel, & Lorist, 1998), to improve their athletic and/or cognitive performance (e.g., Chen, Katdare, & Lucas, 2006;Raudenbush, Corley, & Eppich, 2001), or else to relax them, say, when VR is being used to help alleviate the pain of dressing burns victims -i.e., think of the smell of lavender; see Atanassova-Shopova, & Boycheva, 1973;Lehrner, Eckersberger, Walla, Pötsch, & Deecke, 2000;Spence, 2002Spence, , 2003. It is important to note at this point that people do not necessarily have to be aware of the odour in order for it to affect their behaviour/perception. ...
Perception in the real world is inherently multisensory, often involving visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, and, on occasion, nociceptive (i.e., painful) stimulation. In fact, the vast majority of life's most enjoyable experiences involve the stimulation of several senses simultaneously. Outside of the entertainment industry, however, the majority of virtual reality (VR) applications thus far have involved the stimulation of only one, or at most two, senses, typically vision, audition, and, on occasion, touch/haptics. That said, the research that has been conducted to date has convincingly shown that increasing the number of senses stimulated in a VR simulator can dramatically enhance a user's 'sense of presence', their enjoyment, and even their memory for the encounter/experience. What is more, given that the technology has been improving rapidly, and the costs associated with VR systems are continuing to come down, it seems increasingly likely that truly multisensory VR should be with us soon (albeit 50 years after Heilig, 1962, originally introduced Sensorama). However, it is important to note that there are both theoretical and practical limitations to the stimulation of certain senses in VR. In this chapter, after having defined the concept of 'neurally-inspired VR', we highlight some of the most exciting potential applications associated with engaging more of a user's senses while in a simulated environment. We then review the key technical challenges associated with stimulating multiple senses in a VR setting. We focus on the particular problems associated with the stimulation of the senses of touch, smell, and taste. We also highlight the problems associated with the limited bandwidth of human sensory perception and the psychological costs associated with users having to divide their attention between multiple sensory modalities simultaneously. Finally, we discuss how the findings provided by the extant research in the cognitive neurosciences might help to overcome, at least in part, some of the cognitive and technological limitations affecting the development of multisensory VR systems.
Previous research on the impact of odors on current emotional state has been mixed, with some studies finding odors can induce feelings of relaxation while others have not. The aim of Part 1 of the current study was to investigate whether a feeling of relaxation, measured by a self‐report positive and negative affect scale and heart rate (HR), could be associated with an odor after completing three supervised sessions of progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) training while wearing an odorized nasal clip. Although the Part 1 results revealed no differences in positive or negative affect or HR between participants who wore an odorized or non‐odorized nasal clip, the PMR training was effective in reducing HR and negative affect overall. The aim of Part 2 was to determine whether the PMR training sessions in Part 1, could help reduce an objective measure of stress (i.e., HR) during four conditions of a cognitively stressful task, with and without an odorized nasal clip. The results for Part 2 revealed there were no differences in HR between participants who trained with odorized or non‐odorized nasal clips in any of the four conditions. However, given no explicit tests of learned odor‐PMR associations were performed, the lack of group differences may be due to various reasons, including a reduction in any learned association before testing Part 2. In summary and contrary to the hypothesis, participants who completed PMR training with an odorized nasal clip did not demonstrate a lower HR during a stressful cognitive task while wearing the odorized nasal clip, compared to those who wore a non‐odorized nasal clip during PMR training. Future research on the association between odors and relaxation may benefit from adapting the training protocol to include more frequent or longer associations between the behavior and the odor.
Practical Application
The findings provide preliminary evidence that wearing an odorized nasal clip during light activities such as progressive muscle relaxation is tolerated well but further research exploring whether this pairing leads to feelings of relaxation when odors are presented alone is warranted.
Sleep inertia is the brief period of impaired alertness and performance experienced immediately after waking. Little is known about the neural mechanisms underlying this phenomenon. A better understanding of the neural processes during sleep inertia may offer insight into the awakening process. We observed brain activity every 15 minutes for 1 hour following abrupt awakening from slow wave sleep during the biological night. Using 32-channel electroencephalography, a network science approach, and a within-subject design, we evaluated power, clustering coefficient, and path length across frequency bands under both a control and a polychromatic short-wavelength-enriched light intervention condition. We found that under control conditions, the awakening brain is typified by an immediate reduction in global theta, alpha, and beta power. Simultaneously, we observed a decrease in the clustering coefficient and an increase in path length within the delta band. Exposure to light immediately after awakening ameliorated changes in clustering. Our results suggest that long-range network communication within the brain is crucial to the awakening process and that the brain may prioritize these long-range connections during this transitional state. Our study highlights a novel neurophysiological signature of the awakening brain and provides a potential mechanism by which light improves performance after waking.
Ağrının birincil önemi vücudu yaralanmalardan korumaktır. Ancak, hayatta kalmak için acıyı algılamamanın daha önemli olduğu bazı durumlar da söz konusudur. Ağrının kendiliğinden bastırılması veya nosisepsiyonun zayıflamasına, endojen antinosiseptif (analjezik) sistem aracılık eder. Anatomik oluşumu, orta beyindeki periakueduktal gri maddeden, beyin sapının noradrenerjik ve serotonerjik çekirdeklerinden, nosiseptörlerden "ağrı" bilgisi alan spinal nöronlara kadar uzanır. Bu sistemin faaliyeti, duygusal ve bilişsel devrelerin kontrolü altındadır. Ağrı, olumlu duyguların uyarılmasıyla hafifletilebilirken, olumsuz duygular hissedilen acıyı artırmaktadır. İlginç şekilde, bir ağrı başka bir acıyı bastırabilme özelliğine de sahiptir. Analjezi; stres, fiziksel egzersiz, orosensöryel uyarılma (tatlı gıda tüketimi), müzik dinleme ve plasebo sonrası, yani ağrıdan kurtulma beklendiğinde duyusal uyarımla indüklenebilir. Ağrının; duyusal, duyuşsal ve bilişsel bileşenleri olduğundan, bu tüm sistemlerin aktivasyonunun belirli şekillerde ağrının bastırılmasına katkıda bulunabileceği ortaya konmuştur.
Aromas are becoming increasingly popular as a topic for scientific research. In this chapter, we review the available studies investigating whether and to which degree distinctive aromas promote cognitive enhancement. In general, it seems that arousing olfactory fragrances (e.g., peppermint) have an effect on memory, attention and cognitive control, whereas calming olfactory fragrances (e.g., lavender) seem to promote prosocial behavior and consumer behavior. We suggest that aromas may be a useful tool to promote cognitive enhancement, but in order to fully understand their mechanism of action more research is necessary.
Introduction: Myocardial infarction is one of the major health problems worldwide that may be associated with hemodynamic instability and cardiac arrhythmias. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Peppermint aroma on vital signs and cardiac arrhythmias in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI).
Methods: This is a randomized clinical trial. 126 patients with AMI were enrolled in the study with purposive sampling and randomly divided into two groups. In intervention group, pads saturated with 0.2 ml of peppermint oil and in control group pads with normal saline were attached to the patient's clothes on front of chest. Data was collected using a demographic questionnaire and visual analog scale for nausea. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 19 by Chi-square, independent t-test, and Generalized Estimating Equations.
Results: In this study, the mean age of patients was 62/1±12/3. Most subjects were male, non-smokers, with no history of motion sickness. There was no significant difference between groups in terms of demographics and risk factors. Results showed, although the incidence of cardiac arrhythmias in intervention group was lower than control group but the difference was not significant. Also, there was no statistical difference between the two groups regarding vital signs.
Conclusion: Peppermint aromatherapy is noninvasive, safe, and convenient. It works rapidly and provokes nearly no side effect and is well accepted and tolerated by patients. However, further studies should be performed to investigate the possible effect of aromatherapy on arrhythmias and vital signs in patients with AMI.
Key words: Myocardial infarction, dysrhythmia, vital signs, Peppermint aroma.
Odour has been noted to have an impact on myriad behaviours, ranging from sexual arousal to weight loss. However, its effect in a particular sport, bowling, has never been addressed. Twenty subjects in a single-blind fashion bowled two frames. One frame was while wearing a blank surgical mask and the other was while wearing a mask impregnated with the aroma of jasmine. These were presented in a counterbalanced order. On an analogue scale, subjects rated the hedonics of the jasmine aroma. With the blank mask, the average score was 6.00, whereas while bowling with the jasmine impregnated mask the average score was 8.35 (p = 0.0053). No effect on bowling score was seen in relation to absolute hedonics (p = 0.29), or relative hedonics - like/ dislike (p = 0.64), of the jasmine aroma. Ten-pin bowling in the presence of the odour of jasmine improved scores by 26.5%. Possible mechanisms of action include mood regulation, enhanced alertness or concentration, anxiolysis, increased self-confidence, and improved hand-eye coordination. A similar effect of jasmine may be observed in other sports or activities requiring precise hand-eye coordination or precision in execution.
This study was conducted to clarify the physiological and psychological effects of the odor of orange essential oil in humans. Thirteen healthy male university students (mean age 23.0±1.1 years) participated. The study was conducted in an artificial climate chamber with temperature 24°C, relative humidity 50%, and illumination 50 lux. The subjects randomly inhaled orange essential oil for 120 s. Fresh air inhalation was used as the control condition. Heart rate variability (HRV), blood pressure, and pulse rate were continuously measured before (resting time) and during inhalation of the experimental odor. In addition, sensory evaluation and subjective odor intensity were evaluated after inhalation. The high frequency component of HRV was significantly higher, systolic and diastolic blood pressure was significantly lower, and the subjective “feeling of comfort” was significantly greater during inhalation of the orange essential oil than during inhalation of fresh air. These findings indicate that inhalation of orange essential oil effectively induces relaxation in humans.
Management of human feces and wastes is a major challenge in space vehicles due to the potential biohazards and malodorous compounds emanating during collection and storage of feces and wastes. To facilitate safe, yet realistic human waste management research, we have previously developed human fecal simulants for research activities. The odoriferous compounds in feces and wastes reduce the quality of life for astronauts, can reduce performance, and can even cause health problems. The major odoriferous compounds of concern belong to four groups of chemicals, volatile fatty acids, volatile sulfurous compounds, nitrogenous compounds and phenols. This paper attempts to review the problem of odor detection and odor control with advanced technology. There has been considerable progress in odor detection and control in the animal industry and in the dental profession. The progress especially in the dental field may be a basis for developing requirements for odor control, measurement of the key odoriferous compounds, development of sensors for monitoring odoriferous compounds and investigating new odor control technology for future space habitats. Some of these monitoring devices, such as the hydrogen sulfide monitors are becoming available as commercial off the shelf (COTS) technology. These could enable improvements to monitoring and control of the system. Another aspect of improving quality of life can focus on positive enhancement of the space systems for improved performance, physical well-being and enhancement of the emotional state of the astronauts during a space mission. Such systems are already being tested on Earth in the form of "aromatherapy" and the principles can be extended to space habitats.
Various tools are used in recruitment, even if the validity of some of them, as the interview, is problematic. Indeed, during an interview a recruiter is affected, also without realizing it, by miscellaneous unwanted influences that may direct the evaluations. According to the "social determinability approach", such non-conscious influences may affect more or less the person, according to the surrounding social situation. The present study is interested in the impact of the type of odour of an applicant according to the recruiter's degree of "determinability". It is hypothesized that these two factors do have consequences on the hiring decision and on the evaluation of the applicant, according to the social value of personality traits. Results show that the applicant has been judged more "useful" when wearing a masculine fragrance that is congruent with his gender and the recruitment situation. More particularly, he is more hired by "determinable" recruiters when his fragrance is typically masculine, while the fragrance does not influence the decisions of "non determinable" recruiters. So, when recruiters are "determinable", their degree of permeability to situational influences increases. They then use any element of the context (here, the applicant's fragrance) to judge the applicant and to hire him.
Ambient scent has an impact on consumer behavior in a number of ways. Pleasant scent enhances product and retailer evaluations, causes changes in shopping behavior (longer stay in premises, better mood and memories, purchase). Also, it has effect on body states and decision making. However, very little research is performed in the area of ambient scent effect on decision making heuristics, especially when risky decisions and risk perceptions are involved. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to identify the relationship of ambient scent type and intensiveness with decision making heuristics when risks are involved. Results of factorial 2x2 experiment with control group are presented. Ambient scent type (vanilla vs. peppermint) and intensiveness (8 (1mg) vs. 16 sprays (2mg) of scent concentrate in the same room) were manipulated as between subject variables. Risk aversion, effect of anchoring heuristic on bidding, and affect (risk and benefit) heuristic were tracked as dependent variables.
Virtual environments (VE) aim to reproduce life-like experiences, but despite indications that the olfactory sense plays a significant role in everyday life, the integration of olfactory stimuli in VEs is rare. The aim of this paper is to review the literature on olfaction and its potential applications in Virtual Reality (VR). Indications supporting the integration of odorants in VR include the privileged connections between the olfactory system and the brain regions involved in the processing of virtual stimuli used in clinical applications, as well as the interaction between odors, the other senses, and various psychological processes. Presently, smells are mostly integrated in VR applications for post-traumatic stress disorder and drug addiction, but further uses of odorants in VEs could include pain distraction, various training scenarios, such as emergency response and relaxation, and investigations of multi-sensory integration.
Past research indicates the odors of peppermint and cinnamon (1) enhance motivation, performance, and alertness, (2) decrease fatigue, and (3) serve as central nervous system stimulants. Given these results, it is reasonable to expect that the presentation of peppermint or cinnamon odor while driving may produce a more alert and conscientious driver, and minimize the fatigue associated with prolonged driving. In the present study, participants were monitored during simulated driving under three odor conditions (peppermint, cinnamon, non-odor control). Odors were added to low flow oxygen (1.3L/min) via an oxygen concentrator and presented at the rate of 30 seconds every 15 minutes. Measures of cognitive performance, wakefulness, mood, and workload were also assessed. Both cinnamon and peppermint administration led to increased ratings of alertness, decreased temporal demand, and decreased frustration over the course of the driving scenario. In addition, peppermint scent reduced anxiety and fatigue. Periodic administration of these odors over prolonged driving may prove beneficial in maintaining alertness and decreasing highway accidents and fatalities.
A previous study has shown that the degree of trust into others might be biased by inducing either a more "inclusive" or a more "exclusive" cognitive-control mode. Here, we investigated whether the degree of interpersonal trust can be biased by environmental factors, such as odors, that are likely to impact cognitive-control states. Arousing olfactory fragrances (e.g., peppermint) are supposed to induce a more exclusive, and calming olfactory fragrances (e.g., lavender) a more inclusive state. Participants performed the Trust Game, which provides an index of interpersonal trust by assessing the money units one participant (the trustor) transfers to another participant (the trustee), while being exposed to either peppermint or lavender aroma. All participants played the role of trustor. As expected, participants transferred significantly more money to the alleged trustee in the lavender as compared to the peppermint and control (no aroma) conditions. This observation might have various serious implications for a broad range of situations in which interpersonal trust is an essential element, such as cooperation (e.g., mixed-motives situations), bargaining and negotiation, consumer behavior, and group performance.
Do changes in the performance of professional sports players relate to changes in their moods? Thirty-three professional county cricketers from four teams used pocket computers to provide ratings of their moods and performance three times a day for up to 4 days during a championship match. Pooled time-series analysis and correlation analysis showed that players' subjective and objective performances were related to their happiness, energy, enthusiasm, focus and confidence during the match. The majority of players also performed better when they felt less tense, but some performed better when they felt more tense. Differences in players' recollection of their moods during best and worst performances reinforced the findings. The results suggest that professional cricketers' performances are influenced by their moods.
Examined the effects of preshot routines on free-throw shooting behavior of experienced, competitive basketball players. 30 male basketball players (aged 17–23 yrs) were assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: no routine, standardized physical routine, and imagery/physical routine. Performance was assessed in 4 sessions spaced over a 6-wk period. The imagery group performed significantly better than the physical routine group, which in turn performed better than the no-routine group. Results suggest that preshot routines improve closed-skill athletic performance and that withdrawing players' regular preshot routine has a relatively long-lasting detrimental effect on performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated whether the process of "psyching up"—mental preparation for maximum performance—has an effect that depends on the duration of the process. 40 male and 40 female undergraduates were asked to psych up just before carrying out a leg-strength task. In 3 conditions, the duration of the psyching-up period was set by the experimenter (E); in 1 condition, the Ss chose the duration themselves. Performance improved over baseline in all 4 conditions, but the length of time spent in psyching up had no significant effect on performance. Allowing Ss to choose the duration did not enhance performance over the conditions in which the time was specified by the E. It was found that during the time specified for psyching up, males spent more time than females in actually doing so. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In two sessions held 1 week apart, subjects completed a performance task involving creativity, four personality tests, and
questionnaires concerning their mood, perceived health, and perceptions of the testing environment. In one session the testing
room was scented with lemon, lavender or dimethyl sulfide (DMS); in the other session it was unscented. There were 15 women
and 15 men in each odor conditon. Fewer health symptoms were reported in the lemon conditon on scented compared to unscented
days. Subjects in the DMS group were in a less pleasant mood than those in the lavender group on both scented and unscented
days; the order in which subjects were exposed to DMS played a role in the mood findings. There were no significant differences
in feelings of arousal or control. The room was rated as smelling less pleasant on scented compared to unscented days by subjects
in the DMS condition. Differences in creativity performance were not significant, but relationships emerged between personality
traits and the effect of odor on task performance. These findings are discussed in terms of how associations and expectations
concerning odors may play a role in odor's effect on humans.
Whether humans react to olfactory stimuli presented in sleep was assessed. Responses of ten participants (mean age = 22.8 years) were recorded to repeated three-minute periods of either air alone or to a peppermint odor (0.26 mg/liter) during stage 2 sleep. These responses included behavioral (awakening, microswitch closure), autonomic (heart rate, EMG, respiration), and central (EEG) components. An odor delivery system is described comprised of an aquarium pump, Teflon and TYGON tubing, oxygen mask, filtering, and air flow valves. The data indicate that humans react behaviorally, autonomically and centrally to olfactory stimuli presented while sleeping. Although the percentage of overall responsivity to olfactory stimuli was low, significant differences (ANOVA) in responsivity to odor periods vs. nonodor periods were found for microswitch closures, EEG, EMG, and heart rate. For these measures eight or more of the ten participants showed this pattern of differential responsivity during odor and nonodor periods (Sign test = p less than 0.05). A time-of-night effect was also observed in that responsivity tended to be greatest early in the night. The effect on responsivity of other durations, concentrations, and odors requires additional research.
The present study compared performance in basketball as measured by a variety of performance measures to 15 men and 13 women players' moods as measured by the Profile of Mood States. The results suggested that the basketball players' performance was disrupted by a negative mood.
Our purpose was to assess the separate effects of nasal airflow and resistance on the activity of the nasal dilator [alae nasi (AN)] muscles. Nasal airflow and the AN electromyogram were recorded at rest and during progressive-intensity exercise at 60, 120, and 150-180 W in 10 healthy subjects who breathed nasally under all conditions. The activity of the AN muscles increased linearly as a function of the increase in nasal minute ventilation evoked by progressive-intensity exercise (r = 0.99, P < 0.002). Reciprocal changes in nasal airflow and resistance were produced by surreptitious substitution of 12-15 breaths of 79% He-21% O2 for air at rest and during exercise. The switch to He-O2 decreased airway resistance (anterior rhinomanometry) by approximately 30% at rest and 40-60% during exercise. He-O2 did not change nasal flow or AN activities significantly under resting conditions. In contrast, He-O2 increased nasal flow and decreased the AN electromyogram by 25-50% during exercise (P < 0.05). The results suggest that AN muscle activities during nasal breathing are regulated by mechanisms that track airway resistance or the level of flow turbulence. The increase in AN activities during exercise probably helps ensure nasal airway patency in the face of the considerable collapsing pressures that prevail under these conditions.
Scores on the Profile of Mood States Inventory of 15 volleyball players at a small southwestern university were compared by means of regression analysis to the players' final season statistics. The analysis showed that Vigor as measured was related to several volleyball statistics.
An external nasal dilator (Breathe Right, CNS, Inc., Bloomington, MN) has become popular with athletes. The dilator is an adhesive band with a central elastic strip. When applied across the nasal valve, the device theoretically increases nasal valve area. We used acoustic rhinometry (Hood Laboratories, Pembroke, MA) to measure the cross-sectional area at the nasal valve with and without the device in 53 athletes. Thirty athletes were exercised on a cycle ergometer with and without the device while measuring physiologic parameters, including oxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate, and respiratory rate. The study was conducted in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled manner. At rest, the external nasal dilator was found to significantly increase nasal valve area in all demographic groups measured. The device was also found to significantly decrease submaximal exercise perceived exertion, heart rate, ventilation, and VO2 when compared with placebo.