Article

A Simple Technique to Study Embodied Language Processes: The Grip-Force Sensor

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Abstract

Research in cognitive neuroscience has shown that brain structures serving perceptual, emotional, and motor processes are also recruited during the understanding of language when it refers to emotion, perception, and action. However, the exact linguistic and extra-linguistic conditions under which such language-induced activity in modality specific cortex is triggered are not yet well understood. The purpose of this study is to introduce a simple experimental technique that allows for the online measure of language-induced activity in motor structures of the brain. This technique consists in the use of a grip force sensor that captures subtle grip force variations while subjects listen to words and sentences. Since grip force reflects activity in motor brain structures, the continuous monitoring of force fluctuations provides a fine-grained estimation of motor activity across time. In other terms, this method allows for both the localization of the source of language-induced activity to motor brain structures and the high temporal resolution of the recorded data. To facilitate comparison of data to be collected with this tool, we present two experiments that describe in detail the technical set up, the nature of the recorded data, and analyses (including justification about data filtering and artifact rejection) that we applied. We also discuss how the tool could be used in other domains of behavioral research.

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... Force measurements were obtained according to the procedure recommended by Nazir et al. [66]. Two computers were used to conduct the experiment: the first presented stimuli, the second recorded the data. ...
... 1.3 Data analyses of continuous isometric force. The following method was not preregistered but closely followed the recommendations of Nazir et al. [66] (for details see S3 File). The selection of time-windows for the force data analysis in the RNG task was based on the trial onset, i.e. the start of the auditory signal in the RNG task after which participants had 2 seconds to state a number. ...
... The selection of time-windows for the force data analysis in the RNG task was based on the trial onset, i.e. the start of the auditory signal in the RNG task after which participants had 2 seconds to state a number. From these 2 seconds we selected the first 700 ms of each trial for calculation because speech production can motorically interfere with manual force [66]. Therefore, we focused our analysis on time-windows prior to speech production, which began on average 576 ms after stimulus onset. ...
Article
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People respond faster to smaller numbers in their left space and to larger numbers in their right space. Here we argue that movements in space contribute to the formation of spatial-numerical associations (SNAs). We studied the impact of continuous isometric forces along the horizontal or vertical cardinal axes on SNAs while participants performed random number production and arithmetic verification tasks. Our results suggest that such isometric directional force do not suffice to induce SNAs.
... Grip force registration is a relatively novel method, and no gold standard has been established for it yet (see Nazir et al., 2017, for methodological considerations). Most previous studies focused on linguistic (Aravena et al., 2012;da Silva et al., 2018da Silva et al., , 2019Labrecque et al., 2016;Nazir et al., 2017;Pérez-Gay Juárez et al., 2019) or video materials (Blampain et al., 2018). They either used unimanual grip force recording (Aravena et al., 2012;Blampain et al., 2018;da Silva et al., 2019;Labrecque et al., 2016;Nazir et al., 2017;Pérez-Gay Juárez et al., 2019) or only focused on the earlier part of the grip force effect (first 800 ms after stimulus presentation, da Silva et al., 2018). ...
... Most previous studies focused on linguistic (Aravena et al., 2012;da Silva et al., 2018da Silva et al., , 2019Labrecque et al., 2016;Nazir et al., 2017;Pérez-Gay Juárez et al., 2019) or video materials (Blampain et al., 2018). They either used unimanual grip force recording (Aravena et al., 2012;Blampain et al., 2018;da Silva et al., 2019;Labrecque et al., 2016;Nazir et al., 2017;Pérez-Gay Juárez et al., 2019) or only focused on the earlier part of the grip force effect (first 800 ms after stimulus presentation, da Silva et al., 2018). The study by Miklashevsky et al. (2021) mentioned above examined a more extended period of 1000 ms and found a complex multiphasic pattern of activity in both hands regardless of number magnitude (see also our Fig. 1, an adapted image from da Silva et al., 2018, where a beginning of this pattern appears for lexical stimuli; see also Miklashevsky, 2022, for an identical pattern with visually presented objects). ...
... Data preprocessing followed recommendations provided by Nazir et al. (2017): first, we filtered the raw force data at 15 Hz with a fourthorder, zero-phase, low-pass Butterworth filter. Then single epochs were extracted from the vertical Fz signal, starting from 200 ms before and ending at 2000 ms after stimulus onset. ...
Article
Full-text available
In numerical processing, the functional role of Spatial-Numerical Associations (SNAs, such as the association of smaller numbers with left space and larger numbers with right space, the Mental Number Line hypothesis) is debated. Most studies demonstrate SNAs with lateralized responses, and there is little evidence that SNAs appear when no response is required. We recorded passive holding grip forces in no-go trials during number processing. In Experiment 1, participants performed a surface numerical decision task (“Is it a number or a letter?”). In Experiment 2, we used a deeper semantic task (“Is this number larger or smaller than five?”). Despite instruction to keep their grip force constant, participants' spontaneous grip force changed in both experiments: Smaller numbers led to larger force increase in the left than in the right hand in the numerical decision task (500–700 ms after stimulus onset). In the semantic task, smaller numbers again led to larger force increase in the left hand, and larger numbers increased the right-hand holding force. This effect appeared earlier (180 ms) and lasted longer (until 580 ms after stimulus onset). This is the first demonstration of SNAs with passive holding force. Our result suggests that (1) explicit motor response is not a prerequisite for SNAs to appear, and (2) the timing and strength of SNAs are task-dependent. (216 words).
... Grip force registration is a relatively novel method, and no gold standard has been established for it yet (see Nazir et al., 2017, for methodological considerations). Most previous studies focused on linguistic (Aravena et al., 2012;da Silva et al., 2018da Silva et al., , 2019Labrecque et al., 2016;Nazir et al., 2017;Pérez-Gay Juárez et al., 2019) or video materials (Blampain et al., 2018). They either used unimanual grip force recording (Aravena et al., 2012;Blampain et al., 2018;da Silva et al., 2019;Labrecque et al., 2016;Nazir et al., 2017;Pérez-Gay Juárez et al., 2019) or only focused on the earlier part of the grip force effect (first 800 ms after stimulus presentation, da Silva et al., 2018). ...
... Most previous studies focused on linguistic (Aravena et al., 2012;da Silva et al., 2018da Silva et al., , 2019Labrecque et al., 2016;Nazir et al., 2017;Pérez-Gay Juárez et al., 2019) or video materials (Blampain et al., 2018). They either used unimanual grip force recording (Aravena et al., 2012;Blampain et al., 2018;da Silva et al., 2019;Labrecque et al., 2016;Nazir et al., 2017;Pérez-Gay Juárez et al., 2019) or only focused on the earlier part of the grip force effect (first 800 ms after stimulus presentation, da Silva et al., 2018). The study by Miklashevsky et al. (2021) mentioned above examined a more extended period of 1000 ms and found a complex multiphasic pattern of activity in both hands regardless of number magnitude (see also our Fig. 1, an adapted image from da Silva et al., 2018, where a beginning of this pattern appears for lexical stimuli; see also Miklashevsky, 2022, for an identical pattern with visually presented objects). ...
... Data preprocessing followed recommendations provided by Nazir et al. (2017): first, we filtered the raw force data at 15 Hz with a fourthorder, zero-phase, low-pass Butterworth filter. Then single epochs were extracted from the vertical Fz signal, starting from 200 ms before and ending at 2000 ms after stimulus onset. ...
Article
Full-text available
In numerical processing, the functional role of Spatial-Numerical Associations (SNAs, such as the association of smaller numbers with left space and larger numbers with right space, the Mental Number Line hypothesis) is debated. Most studies demonstrate SNAs with lateralized responses, and there is little evidence that SNAs appear when no response is required. We recorded passive holding grip forces in no-go trials during number processing. In Experiment 1, participants performed a surface numerical decision task (“Is it a number or a letter?”). In Experiment 2, we used a deeper semantic task (“Is this number larger or smaller than five?”). Despite instruction to keep their grip force constant, participants' spontaneous grip force changed in both experiments: Smaller numbers led to larger force increase in the left than in the right hand in the numerical decision task (500–700 ms after stimulus onset). In the semantic task, smaller numbers again led to larger force increase in the left hand, and larger numbers increased the right-hand holding force. This effect appeared earlier (180 ms) and lasted longer (until 580 ms after stimulus onset). This is the first demonstration of SNAs with passive holding force. Our result suggests that (1) explicit motor response is not a prerequisite for SNAs to appear, and (2) the timing and strength of SNAs are task-dependent. (216 words).
... The method followed closely the one recommended by Nazir et al. [21] for single-sensor recording. Both sensors were stand-alone load cells manufactured by ATI Industrial Automation, USA (www.ati-ia.com/Products/ft/sensors.aspx). ...
... The preprocessing of grip force data closely followed the recommendations of Nazir et al. [21,Experiment 2]. Data were filtered at 15 Hz before analysis with a fourth-order, zero-phase, low-pass Butterworth filter. ...
... In that case, this has implications for other studies using the force registration method. In previous studies of this kind [e.g., 19,21], force changes were always interpreted as specific signatures of activity in the manual motor system. However, a recent study shows that even observing foot actions leads to changes in grip force [30], perhaps due to automatic propagation of activity in the motor brain areas. ...
Article
Full-text available
Previous research demonstrated a close bidirectional relationship between spatial attention and the manual motor system. However, it is unclear whether an explicit hand movement is necessary for this relationship to appear. A novel method with high temporal resolution–bimanual grip force registration–sheds light on this issue. Participants held two grip force sensors while being presented with lateralized stimuli (exogenous attentional shifts, Experiment 1), left- or right-pointing central arrows (endogenous attentional shifts, Experiment 2), or the words "left" or "right" (endogenous attentional shifts, Experiment 3). There was an early interaction between the presentation side or arrow direction and grip force: lateralized objects and central arrows led to a larger increase of the ipsilateral force and a smaller increase of the contralateral force. Surprisingly, words led to the opposite pattern: larger force increase in the contralateral hand and smaller force increase in the ipsilateral hand. The effect was stronger and appeared earlier for lateralized objects (60 ms after stimulus presentation) than for arrows (100 ms) or words (250 ms). Thus, processing visuospatial information automatically activates the manual motor system, but the timing and direction of this effect vary depending on the type of stimulus.
... The method followed closely the one recommended by Nazir et al. [21] for single-sensor recording. Both sensors were stand-alone load cells manufactured by ATI Industrial Automation, USA (www.ati-ia.com/Products/ft/sensors.aspx). ...
... The preprocessing of grip force data closely followed the recommendations of Nazir et al. [21,Experiment 2]. Data were filtered at 15 Hz before analysis with a fourth-order, zero-phase, low-pass Butterworth filter. ...
... In that case, this has implications for other studies using the force registration method. In previous studies of this kind [e.g., 19,21], force changes were always interpreted as specific signatures of activity in the manual motor system. However, a recent study shows that even observing foot actions leads to changes in grip force [30], perhaps due to automatic propagation of activity in the motor brain areas. ...
Article
Full-text available
Previous research demonstrated a close bidirectional relationship between spatial attention and the manual motor system. However, it is unclear whether an explicit hand movement is necessary for this relationship to appear. A novel method with high temporal resolution–bimanual grip force registration–sheds light on this issue. Participants held two grip force sensors while being presented with lateralized stimuli (exogenous attentional shifts, Experiment 1), left- or right-pointing central arrows (endogenous attentional shifts, Experiment 2), or the words "left" or "right" (endogenous attentional shifts, Experiment 3). There was an early interaction between the presentation side or arrow direction and grip force: lateralized objects and central arrows led to a larger increase of the ipsilateral force and a smaller increase of the contralateral force. Surprisingly, words led to the opposite pattern: larger force increase in the contralateral hand and smaller force increase in the ipsilateral hand. The effect was stronger and appeared earlier for lateralized objects (60 ms after stimulus presentation) than for arrows (100 ms) or words (250 ms). Thus, processing visuospatial information automatically activates the manual motor system, but the timing and direction of this effect vary depending on the type of stimulus.
... increased for the former but not for the latter. This finding was extended to verbs by Aravena et al. (2012Aravena et al. ( , 2014 and Nazir et al. (2017), with a direct comparison of action and nonaction verbs. Note that, in studies on language processing, grip-force variation is typically measured while participants actively listen to auditory stimuli. ...
... To measure the activity of the hand muscles, a 6-axis load cell of 68 g was used (ATI Industrial Automation, United States; see Figure 1). Like in previous studies (e.g., Aravena et al., 2012Aravena et al., , 2014Frak et al., 2010;Nazir et al., 2017), only the three main forces were recorded: the longitudinal (Fx,), radial (Fy), and compression forces (Fz), respectively ( Figure 1B). ...
... Eight distinct French factive verbs were used with respect to the factive stimuli: voir ("to see," five times), s'apercevoir ("to realize," three times), entendre ("to hear," five times), réaliser ("to realize," six times), remarquer ("to notice," six times), observer ("to observe," five times), se rendre compte ("to realize," two times), and savoir ("to know," five times). In addition, 37 sentences containing asserted nonaction verbs served as control (see Aravena et al., 2012Aravena et al., , 2014Frak et al., 2010;Nazir et al., 2017). The action verbs and asserted nonaction verbs were controlled for number of letters and number of syllables (New et al., 2001). ...
Article
Full-text available
It is well established that the processing of hand-, mouth-, and foot-related action terms can activate areas of the motor cortex that are involved in the planning and execution of the described actions. In the present study, the sensitivity of these motor structures to language processes was exploited to test linguistic theories on information layering. Human languages possess a variety of linguistic devices, so-called presupposition triggers, that allow us to convey background information without asserting it. A statement such as "Marie stopped smoking" presupposes, without asserting it, that Marie used to smoke. How such presupposed information is represented in the brain is not yet understood. Using a grip-force sensor that allows capturing motor brain activity during language processing, we investigated effects of information layering by comparing asserted information that is known to trigger motor activity ("In the living room, Peter irons his shirt") with information embedded under a presuppositional factive verb construction ("Louis knows that Peter irons his shirt"; Experiment 1) and a nonfactive verb construction ("Louis believes that Peter irons his shirt"; Experiment 2). Furthermore, we examined whether the projection behavior of a factive verb construction modulates grip force under negation ("Louis does not know that Peter irons his shirt"; Experiment 3). The data show that only the presupposed action verb in affirmative contexts (Experiment 1) triggers an increase in grip force comparable to the one of asserted action verbs, whereas the nonfactive complement and projection structure show a weaker response (Experiments 2 and 3). While the first two experiments seem to confirm the sensitivity of the grip-force response to the construction of a plausible situation or event model, in which the motor action is represented as taking place, the third one raises the question of how robust this hypothesis is and how it can take the specificity of projection into account. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Is hand movement, whether ongoing or potential, a necessary component for this relationship to appear? In a previous study, my colleagues and I presented participants with large vs. small numerical stimuli (Miklashevsky et al., 2021) while monitoring participants' spontaneous hand motor activity using two grip force sensors (Aravena et al., 2012(Aravena et al., , 2014da Silva et al., 2019;Frak et al., 2010;Pérez-Gay Juárez et al., 2019; for review and methodological details, see Nazir et al., 2017). No manual response or explicit hand movement was required. ...
... The method followed closely the one recommended by Nazir et al. (2017) for single-sensor recording. ...
... In that case, this has implications for other studies using the force registration method. In previous studies of this kind (e.g., Frak et al., 2010;Nazir et al., 2017), force changes were always interpreted as specific signatures of activity in the manual motor system. However, a recent study shows that even observing foot actions leads to changes in grip force (Blampain et al., 2018), perhaps due to automatic propagation of activity in the motor brain areas. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Previous research demonstrated a close bidirectional relationship between spatial attention and the manual motor system. However, it is unclear whether an explicit hand movement is necessary for this relationship to appear. A novel method with high temporal resolution – bimanual grip force registration – sheds light on this issue. Participants held two grip force sensors while being presented with lateralized stimuli (exogenous attentional shifts, Experiment 1), left- or right-pointing central arrows (endogenous attentional shifts, Experiment 2), or the words "left" or "right" (endogenous attentional shifts, Experiment 3). There was an early interaction between the presentation side or arrow direction and grip force: lateralized objects and central arrows led to an increase of the ipsilateral force and a decrease of the contralateral force. Surprisingly, words led to the opposite pattern: increased force in the contralateral hand and decreased force in the ipsilateral hand. The effect was stronger and appeared earlier for lateralized objects (60 ms after stimulus presentation) than for arrows (100 ms) or words (250 ms). Thus, processing visuospatial information automatically activates the manual motor system, but the timing and direction of this effect vary depending on the type of stimulus.
... Recent evidence shows that this fine-grained method allows measuring subtle grip-force variations when listening to isolated hand-related action verbs or action-verbs occurring in affirmative sentences. First, Frak, Nazir, Goyette, Cohen and Jeannerod (2010) Nazir et al. (2017) highlight that the grip-force sensor method is a reliable method that is able to assess the localization of the source of language-induced activity with respect to the motor brain structures and has a high temporal resolution since it allows to measure the grip force variation in milliseconds as soon as the action verb is encountered. ...
... Crucially, previous studies have demonstrated the link between grip force and motor brain activity: the primary, premotor, supplementary and cingulate cortical motor areas play a crucial role when information is sent via spinal motor neurons to the finger muscles (e.g., Dum & Strick, 1991;Lemon, 1993 nouns, Frak et al. (2010) found that grip force variation increased for the former but not for the latter. This finding was extended to verbs by Aravena et al. (2012Aravena et al. ( , 2014 and Nazir et al. (2017), with a direct comparison of action and non-action verbs. ...
... Like in previous studies (e.g. Frak et al., 2010;Aravena et al., 2012;Nazir et al., 2017), only the three main forces were recorded: the longitudinal (Fx,), radial (Fy) and compression forces (Fz), respectively ( Figure 1B). Participants held the grip-force sensor with their right thumb and index. ...
Thesis
Speakers communicate more than what they explicitly state. For this reason, addressees rely on linguistic and extra-linguistic cues to recover different levels of explicit and implicit meaning. Presupposition triggers are one of these cues. These are linguistic expressions or constructions (e.g. change of state verbs, factive verbs, it-clefts, etc.) which trigger the recovery of propositions that the speaker presupposes, or takes for granted, for the purpose of the conversation. This thesis investigates the phenomenon of presupposition within the framework of experimental pragmatics, and it comprises three studies based on the following experimental methods: judgement-tasks, EEG method and grip-force sensor method. This thesis combines a social perspective, which focuses on reputation-management via alternative discourse strategies (Study 1), with a cognitive perspective, which examines the cognitive costs and sensori-motor correlates associated with presupposition processing (Studies 2 and 3). Study 1 examines the impact of different discourse strategies (saying, implicating and presupposing) on the attribution of speaker commitment towards the message communicated. By operationalizing commitment as a function of the reputational cost (drop of trust) related to the transmission of false information, Study 1 shows that presupposing is perceived as equally committal than saying and more committal than implicating. Study 2 investigates the cognitive costs associated with targeting presuppositions in discourse continuations. By focusing on additive contexts introduced by the French discourse particle aussi, Study 2 shows that felicitous discourse continuations targeting a presupposition elicit the same ERP response than felicitous discourse continuations targeting an asserted context. This finding suggests that when presupposition processing is part of an appropriate, pragmatically felicitous, discourse strategy, it does not come with any additional cognitive costs. Study 3 examines the sensori-motor correlates of processing action-related language in presuppositional constructions (complement clause of factive verbs) and non-presuppositional ones (complement clause of non-factive verbs). The results show that the former elicit a greater sensori-motor activation than the latter, thus revealing that presupposed information, whose truth is taken for granted, is processed differently from information whose truth has not been established in discourse. Overall, this thesis contributes to the study of presupposition by providing empirical evidence in support of the theoretical distinction between different layers of meaning. On the one hand, it shows that their employment leads to different commitments in discourse and has implications on the interpersonal negotiation of trust. On the other hand, it shows that while presupposition processing is not inherently more costly from a cognitive perspective, its cognitive correlates (such as the engagement of the sensori-motor system) can differ from those mapping information with a different discourse status.
... Grip force sensors were previously used to measure spontaneous motor activity during language processing (Frak et al., 2010;Aravena et al., 2012Aravena et al., , 2014 or action observation (Blampain et al., 2018). They are now an established tool to track the dynamics of cognition with high temporal resolution (for review and methodological details, see Nazir et al., 2017). For example, a spontaneous increase in grip force accompanied listening to action descriptions like ''Fiona lifts the dumbbells,'' while no such increase was observed for abstract phrases, such as ''Edmonde loves the flower bush in her garden.'' ...
... Our method followed closely the one recommended by Nazir et al. (2017) for single-sensor recording. Both sensors were stand-alone load cells manufactured by ATI Industrial Automation, USA (www.ati-ia.com/Products/ft/sensors.aspx). ...
... They resembled large metal coins with 40 mm diameter and 14 mm height and each weighed 57 g. We used neither large plastic covers as Nazir et al. (2017) nor additional weights, as da Silva et al. (2018). Instead, each sensor was covered from both contact sides with a 3 mm plastic cover of the same diameter as the sensor itself (40 mm), resulting in a total thickness of 20 mm and a total weight of 65 g per sensor (see Figure 2). ...
Article
Full-text available
The study has two objectives: (1) to introduce grip force recording as a new technique for studying embodied numerical processing; and (2) to demonstrate how three competing accounts of numerical magnitude representation can be tested by using this new technique: the Mental Number Line (MNL), A Theory of Magnitude (ATOM) and Embodied Cognition (finger counting-based) account. While 26 healthy adults processed visually presented single digits in a go/no-go n-back paradigm, their passive holding forces for two small sensors were recorded in both hands. Spontaneous and unconscious grip force changes related to number magnitude occurred in the left hand already 100–140 ms after stimulus presentation and continued systematically. Our results support a two-step model of number processing where an initial stage is related to the automatic activation of all stimulus properties whereas a later stage consists of deeper conscious processing of the stimulus. This interpretation generalizes previous work with linguistic stimuli and elaborates the timeline of embodied cognition. We hope that the use of grip force recording will advance the field of numerical cognition research.
... The grip force paradigm is a non-invasive technique that was developed in the field of language research (Frak et al., 2010;Aravena et al., 2012;Nazir et al., 2017) to measure not only the presence or absence of action simulation but especially the time course of brain activity overflow to the peripheral motor system. As when listening to action coded verbal sentences, we built a complete set of no-action and action videos to confirm the specificity of action simulation as a function of action intensity, effector and intention to act. ...
... The incoming force signals were recorded from a standalone 6-axis load cell of 68 g (ATI Industrial Automation, USA; Mini40, calibration SI-40-2) that was held by the participants between thumb and two fingers (see Fig. 1). In the present study, as in Nazir et al. (2017), preliminary data confirmed that the force torques were negligible due to the absence of voluntary movement. Two of the three main forces that were recorded, i.e., the longitudinal force Fx and the radial force Fy, remained steady throughout the experiment trials. ...
... The Fz signals were then segmented offline into 2000 ms epochs, spanning from −1000 ms prior to the effector-object contact time to 1000 ms after the effector-object contact time. An automatic artefact rejection was used to remove segments surpassing an amplitude range of +/-200 mN with respect to the baseline and/or showing an amplitude change of more than 100 mN, within a period of less than 100 ms, which is indicative of finger movements (Nazir et al., 2017). Overall, 26.8% of trials were revealed to contain such artefact in the present study (the proportion of rejected trials per condition is presented in Supplementary material 1). ...
Article
Action simulation is a cognitive process that mentally simulates a motor act without performing it in the true external world. Simulation mechanisms play a key role in perceiving, feeling and understanding actions executed by others. However, very little is known about the process dynamics because of the absence of a behavioral tool to probe directly the action simulation process as it unfolds. Twenty-seven healthy adults were required to hold a force sensor in a relaxed pinch-grip while viewing action videos of different intensities: wait (null); touch (low); move (medium); crush (high). When contrasting the variations in grip force (GFv) across conditions, results indicated that GFv started to increase and peaked respectively 200 and 400 ms after the moment of effector-object contact. In the wait condition, GFv remained flat throughout the trial confirming an absence of simulation engagement. Peak GFv was greater for the high and medium than for the low intensity videos suggesting greater brain activity overflow to the peripheral motor system when simulating more effortful body movements. These effects were negatively correlated with the motor imagery abilities of the participants, with greater GFv in the poor imagers as determined by the Movement Imagery Questionnaire. Our results confirm the possibility of using a non-invasive grip force sensor to detect not only when individuals are cognitively engaged in action simulation but also to reveal the dynamics of the process. With various sets of videos, this paradigm offers new perspectives in the study of action simulation and its role in human cognition.
... They could see the compression force intensity on a secondary screen. They were asked to increase and reduce their force intensity to find a comfortable grip force level, generally between 1.5 and 2.5 N. Since our device containing the sensor weighed 155 g and the slip-ratio limit was estimated to be less than 75 mN, this grip force level was high enough to prevent slippage [16]. They didn't have access to the primary screen, and the secondary screen remained turned off during the entire test. ...
... The mean of the signal 200 ms before the word started was used to normalize the data for that word. If the signal variation during 200 ms before and 800 ms after word started was greater than or equal to 200 mN, or developed at a rate greater than 100 mN in a 100 ms interval, data relative to this word were rejected [16]. When 30% of the words for a single condition were rejected, all the participant data for the four conditions were rejected. ...
... We adopted this procedure because our objective was to evaluate the force variation along the time frame following the word onset. A further foundation for these settings is provided in Nazir et al. [16]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Manual action verbs modulate the right-hand grip force in right-handed subjects. However, to our knowledge, no studies demonstrate the ability to accomplish this modulation during bimanual tasks nor describe their effect on left-hand behavior in unimanual and bimanual tasks. Using load cells and word playlists, we evaluated the occurrence of grip force modulation by manual action verbs in unimanual and symmetrical bimanual tasks across the three auditory processing phases. We found a significant grip force increase for all conditions compared to baseline, indicating the occurrence of modulation. When compared to each other, the grip force variation from baseline for the three phases of both hands in the symmetrical bimanual task was not different from the right-hand in the unimanual task. The left-hand grip force showed a lower amplitude for auditory phases 1 and 2 when compared to the other conditions. The right-hand grip force modulation became significant from baseline at 220 ms after the word onset in the unimanual task. This moment occurred earlier for both hands in bimanual task (160 ms for the right-hand and 180 for the left-hand). It occurred later for the left-hand in unimanual task (320 ms). We discuss the hypothesis that Broca’s area and Broca’s homologue area likely control the left-hand modulation in a unilateral or a bilateral fashion. These results provide new evidence for understanding the linguistic function processing in both hemispheres.
... Using a similar system, [3], [4] shows that the lexical context affects the grip force modulation (GMF). In 2015, [5] demonstrates again the links between motor and linguistic activity by means of a more refined data processing technique enabling future studies to be comparable. ...
... In 2015, the data processing technic was the issue of standardization [5]. Following this, single words stimuli are kept after then been shown by magnetic resonance imaging, than an action verb, even in a non-action linguistic context, activate the intraparietal area [10].Single words facilitated the task for the youngest child aim by the project. ...
... Six participants were eliminated from the study. Two participants were rejected because more than 25% of their data was rejected by the rejection artifact [5]. Four other participants were also eliminated from the study after the outliner statistical test, the modified Thompson Tau test. ...
Article
Full-text available
Studying the link between the motor function and the linguistic function has become increasingly popular over the past decade. Often, the subject is studied with the use of expensive devices (EEG, fIRM…) limited because they need a proper space. Following the studies of Frak (Cerveau, Motricité et Langage) laboratory, we developed a portable device that analyses the grip force modulation. This device provides us with the opportunity to put in place a developmental study with children in Canada and Brazil. We analyzed the grip force modulation of fourteen Canadian teenagers (Can.) and fifteen Brazilian teenagers (Bra.) after experiencing linguistic stimulation through the use of action words (e.g. grab) and non-action word (e.g. storm). The maturity of teenagers' intraparietal area is similar to that of adults. Thus, we can compare our results with the those of Frak & al. (2010). The force modulations are analyzed using grip force sensors that are recording a variation in millinewton (mN) every millisecond (ms). Our choice in material and technic to normalize the data is based on our previous study concerning grip force sensors and linguistic stimulation. Our results show a superior modulation after listening to an action word compared to the non-action word in the two groups. We reproduce the results of Frak & al. (2010). The validation of the portable device could facilitate research by giving access to a both a larger and diverse population.
... 1-6 = block 1 to block 6. 89 In order to create design solutions that promote walking, we need to nudge walker's behavior in their daily lives.The Theory of affordances says that humans have an embodied perception of the environment and that the environment constantly is presenting them a variety of artifacts that lead to possible behaviors,inviting them to act (Gibson, 1979b). More recently, cognitive psychology has proposed that simply looking at an object can generate automatic action motor planning towards that object (Nazir et al., 2017). Therefore, environmental perception and design interventions could affect our intention to walk.Nudging, being a design tool for guiding user behavior, can be used to apply theory of affordance to promote urban walking.The term "nudges" refers to low-cost and easy to make architecture choices and interventions that aim to guide a user's behavior without constraining it (Sugden, 2009). ...
... The Theory of affordances says that humans have an embodied perception of the environment and that the environment constantly is presenting them a variety of artifacts that lead to possible behaviors, inviting them to act. However, cognitive psychology has proposed that simply looking an object can generate automatic action motor planning towards that object (Nazir et al., 2017) and generate affective responses (Murphy & Zajonc, 1993), the feelings that a person has when confronted with an object of attitude, that will impact their action tendencies. ...
Thesis
My thesis examines how colorful designs projected within an urban environment can enhance pedestrian experience. To examine this question, we co-designed colorful floor markings and evaluated their impact on walking experience by using methods of affective sciences, experimental psychology and design. A series of laboratory-based studies were first conducted to determine scientifically-based design principles. In Study1, gaze behaviour and facial thermal responses to colour patches were measured with the aim to identify which colors capture attention and trigger positive affective states. Study2 was an online experiment to test the effects of different design scenarios of colorful sidewalks. The goal here was to identify the colors that would be perceived positively, when projected in the urban space. Study 3 was a virtual reality experiment in which gaze behaviour and affective states of pedestrians were measured in environments that used the colors and designs from studies 1 and 2. A total of six design scenarios were created to confirm the restorative effects of nature and of color designs during spontaneous walking. These studies offered a set of scientifically-based design principles that were then projected in the field case study of Playful’ City. Three ecological studies were run to test these principles. Study 4 examined the effects of colorful crossroads on the affective and cognitive states of students discovering the University campus of Lille. Study 5 tested the impact of color lines and colorful painted patters on spontaneous walking and perceived pleasantness of walking though the campus. Finally, study 6 compared the impact of color designs placed in an urban and in a nature environment. In these three studies, a combination of self-declared evaluations and objective measurements was used to assess walkers’ responses to the environment pre-post design interventions. Valance, heart rate, electro-dermal activity and cognitive load were measured collectively. Overall, my work offers new avenues towards the conception and the evaluation of urban design.
... Several studies have shown that graphic parameters are affected early in people with moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease [38]. Studies have also shown that motor activity reveals language-related characteristics, due to the involvement of motor areas of the brain in writing, and that even mild disorders can be detected using motor parameters (reduction in written pressure) during language production tasks [39]. ...
... These results show that PPA patients have a higher difference in the maximum pressure between a linguistic ('letter l loops') and a non-linguistic non-cognitive task ('dots) than healthy controls. A previous study already showed that motor activity reveals language-related characteristics, due to the involvement of motor areas of the brain in writing [39]. This suggests that motor performance involved in linguistic and non-linguistic tasks may change in the presence of language disorders. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Background Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA) brings together a group of neurodegenerative pathologies whose principal characteristic is to start with a progressive language disorder. Three main PPA subtypes were established, depending on the affected brain regions and the type of language disorder: the logopenic subtype (lvPPA), the non‐fluent/agrammatic subtype (nfavPPA) and the semantic subtype (svPPA) (Gorno‐Tempini et al., 2011). PPA diagnosis is often delayed in non‐specialised clinical settings. With the development of technologies, new diagnostic tools can be used, such as writing on a touch pad (Plonka et al., 2020). We have already highlighted differences between patients with typical Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and healthy controls (Gros et al., 2019), but the kinematic writing parameters are still understudied in the differential diagnosis of PPA subtypes. Method 29 subjects with Primary Progressive Aphasia (lvPPA N= 18; nfavPPA N=6; svPPA N=5) were included in this study. They performed ten graphical markers tasks (2 non‐cognitive and non‐linguistic tasks, 4 cognitive and non‐linguistic tasks and 4 linguistic tasks) on an I‐Pad® tablet. Different writing parameters were extracted: writing pressure, velocity, jerk and stroke. Result Preliminary results revealed a main effect of diagnosis in linguistic tasks on average velocity (p= 0,041) and on average stroke (p= 0,029). The two‐by‐two comparison of different variants of PPA also showed significative differences: 1) lvPPA vs nfavPPA: significant differences in the average velocity, jerk and stroke were found, with lvPPA participants showing a higher velocity (p= 0,037), jerk (p= 0,046) and stroke (p= 0,014) than nfavPPA participants in linguistic tasks. 2) lvPPA vs svPPA: significant difference in velocity was found in linguistic task (p=0,037). 3) nfavPPA vs svPPA: significant difference in maximum pressure was found in linguistic task (p= 0,044), with nfavPPA participants showing a lower maximum pressure than svPPA participants. Conclusion These preliminary results suggest that the use of graphical markers can be helpful in the differential diagnosis of PPA subtypes. A longitudinal study is ongoing to collect a bigger and more balanced PPA sample by including these markers within an already existing screening test battery.
... Several studies have shown that graphic parameters are affected early in people with moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease [38]. Studies have also shown that motor activity reveals language-related characteristics, due to the involvement of motor areas of the brain in writing, and that even mild disorders can be detected using motor parameters (reduction in written pressure) during language production tasks [39]. ...
... These results show that PPA patients have a higher difference in the maximum pressure between a linguistic ('letter l loops') and a non-linguistic non-cognitive task ('dots) than healthy controls. A previous study already showed that motor activity reveals language-related characteristics, due to the involvement of motor areas of the brain in writing [39]. This suggests that motor performance involved in linguistic and non-linguistic tasks may change in the presence of language disorders. ...
Article
Full-text available
Primary progressive aphasia (PPA) brings together neurodegenerative pathologies whose main characteristic is to start with a progressive language disorder. PPA diagnosis is often delayed in non-specialised clinical settings. With the technologies’ development, new writing parameters can be extracted, such as the writing pressure on a touch pad. Despite some studies having highlighted differences between patients with typical Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and healthy controls, writing parameters in PPAs are understudied. The objective was to verify if the writing pressure in different linguistic and non-linguistic tasks can differentiate patients with PPA from patients with AD and healthy subjects. Patients with PPA (n = 32), patients with AD (n = 22) and healthy controls (n = 26) were included in this study. They performed a set of handwriting tasks on an iPad® digital tablet, including linguistic, cognitive non-linguistic, and non-cognitive non-linguistic tasks. Average and maximum writing pressures were extracted for each task. We found significant differences in writing pressure, between healthy controls and patients with PPA, and between patients with PPA and AD. However, the classification of performances was dependent on the nature of the tasks. These results suggest that measuring writing pressure in graphical tasks may improve the early diagnosis of PPA, and the differential diagnosis between PPA and AD.
... Another series of experiments tested the impact of linguistic context on LIAMBS using a grip force sensor (held between the thumb and index finger; Frak et al. 2010;Aravena et al. 2012Aravena et al. , 2014Nazir et al. 2017;Reinecke, et al., submitted). This method allows the monitoring of grip force variations while participants listen to spoken sentences. ...
... When a sentence refers to a manual action-but not otherwise-a significant enhancement in the grip force level is observed starting within 200-500 ms after the onset of the action word. Such an involuntary increase in grip force results from the overflow of language-induced cortical motor activity to the muscles (Frak et al. 2010;Nazir et al., 2017). Hence, similar to event-related potentials measured by means of electroencephalography, the grip force paradigm allows the online monitoring of brain activity as it unfolds in the primary motor cortex (M1). ...
Article
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Whether language comprehension requires the participation of brain structures that evolved for perception and action has been a subject of intense debate. While brain-imaging evidence for the involvement of such modality-specific regions has grown, the fact that lesions to these structures do not necessarily erase word knowledge has invited the conclusion that language-induced activity in these structures might not be essential for word recognition. Why language processing recruits these structures remains unanswered, however. Here, we examine the original findings from a slightly different perspective. We first consider the 'original' function of structures in modality-specific brain regions that are recruited by language activity. We propose that these structures help elaborate 'internal forward models' in motor control (c.f. emulators). Emulators are brain systems that capture the relationship between an action and its sensory consequences. During language processing emulators could thus allow accessing associative memories. We further postulate the existence of a linguistic system that exploits, in a rule-based manner, emulators and other nonlinguistic brain systems, to gain complementary (and redundant) information during language processing. Emulators are therefore just one of several sources of information. We emphasize that whether a given word-form triggers activity in modality-specific brain regions depends on the linguistic context and not on the word-form as such. The role of modality-specific systems in language processing is thus not to help understanding words but to model the verbally depicted situation by supplying memorized context information. We present a model derived from these assumptions and provide predictions and perspectives for future research.
... Participants were asked to maintain a constant level of grip force during the experiment, with no visual feedback of the generated force, since they kept their eyes closed. This protocol has been previously analyzed and described by Nazir et al. [22]. ...
... If the signal variation between 200 ms before and 800 ms following the word onset was greater than or equal to 200 mN, the data for that occurrence were rejected. In the same way, the data of an occurrence were rejected if there was a force increasing at a rate greater than 100 mN within 100 ms [22]. If more than 30% of the repetitions of a verb were rejected, data from that participant were rejected. ...
Article
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Background and Objectives: Language-induced grip force modulation (LGFM) can be used to better understand the link between language and motor functions as an expression of embodied language. However, the contribution of each brain hemisphere to LGFM is still unclear. Using six different action verbs as stimuli, this study evaluated the grip force modulation of the left hand in a unimanual task to characterize the left and right hemispheres' contributions. Materials and Methods: Left-hand LGFM of 20 healthy and consistently right-handed subjects was evaluated using the verbs "to write", "to hold", "to pull" (left-lateralized central processing actions), "to draw", "to tie", and "to drive" (bihemispheric central processing actions) as linguistic stimuli. The time between the word onset and the first interval of statistical significance regarding the baseline (here as reaction time, RT) was also measured. Results: The six verbs produced LGFM. The modulation intensity was similar for the six verbs, but the RT was variable. The verbs "to draw", "to tie", and "to drive", whose central processing of the described action is bihemispheric, showed a longer RT compared to the other verbs. Conclusions: The possibility of a given manual action being performed by the left hand in consistent right-handers does not interfere with the occurrence of LGFM when the descriptor verb of this action is used as a linguistic stimulus, even if the possibility is remote. Therefore, LGFM seems to mainly rely on the left hemisphere, while a greater activation of the right hemisphere in action processing appears to slow the increase in LGFM intensity.
... Despite the variations in the stimuli, all these studies confirmed a bigger increase of grip-force when subjects listened to hand-related action words than when they listened to non-action words. In every case, this force enhancement was observed within the first 300 ms of stimuli presentation (Aravena et al., 2012(Aravena et al., , 2014Labrecque, Descheneaux, Gomes, de Castros, & Frak, 2016;Nazir et al., 2017). ...
... (3) We apply rejection artefacts to isolate outline modulation, which can be generated by a hand movement. The data is rejected when it exceeds 200 milliNewtons (mN) or when a modulation of 100 mN within 100 ms is present, following the exclusion criteria of Nazir et al. (2017). If more than 30% of the data is rejected for a participant, the participant is rejected from the analysis. ...
Article
The link between language processing and motor systems has been the focus of increasing interest to Cognitive Neuroscience. Some classical papers studying Event Related Potentials (ERPs) induced by linguistic stimuli have found differences in electrophysiological activity when comparing action and non-action words; more specifi- cally, a bigger p200 for action words. On the other hand, a series of studies have validated the use of a grip force sensor (GFS) to measure language-induced motor activity during both isolated words and sentence listening, finding that action words induce an augmentation in the grip force around 250–300 ms after the onset of the stimulus. The purpose of the present study is to combine both techniques to assess if the p200 is related to the augmentation of the grip force measured by a GFS. We measured ERP and GFS changes elicited by listening to action and non-action words while maintaining an active grasping task. Our results show that both the p200 and the grip force around 300 ms are bigger for action words, compared to non-action. We also report a statistical correlation between these measures. To our knowledge, this is the first study where the electrophysiological activity and the changes in the grip force induced by auditory language processing are put together, opening new venues of interpretation for the sensorimotor interaction in language processing.
... Despite the variations in the stimuli, all these studies confirmed a bigger increase of grip-force when subjects listened to hand-related action words than when they listened to non-action words. In every case, this force enhancement was observed within the first 300 ms of stimuli presentation (Aravena et al., 2012(Aravena et al., , 2014Labrecque, Descheneaux, Gomes, de Castros, & Frak, 2016;Nazir et al., 2017). ...
... (3) We apply rejection artefacts to isolate outline modulation, which can be generated by a hand movement. The data is rejected when it exceeds 200 milliNewtons (mN) or when a modulation of 100 mN within 100 ms is present, following the exclusion criteria of Nazir et al. (2017). If more than 30% of the data is rejected for a participant, the participant is rejected from the analysis. ...
... Participants were introduced to the system and the procedure of the test. Holding the grip sensor hanging in the gap, they were invited to increase and reduce the intensity of their compression force while they watched the force variation in Newtons on a secondary screen, just to find a comfortable grip force level high enough to prevent slippage (Nazir et al. 2017), generally between 1.5 and 2.5 N. ...
... This procedure was executed for each keyword repetition. Data referring to each repetition were rejected if the force variation in the 1000 ms following the keyword onset was equal to or greater than 200 mN or had developed at a rate greater than 100 mN/100 ms (Nazir et al. 2017). If 30% or more of the verbs of a single task were rejected, the participant was rejected. ...
Preprint
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Objective: To evaluate the effects of left intraparietal sulcus (IPS) inhibition by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on grip force modulation (GFM) for both hands during a unimanual task. Methods: GFM induced by manual action-verb listening was evaluated for each hand in a unimanual task, and the motor-evoked potentials (MEP) were recorded for both left and right hemispheres prior to and following the left IPS inhibition. Left IPS inhibition was obtained by rTMS (5 min of 1.0 Hz, 60% of maximal stimulator output) of the international 10-20 system P3 point. Seven healthy right-handed subjects were evaluated. Results: One-way repeated measures ANOVA found that MEP amplitude and duration increased following IPS inhibition in the left hemisphere and did not change in the right hemisphere. Language-induced modulation did not change in the left hemisphere, while it was significantly attenuated in the right hemisphere. Since IPS inhibition increased the left primary motor cortex (M1) excitability, the maintenance of language-induced modulation intensity suggests it was also attenuated. Conclusion: Left IPS inhibition increased left M1 excitability without changing right M1 excitability, while attenuating the language-induced GFM for both the left and right hands.
... Similarly, implanted electrochemical biosensors analyze chemical signals in brain extracellular fluid (ECF) with excellent spatial and temporal resolution, although developing biosensors with high selectivity for the diverse biomolecules in the brain remains a challenge [21]. A novel experimental technique involves using a grip force sensor to capture subtle grip force variations while participants listen to words and sentences, allowing for the online measurement of language-induced activity in motor structures of the brain [22]. This method provides both localization and high temporal resolution of the recorded data, offering insights into how language processing involves motor brain structures. ...
Article
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The application of biosensors in neurolinguistics has significantly advanced the detection and mapping of language areas in the brain, particularly for individuals with brain trauma. This study explores the role of biosensors in this domain and proposes a conceptual model to guide their use in research and clinical practice. The researchers explored the integration of biosensors in language and brain function studies, identified trends in research, and developed a conceptual model based on cluster and thematic analyses. Using a mixed-methods approach, we conducted cluster and thematic analyses on data curated from Web of Science, Scopus, and SciSpace, encompassing 392 articles. This dual analysis facilitated the identification of research trends and thematic insights within the field. The cluster analysis highlighted Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) dominance and the importance of neuroplasticity in language recovery. Biosensors such as the Magnes 2500 watt-hour (WH) neuromagnetometer and microwire-based sensors are reliable for real-time monitoring, despite methodological challenges. The proposed model synthesizes these findings, emphasizing biosensors' potential in preoperative assessments and therapeutic customization. Biosensors are vital for non-invasive, precise mapping of language areas, with fMRI and repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) playing pivotal roles. The conceptual model serves as a strategic framework for employing biosensors and improving neurolinguistic interventions. This research may enhance surgical planning, optimize recovery therapies, and encourage technological advancements in biosensor precision and application protocols.
... Motor-language coupling is a bidirectional phenomenon whereby action-language processes affect motor dynamics, and vice versa (Afonso et al., 2019;Melloni et al., 2015;Ibáñez et al., 2013;Aravena et al., 2010). Behavioral experiments show that MaVs can increase grip force in both unimanual and bimanual tasks (Da Silva, Labrecque, Caromano, Higgins, & Frak, 2018;Nazir et al., 2017;Frak, Nazir, Goyette, Cohen, & Jeannerod, 2010), whereas neuroimaging studies show that these verbs differentially increase activation along partly somatotopic (hand-specific) cortical motor regions (Pulvermüller, 2013a(Pulvermüller, , 2018). Yet, only limited research has examined the neurofunctional unfolding of motor-language coupling, mainly using overtly semantic tasks. ...
Article
Full-text available
Behavioral embodied research shows that words evoking limb-specific meanings can affect responses performed with the corresponding body part. However, no study has explored this phenomenon's neural dynamics under implicit processing conditions, let alone by disentangling its conceptual and motoric stages. Here, we examined whether the blending of hand actions and manual action verbs, relative to nonmanual action verbs and nonaction verbs, modulates electrophysiological markers of semantic integration (N400) and motor-related cortical potentials during a lexical decision task. Relative to both other categories, manual action verbs involved reduced posterior N400 amplitude and greater modulations of frontal motor-related cortical potentials. Such effects overlapped in a window of ∼380–440 msec after word presentation and ∼180 msec before response execution, revealing the possible time span in which both semantic and action-related stages reach maximal convergence. These results allow refining current models of motor–language coupling while affording new insights on embodied dynamics at large.
... An increase in grip force was observed between 260 and 340 ms following the presentation of action verbs. These results with the measurement of grip force were replicated using noun and verb stimuli in isolation or embedded in sentences (Aravena et al., 2012(Aravena et al., , 2014Nazir et al., 2017;Da Silva et al., 2018) and can be taken as evidence that motor phenomena are linked to semantic recognition-expressed as an involuntary motor outflow resulting from language-induced simulation of action. Recently, it was shown, using Event-Related Potentials, that there exists a correlation between semantic discrimination and grip force modulation (Juárez et al., 2019). ...
Article
In adults, grip force has reliably been used to investigate motor simulation evoked by linguistic action, suggesting that motor phenomena are linked to semantic action. The parietal and frontal lobes and their connexions are essential neural structures for pragmatic aspects of hand semantic action. In this perspective, the aim of the study was to determine the extent to which two groups of children and adolescents, classically characterized by degree of axonal myelination in fronto-parietal circuits, monitored the occurrence of nouns and manual action verbs presented auditorily while holding a grip force sensor. Differential effects of grip force were seen only in the adolescents when monitoring action verbs. Interestingly, weaker effects of grip force were modulated by noun targets only in the younger children, revealing that the ability to profit from a full semantic representation of verbs is not clearly established in the younger children. Grip force modulation was observed as early as 300 ms post target onset and peaked at the 500–750 ms window of observation for both groups. These group differences are in line with the motor simulation difficulties seen in younger children. The results may also indicate that degree of grip force in response to specific linguistic categories parallels the maturation of the parietal-frontal circuits, including the anterior intra-parietal area which plays a determining role in semantic aspects of hand action.
... The need for these sensors will increase as automation becomes more prevalent in these industries. Recent force sensor developments have focused more on advanced applications such as robotics (Kim et al. 2015), catheterization (Noh et al. 2016), rehabilitation (Ko et al. 2015), biomechanics (Al-Mai et al. 2017;Brookhuis et al. 2015), embodied language processing (Nazir et al. 2017), atomic force microscopy (AFM) (Hussain et al. 2018), sport (Salpavaara et al. 2009) and structural health monitoring (Ikemoto et al. 2009). Recently, research has been expanded on development of flexible and soft force sensors (Cho and Ryuh 2016;Honda et al. 2019;Toyama et al. 2017) due to an increase in their demand. ...
Article
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A force sensor utilizing a transformer concept with a ferrofluid core was developed. A ferrofluid reservoir was machined out of Teflon and the open top of the reservoir was sealed with a thin silicone membrane. Forces applied to the silicone membrane caused the membrane to deflect, resulting in the displacement of the ferrofluid in the reservoir through an external tube. The ferrofluid in the tube acted as the core of voltage transformer. The ferrofluid core was excited by an alternating current across a wire coil wound around the tube. A secondary coil was wound around the top portion of the tube which was vertically oriented. As the ferrofluid level in the tube rose in response to applied forces, the secondary coil became engaged by the magnetized ferrofluid, resulting in a voltage induced in the secondary coil that varied with the level of the ferrofluid. The sensor was characterized by the relationship between the forces applied to the membrane and the output voltage readings across the secondary coil in loading and unloading cycles. This relationship was found to be nonlinear and following a negative second-degree polynomial relationship. The sensor was tested at three primary frequencies of 60, 100 and 120 kHz. It was found that 13% of the 5 V A/C exciting voltage applied across the primary coil at 60 kHz was induced into the secondary coil when it was fully engaged by the magnetized ferrofluid. It was determined that the sensor generates the highest sensitivity of 68.3 mV/N over the effective range of 0.1–2.5 N at 60 kHz. The sensor was analyzed for error and the characteristic error was found to be comparable to existing inductive sensors. Sources of most significant of error were identified and proposals for improvements to future designs of this sensor type are provided.
... Regarding graphic markers, several studies have revealed that they are affected early in people with moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease [35]. Studies have also shown that motor activity reveals language-related characteristics, due to the involvement of motor areas of the brain in writing [36], and that even mild disorders can be detected by means of motor parameters (reduction in written pressure) during language production tasks. Handwriting requires the implementation of cognitive processes related to language as well as planning, coordination and motor performance. ...
... This occurs because the baseline force signal is characterised by an ongoing negative "proprioceptive" drift (highlighted with an arrow inFig. 2), reflecting the well-known decrease of exerted force throughout a holding task, a physiological phenomenon likely due to a gradual reduction of proprioceptive sensitivity(Wann and Ibrahim 1992;Desmurget et al. 2000;Nazir et al. 2017). Given that the ongoing proprioceptive drift is reduced by the stimulus, after baseline correction a decrease of power at what is likely the frequency of the prestimulus drift appears.Interestingly, the time-frequency analysis of the force timecourse also disclosed a modulation that did not simply reflect the time-frequency counterpart of the CMR observed in the time domain. ...
Article
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Survival in a suddenly-changing environment requires animals not only to detect salient stimuli, but also to promptly respond to them by initiating or revising ongoing motor processes. We recently discovered that the large vertex brain potentials elicited by sudden supramodal stimuli are strongly coupled with a multiphasic modulation of isometric force, a phenomenon that we named cortico-muscular resonance (CMR). Here, we extend our investigation of the CMR to the time-frequency domain. We show that (i) both somatosensory and auditory stimuli evoke a number of phase-locked and non-phase-locked modulations of EEG spectral power. Remarkably, (ii) some of these phase-locked and non-phase-locked modulations are also present in the Force spectral power. Finally, (iii) EEG and Force time-frequency responses are correlated in two distinct regions of the power spectrum. An early, low-frequency (∼4 Hz) region reflects the previously-described coupling between the phase-locked EEG vertex potential and force modulations. A late, higher-frequency (beta-band, ∼20 Hz) region reflects a second coupling between the non-phase-locked increase of power observed in both EEG and Force. In both time-frequency regions, coupling was maximal over the sensorimotor cortex contralateral to the hand exerting the force, suggesting an effect of the stimuli on the tonic corticospinal drive. Thus, stimulus-induced CMR occurs across at least two different types of cortical activities, whose functional significance in relation to the motor system should be investigated further. We propose that these different types of corticomuscular coupling are important to alter motor behavior in response to salient environmental events.
Article
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Sudden and surprising sensory events trigger neural processes that swiftly adjust behavior. To study the phylogenesis and the mechanism of this phenomenon, we trained two male rhesus monkeys to keep a cursor inside a visual target by exerting force on an isometric joystick. We examined the effect of surprising auditory stimuli on exerted force, scalp electroencephalographic (EEG) activity, and local field potentials (LFP) recorded from the dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex. Auditory stimuli elicited (1) a biphasic modulation of isometric force: a transient decrease followed by a corrective tonic increase, and (2) EEG and LFP deflections dominated by two large negative-positive waves (N70 and P130). The EEG potential was maximal at the scalp vertex, highly reminiscent of the human 'vertex potential'. Electrocortical potentials and force were tightly coupled: the P130 amplitude predicted the magnitude of the corrective force increase, particularly in the LFPs recorded from deep rather than superficial cortical layers. These results disclose a phylogenetically-preserved cortico-motor mechanism supporting adaptive behavior in response to salient sensory events. Significance Statement Survival in the natural world depends on an animal's capacity to adapt ongoing behavior to unexpected events. To study the neural mechanisms underlying this capacity, we trained monkeys to apply constant force on a joystick while we recorded their brain activity from the scalp and, invasively, from the prefrontal cortex contralateral to the hand holding the joystick. Unexpected auditory stimuli elicited a biphasic force modulation: a transient reduction followed by a corrective adjustment. The same stimuli also elicited EEG and LFP responses, dominated by a biphasic wave that predicted the magnitude of the behavioral adjustment. These results disclose a phylogenetically-preserved cortico-motor mechanism supporting adaptive behavior in response to unexpected events.
Preprint
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Sudden and surprising sensory events trigger neural processes that swiftly adjust behavior. To study the phylogenesis and the mechanism of this phenomenon, we trained two rhesus monkeys to keep a cursor inside a visual target by exerting force on an isometric joystick. We examined the effect of surprising auditory stimuli on exerted force, scalp electroencephalographic (EEG) activity, and local field potentials (LFP) recorded from the dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex. Auditory stimuli elicited (1) a biphasic modulation of isometric force: a transient decrease followed by a corrective tonic increase, and (2) EEG and LFP deflections dominated by two large negative-positive waves (N70 and P130). The EEG potential was maximal at the scalp vertex, in all respects similar to the human "vertex potential". Electrocortical potentials and force were tightly coupled: the P130 amplitude predicted the magnitude of the corrective force increase, particularly in the EEG electrodes contralateral to the limb exerting force, and in the LFP recorded from deep rather than superficial cortical layers, suggesting a direct effect of the vertex potential on the motor output determining the behavior. These results disclose a phylogenetically-preserved cortico-motor mechanism supporting adaptive behavior in response to salient sensory events.
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There is a longstanding and widely held misconception about the relative remoteness of abstract concepts from concrete experiences. This review examines the current evidence for external influences and internal constraints on the processing, representation, and use of abstract concepts, like truth, friendship, and number. We highlight the theoretical benefit of distinguishing between grounded and embodied cognition and then ask which roles do perception, action, language, and social interaction play in acquiring, representing and using abstract concepts. By reviewing several studies, we show that they are, against the accepted definition, not detached from perception and action. Focussing on magnitude-related concepts, we also discuss evidence for cultural influences on abstract knowledge and explore how internal processes such as inner speech, metacognition, and inner bodily signals (interoception) influence the acquisition and retrieval of abstract knowledge. Finally, we discuss some methodological developments. Specifically, we focus on the importance of studies that investigate the time course of conceptual processing and we argue that, because of the paramount role of sociality for abstract concepts, new methods are necessary to study concepts in interactive situations. We conclude that bodily, linguistic, and social constraints provide important theoretical limitations for our theories of conceptual knowledge.
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Background and objectives: The language-induced grip force modulation (GFM) can be used to better understand the link between the language and motor functions as an expression of the embodied language. However, the contribution of each brain hemisphere to the language-induced GFM is still unclear. Using six different action verbs as stimuli, this study evaluated the GFM of the left hand in unimanual task to characterize the left- and right-hemisphere contributions. Materials and Methods: The left-hand GFM of 20 healthy consistent right-handers subjects was evaluated using the verbs “to write”, “to hold”, “to pull”(left-lateralized central processing actions), “to draw”, “to tie”, and “to drive” (bi-hemispheric central processing actions) as linguistic stimuli. The time between the word onset and the first interval of statistical significance regarding the baseline (RT) was also measured. Results: The six verbs produced language-induced GFM. The modulation intensity was similar for the six verbs, but the RT was variable. The verbs “to draw”, “to tie”, and “to drive”, whose central processing of the described action is bihemispheric showed a longer Rt compared to the other verbs. Conclusions: The possibility that an action is performed by the left-hand does not interfere with the occurrence of GFM when this action verb is employed as linguistic stimulus. Therefore, the language-induced GFM seems mainly rely on the left hemisphere, and the engagement of the right hemisphere seems to slow down the increase in the GFM intensity.
Thesis
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Les liens entre les fonctions langagières et les fonctions motrices sont de plus en plus présents dans la littérature. Cependant, le développement de ceux-ci au travers des âges est peu documenté. Avec des capteurs de force, nous avons mesuré les modulations de la force chez des enfants âgés de 5 à 10 ans et d’adolescents âgés de 13 à 17 ans suite à des stimuli linguistiques sonores. Les stimuli comparés étaient deux catégories de mots différentes, soit les noms et les verbes. La comparaison des modulations de la force entre ces deux groupes nous a permis de constater l’apport de la maturation de l’aire pariétale dans le traitement des verbes, l’importance de la maturation du corps calleux pour un traitement bihémisphérique du langage et l’intégration plus hâtive dans le développement des noms comparativement aux verbes.
Article
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Many neurocognitive studies on the role of motor structures in action-language processing have implicitly adopted a “dictionary-like” framework within which lexical meaning is constructed on the basis of an invariant set of semantic features. The debate has thus been centered on the question of whether motor activation is an integral part of the lexical semantics (embodied theories) or the result of a post-lexical construction of a situation model (disembodied theories). However, research in psycholinguistics show that lexical semantic processing and context-dependent meaning construction are narrowly integrated. An understanding of the role of motor structures in action-language processing might thus be better achieved by focusing on the linguistic contexts under which such structures are recruited. Here, we therefore analyzed online modulations of grip force while subjects listened to target words embedded in different linguistic contexts. When the target word was a hand action verb and when the sentence focused on that action (John signs the contract) an early increase of grip force was observed. No comparable increase was detected when the same word occurred in a context that shifted the focus toward the agent's mental state (John wants to sign the contract). There mere presence of an action word is thus not sufficient to trigger motor activation. Moreover, when the linguistic context set up a strong expectation for a hand action, a grip force increase was observed even when the tested word was a pseudo-verb. The presence of a known action word is thus not required to trigger motor activation. Importantly, however, the same linguistic contexts that sufficed to trigger motor activation with pseudo-verbs failed to trigger motor activation when the target words were verbs with no motor action reference. Context is thus not by itself sufficient to supersede an “incompatible” word meaning. We argue that motor structure activation is part of a dynamic process that integrates the lexical meaning potential of a term and the context in the online construction of a situation model, which is a crucial process for fluent and efficient online language comprehension.
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A dominant hypothesis on how the brain processes numerical size proposes a spatial representation of numbers as positions on a 'mental number line'. An alternative hypothesis considers numbers as elements of a generalized representation of sensorimotor-related magnitude which is not obligatorily spatial. Here we show that individuals' relative use of spatial and non-spatial representations has a cerebral counterpart in the structural organization of the posterior parietal cortex. Inter-individual variability in the linkage between numbers and spatial responses (faster left responses to low numbers and right responses to high numbers; SNARC effect) correlated with variations in grey matter volume around the right precuneus. Conversely, differences in the disposition to link numbers to force production (faster soft responses to low numbers and hard responses to high numbers) were related to grey matter volume in the left angular gyrus. This finding suggests that numerical cognition relies on multiple mental representations of analogue magnitude using different neural implementations that are linked to individual traits.
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Studies demonstrating the involvement of motor brain structures in language processing typically focus on time windows beyond the latencies of lexical-semantic access. Consequently, such studies remain inconclusive regarding whether motor brain structures are recruited directly in language processing or through post-linguistic conceptual imagery. In the present study, we introduce a grip-force sensor that allows online measurements of language-induced motor activity during sentence listening. We use this tool to investigate whether language-induced motor activity remains constant or is modulated in negative, as opposed to affirmative, linguistic contexts. Participants listened to spoken action target words in either affirmative or negative sentences while holding a sensor in a precision grip. The participants were asked to count the sentences containing the name of a country to ensure attention. The grip force signal was recorded continuously. The action words elicited an automatic and significant enhancement of the grip force starting at approximately 300 ms after target word onset in affirmative sentences; however, no comparable grip force modulation was observed when these action words occurred in negative contexts. Our findings demonstrate that this simple experimental paradigm can be used to study the online crosstalk between language and the motor systems in an ecological and economical manner. Our data further confirm that the motor brain structures that can be called upon during action word processing are not mandatorily involved; the crosstalk is asymmetrically governed by the linguistic context and not vice versa.
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Do people use sensori-motor cortices to understand language? Here we review neurocognitive studies of language comprehension in healthy adults and evaluate their possible contributions to theories of language in the brain. We start by sketching the minimal predictions that an embodied theory of language understanding makes for empirical research, and then survey studies that have been offered as evidence for embodied semantic representations. We explore four debated issues: first, does activation of sensori-motor cortices during action language understanding imply that action semantics relies on mirror neurons? Second, what is the evidence that activity in sensori-motor cortices plays a functional role in understanding language? Third, to what extent do responses in perceptual and motor areas depend on the linguistic and extra-linguistic context? And finally, can embodied theories accommodate language about abstract concepts? Based on the available evidence, we conclude that sensori-motor cortices are activated during a variety of language comprehension tasks, for both concrete and abstract language. Yet, this activity depends on the context in which perception and action words are encountered. Although modality-specific cortical activity is not a sine qua non of language processing even for language about perception and action, sensori-motor regions of the brain appear to make functional contributions to the construction of meaning, and should therefore be incorporated into models of the neurocognitive architecture of language.
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Motor actions and action verbs activate similar cortical brain regions. A functional interference can be taken as evidence that there is a parallel treatment of these two types of information and would argue for the biological grounding of language in action. A novel approach examining the relationship between language and grip force is presented. With eyes closed and arm extended, subjects listened to words relating (verbs) or not relating (nouns) to a manual action while holding a cylinder with an integrated force sensor. There was a change in grip force when subjects heard verbs that related to manual action. Grip force increased from about 100 ms following the verb presentation, peaked at 380 ms and fell abruptly after 400 ms, signalling a possible inhibition of the motor simulation evoked by these words. These observations reveal the intimate relationship that exists between language and grasp and show that it is possible to elucidate online new aspects of sensorimotor interaction.
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We determined the origin of corticospinal neurons in the frontal lobe. These neurons were labeled by retrograde transport of tracers after injections into either the dorsolateral funiculus at the second cervical segment or the gray matter of the spinal cord throughout the cervical enlargement. Using retrograde transport of tracer from the arm area of the primary motor cortex, we defined the arm representation in each premotor area in another set of animals. We found that corticospinal projections to cervical segments of the spinal cord originate from the primary motor cortex and from the 6 premotor areas in the frontal lobe. These are the same premotor areas that project directly to the arm area of the primary motor cortex. The premotor areas are located in parts of cytoarchitectonic area 6 on the lateral surface and medial wall of the hemisphere, as well as in subfields of areas 23 and 24 in the cingulate sulcus. The total number of corticospinal neurons in the arm representations of the premotor areas equals or exceeds the total number in the arm representation of the primary motor cortex. The premotor areas collectively comprise more than 60% of the cortical area in the frontal lobe that projects to the spinal cord. Like the primary motor cortex, each of the premotor areas contains local regions that have a high density of corticospinal neurons. These observations indicate that a substantial component of the corticospinal system originates from the premotor areas in the frontal lobe. Each of the premotor areas has direct access to the spinal cord, and as a consequence, each has the potential to influence the generation and control of movement independently of the primary motor cortex. These findings raise serious questions about the utility of viewing the primary motor cortex as the "upper motoneuron" or "final common pathway" for the central control of movement.
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As an aid to studying the efficiency of grip force scaling in the context of collisions, we present a simple cost-effective approach to estimating the slip ratio--that is, the minimum grip-to-load-force ratio needed to prevent object slippage. The grip apparatus comprises a sturdy load cell to measure grip force and two linear potentiometers to provide detailed description of finger movements. The slip ratio was estimated by plotting the magnitude of finger movement against the grip-to-load-force ratio at the time of impact. The slip ratio was dependent on the direction of loading, which stresses the importance of estimating slip ratios in a context similar to that of the experiment in which the efficiency of subjects' behavior is to be assessed.
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Skeletal muscle development is one of the key features of childhood and adolescence. Determining maximal isometric grip force (MIGF) using a hand-held Jamar dynamometer is a simple method to quantify one aspect of muscle function. Presently available reference data present MIGF as a function of chronological age. However, muscle force is largely determined by body size, and many children undergoing muscle performance tests in the clinical setting suffer from growth retardation secondary to a chronic disorder. Reference data were established from simple regressions between age or log height and log MIGF in a population of 315 healthy children and adolescents aged 6 to 19 y (157 girls). These data were used to calculate age- or height-dependent SD scores (SDS) for MIGF in three pediatric patient groups. In renal graft recipients (n = 14), the age-dependent MIGF SDS was markedly decreased (-2.5 +/- 1.9; mean +/- SD). However, these patients had short stature (height SDS, -2.5 +/- 1.2), and the height-dependent MIGF SDS was close to normal (-0.4 +/- 1.5). Similarly, in cystic fibrosis patients (n = 13) age-dependent MIGF SDS was -1.6 +/- 1.6, but height-dependent MIGF SDS was -0.5 +/- 1.1. Children with epilepsy who were taking anticonvulsant therapy (n = 34) had normal stature, and consequently age- and height-dependent MIGF SDS were similar (0.4 +/- 1.0 and 0.4 +/- 0.8, respectively). In conclusion, MIGF determination provides information on an important aspect of physical development. Height should be taken into account to avoid misinterpretation.
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During object manipulation, grip force must be adjusted in anticipation of destabilizing load forces to prevent the object from slipping. This study used three gripping tasks to assess whether schizophrenia affects the predictive mechanisms required for the scaling, timing, and/or sequencing of motor actions. Sixteen patients with schizophrenia and 16 comparison subjects matched for age, sex, and educational level 1) lifted objects of various mass and texture (lift task) and 2) used a manipulandum to hit (hit task) or resist (resist task) impacts produced by a collision with a pendulum. For an optimized performance, all tasks demanded a predictive increase in grip force and the timing of external events. The fluid sequencing of finger and hand submovements was required for the lift and the hit tasks but not for the resist task. Patients were impaired in the smooth execution of both the lift and the hit tasks but not in the performance of the resist task. In all three tasks, the scaling of grip force was similar for patients and comparison subjects. Schizophrenia is associated with a specific deficit in the sequencing of motor actions rather than with an overall problem in the predictive control of movement.
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Functional dissociations within the neural basis of auditory sentence processing are difficult to specify because phonological, syntactic and semantic information are all involved when sentences are perceived. In this review I argue that sentence processing is supported by a temporo-frontal network. Within this network, temporal regions subserve aspects of identification and frontal regions the building of syntactic and semantic relations. Temporal analyses of brain activation within this network support syntax-first models because they reveal that building of syntactic structure precedes semantic processes and that these interact only during a later stage.
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This paper focuses on what electrical and magnetic recordings of human brain activity reveal about spoken language understanding. Based on the high temporal resolution of these recordings, a fine-grained temporal profile of different aspects of spoken language comprehension can be obtained. Crucial aspects of speech comprehension are lexical access, selection and semantic integration. Results show that for words spoken in context, there is no 'magic moment' when lexical selection ends and semantic integration begins. Irrespective of whether words have early or late recognition points, semantic integration processing is initiated before words can be identified on the basis of the acoustic information alone. Moreover, for one particular event-related brain potential (ERP) component (the N400), equivalent impact of sentence- and discourse-semantic contexts is observed. This indicates that in comprehension, a spoken word is immediately evaluated relative to the widest interpretive domain available. In addition, this happens very quickly. Findings are discussed that show that often an unfolding word can be mapped onto discourse-level representations well before the end of the word. Overall, the time course of the ERP effects is compatible with the view that the different information types (lexical, syntactic, phonological, pragmatic) are processed in parallel and influence the interpretation process incrementally, that is as soon as the relevant pieces of information are available. This is referred to as the immediacy principle.
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To further our understanding of the functional roles of different motor cortical areas, we made a quantitative comparison of the density of corticospinal projections from primary motor cortex (M1) and supplementary motor area (SMA) to spinal motor nuclei supplying hand and finger muscles in four macaque monkeys. We also compared the action of corticospinal outputs excited by electrical stimulation of these two areas on upper limb motoneurons recorded in three anaesthetized macaques. The hand representations of SMA and M1 were first identified using structural magnetic resonance imaging scans and intracortical microstimulation. In the anatomical study we then made focal injections of wheatgerm agglutinin– horseradish peroxidase into these representations, which were subsequently confirmed by analysis of retrograde cortical labelling. Densitometric analysis showed that corticospinal projections from M1 were denser and occupied a greater proportion of the hand muscle motor nuclei than did projections from SMA. In caudal Th1 the densest projections from M1 occupied 81% of this motoneuronal area, compared with only 6% from SMA. In the electrophysiological study, bipolar intracortical stimulation of the hand representation of M1 and SMA evoked direct (D) and indirect (I) corticospinal volleys. Volleys elicited by M1 stimulation had larger amplitudes and faster conduction velocities than those evoked from the SMA. Intracellular recordings were made from 84 contralateral upper limb motoneurons. M1 and SMA stimulation evoked markedly different responses in tested motoneurons: EPSPs were larger and more common from M1 (88% of motoneurons) than from SMA (48%). Some motoneurons (16/84) showed evidence of excitatory postsynaptic potentials mediated by monosynaptic action of the D-wave evoked from M1; these early effects were not observed from the SMA. In most motoneurons (74/84) EPSPs had segmental latencies indicating that they were due to monosynaptic action of the I-wave. The results are consistent with cortico-motoneuronal (CM) connections originating from both SMA and M1 converging upon single motoneurons, but those from M1 are far more numerous and exert stronger excitatory effects than from the SMA. Thus although they may function in parallel, the two CM projections probably make different contributions to upper limb motor control.
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Dexterous manipulation of delicate objects requires exquisite control of fingertip forces. We have used functional magnetic resonance imaging to identify brain regions involved in the skilful scaling of these forces when normal human subjects (n = 8) held with precision grip a small object (weight 200 g) in the dominant right hand. In one condition, they used their normal, automatically scaled grip force. The object was held gently in a second condition; the isometric grip force was maintained just above the critical level at which the object would have slipped. In a third condition, the force was increased to hold the object with a more firm grip. The supplementary and cingulate motor areas were significantly more active during the gentle force condition than during either of the other conditions in all subjects, despite weaker contractions of the hand muscles. In addition, the left primary sensorimotor cortex, the ventral premotor cortex and the left posterior parietal cortex were more strongly activated during gentle than during normal grasping. These novel results suggest that these regions are specifically involved in dexterous scaling of fingertip forces during object manipulation.
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Semantic memory includes all acquired knowledge about the world and is the basis for nearly all human activity, yet its neurobiological foundation is only now becoming clear. Recent neuroimaging studies demonstrate two striking results: the participation of modality-specific sensory, motor, and emotion systems in language comprehension, and the existence of large brain regions that participate in comprehension tasks but are not modality-specific. These latter regions, which include the inferior parietal lobe and much of the temporal lobe, lie at convergences of multiple perceptual processing streams. These convergences enable increasingly abstract, supramodal representations of perceptual experience that support a variety of conceptual functions including object recognition, social cognition, language, and the remarkable human capacity to remember the past and imagine the future.
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There is increasing experimental evidence that processing action-related language results in the automatic activation of associated regions of the motor and premotor cortex. However, the functional significance of motor activation in language processing is still under debate. In the present EEG study, we set out to investigate if language-induced motor activation primarily reflects the retrieval of lexical-semantic information or post-lexical motor imagery. The processing of action verbs was found accompanied by an early activation of motor-related brain areas, as reflected by a desynchronization in the mu- and beta-frequency bands which was localized to motor and premotor areas. A stronger motor activation was observed for verbs presented in an animal context (e.g. "The deer jumped over the stream") compared to a human context (e.g. "The athlete jumped over the fence") and motor resonance was directly modulated by the cloze probability of the noun-verb pairs. The onset of the motor effects preceded classical measures of semantic integration (i.e. the N400 component) and the strength of motor activation was found inversely related to the size of the N400 effect. These findings support the hypothesis that motor activation in language processing primarily supports the retrieval and integration of lexical-semantic information.
Article
Embodied theories of conceptual knowledge suggest that sensory-motor representations of actions similar to those involved in the performance of the action described are recruited during language comprehension. The extent of this recruitment, however, and the brain mechanisms supporting this process remain unknown. Using fMRI, we investigated these issues by examining how people understand sentences that convey three different degrees of physical effort and by comparing this process to action execution. To understand the effort implied by the stimulus sentences, object and action properties associated with nouns and verbs respectively needed to be integrated: pushing the piano implies more physical effort than pushing the chair. Results indicated that a pre-motor region, which was also active in action execution, was sensitive to the degree of effort implied by the language. Interestingly, the anterior inferior frontal gyrus, a region typically associated with semantic processing, was not active in action execution but was nevertheless modulated by the effort implied. Inter-region correlations also suggested that this region was strongly correlated with pre-motor and posterior temporal regions. Overall, results suggest that (a) language understanding elicits action representations retaining a degree of specificity that was previously unsuspected, including unique properties of interactions with objects, and (b) these representations, which result from integrating the words' semantic information, may be computed within a collaborative neural network that includes the anterior inferior frontal gyrus.
Article
Sentential negation is a universal syntactic feature of human languages that reverses the truth value expressed by a sentence. An intriguing question concerns what brain mechanisms underlie our ability to represent and understand the meaning of negative sentences. We approach this issue by investigating action-related language processing and the associated neural representations. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging we measured brain activity in 18 healthy subjects during passive listening of sentences characterized by a factorial combination of polarity (affirmative vs. negative) and concreteness (action-related vs. abstract). Negation deactivated cortical areas and the left pallidum. Compared to abstract sentences, action-related sentences activated the left-hemispheric action-representation system. Crucially, the polarity by concreteness interactions showed that the activity within the action-representation system was specifically reduced for negative action-related vs. affirmative action-related sentences (compared to abstract sentences). Accordingly, functional integration within this system as measured by Dynamic Causal Modeling was specifically weaker for negative action-related than for affirmative action-related sentences. This modulation of action representations indicates that sentential negation transiently reduces the access to mental representations of the negated information.
Article
The need for a simply applied quantitative assessment of handedness is discussed and some previous forms reviewed. An inventory of 20 items with a set of instructions and response- and computational-conventions is proposed and the results obtained from a young adult population numbering some 1100 individuals are reported. The separate items are examined from the point of view of sex, cultural and socio-economic factors which might appertain to them and also of their inter-relationship to each other and to the measure computed from them all. Criteria derived from these considerations are then applied to eliminate 10 of the original 20 items and the results recomputed to provide frequency-distribution and cumulative frequency functions and a revised item-analysis. The difference of incidence of handedness between the sexes is discussed.
Article
Several perceptual studies have shown that the ability to estimate the location of the arm degrades quickly during visual occlusion. To account for this effect, it has been suggested that proprioception drifts when not continuously calibrated by vision. In the present study, we re-evaluated this hypothesis by isolating the proprioceptive component of position sense (i.e., the subjects were forced to rely exclusively on proprioception to locate their hand, which was not the case in earlier studies). Three experiments were conducted. In experiment 1, subjects were required to estimate the location of their unseen right hand, at rest, using a visual spot controlled by the left hand through a joystick. Results showed that the mean accuracy was identical whether the localization task was performed immediately after the positioning of the hand or after a 10-s delay. In experiments 2 and 3, subjects were required to point, without vision of their limb, to visual targets. These two experiments relied on the demonstration that biases in the perception of the initial hand location induced systematic variations of the movement characteristics (initial direction, final accuracy, end-point variability). For these motor tasks, the subjects did not pay attention to the initial hand location, which removed the possible occurrence of confounding cognitive strategies. Results indicated that movement characteristics were, on average, not affected when a 15-s or 20-s delay was introduced between the positioning of the arm at the starting point and the presentation of the target. When considered together, our results suggest that proprioception does not quickly drift in the absence of visual information. The potential origin of the discrepancy between our results and earlier studies is discussed.
Article
To further our understanding of the functional roles of different motor cortical areas, we made a quantitative comparison of the density of corticospinal projections from primary motor cortex (M1) and supplementary motor area (SMA) to spinal motor nuclei supplying hand and finger muscles in four macaque monkeys. We also compared the action of corticospinal outputs excited by electrical stimulation of these two areas on upper limb motoneurons recorded in three anaesthetized macaques. The hand representations of SMA and M1 were first identified using structural magnetic resonance imaging scans and intracortical microstimulation. In the anatomical study we then made focal injections of wheatgerm agglutinin- horseradish peroxidase into these representations, which were subsequently confirmed by analysis of retrograde cortical labelling. Densitometric analysis showed that corticospinal projections from M1 were denser and occupied a greater proportion of the hand muscle motor nuclei than did projections from SMA. In caudal Th1 the densest projections from M1 occupied 81% of this motoneuronal area, compared with only 6% from SMA. In the electrophysiological study, bipolar intracortical stimulation of the hand representation of M1 and SMA evoked direct (D) and indirect (I) corticospinal volleys. Volleys elicited by M1 stimulation had larger amplitudes and faster conduction velocities than those evoked from the SMA. Intracellular recordings were made from 84 contralateral upper limb motoneurons. M1 and SMA stimulation evoked markedly different responses in tested motoneurons: EPSPs were larger and more common from M1 (88% of motoneurons) than from SMA (48%). Some motoneurons (16/84) showed evidence of excitatory postsynaptic potentials mediated by monosynaptic action of the D-wave evoked from M1; these early effects were not observed from the SMA. In most motoneurons (74/84) EPSPs had segmental latencies indicating that they were due to monosynaptic action of the I-wave. The results are consistent with cortico-motoneuronal (CM) connections originating from both SMA and M1 converging upon single motoneurons, but those from M1 are far more numerous and exert stronger excitatory effects than from the SMA. Thus although they may function in parallel, the two CM projections probably make different contributions to upper limb motor control.
Article
Since the early days of research into language and the brain, word meaning was assumed to be processed in specific brain regions, which most modern neuroscientists localize to the left temporal lobe. Here we use event-related fMRI to show that action words referring to face, arm, or leg actions (e.g., to lick, pick, or kick), when presented in a passive reading task, differentially activated areas along the motor strip that either were directly adjacent to or overlapped with areas activated by actual movement of the tongue, fingers, or feet. These results demonstrate that the referential meaning of action words has a correlate in the somatotopic activation of motor and premotor cortex. This rules out a unified "meaning center" in the human brain and supports a dynamic view according to which words are processed by distributed neuronal assemblies with cortical topographies that reflect word semantics.
Article
Impaired hand function is a frequent finding in movement disorders. The skilled control of prehensile finger forces is an essential feature of tool use in daily life. In healthy subjects, grip force is precisely adjusted to the mechanical object properties, such as weight and surface friction. Grip force is accurately scaled to be only a small amount higher than the minimum necessary to prevent a hand-held object from slipping. When an object is lifted and moved around in space, grip force is modulated in parallel with the movement-induced fluctuations in load. The absence of a temporal delay between grip and load force profiles implies that the central nervous system is able to predict the load variations before the intended manipulation. Sensory information is used to adjust the level of applied finger forces efficiently to the requirements of the mechanical object properties and the task at hand. The characteristics of impaired finger force control include inefficient grip force scaling and imprecision of the temporal coupling between grip and load force profiles. Here, we review the characteristics of deficient grip force behavior in movement disorders, e.g. Parkinson's disease, task-specific dystonia, Gille de la Tourette's syndrome and cerebellar disease. Grip force analysis is a highly sensitive method to document even subtle impairments of finger force control and may be used both as a diagnostic tool and for the objective evaluation of treatment in neurological movement disorders.
Action and motor skills: Adaptive behaviour for intended goals Handbook of cognition (pp. 130–160) London: Sage. Retrieved from http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view Proprioception does not quickly drift during visual occlusion
  • Y Delevoye-Turrell
  • A Wing
Delevoye-Turrell, Y., & Wing, A. (2005). Action and motor skills: Adaptive behaviour for intended goals. In K. Lamberts & R. Goldstone (Eds.), Handbook of cognition (pp. 130–160). London: Sage. Retrieved from http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/hdbk_ cognition/SAGE.xml Desmurget, M., Vindras, P., Gréa, H., Viviani, P., & Grafton, S. T. (2000). Proprioception does not quickly drift during visual occlusion. Experimental Brain Research, 134, 363–377.
Effect of action scenes on muscular contraction: Evidence provided by a grip-force sensor. Poster presented at the 14th European Congress of Sport Psychology
  • J Blampain
  • Y Delevoye-Turrell
Blampain, J., & Delevoye-Turrell, Y. (2015). Effect of action scenes on muscular contraction: Evidence provided by a grip-force sensor. Poster presented at the 14th European Congress of Sport Psychology, Bern, Switzerland.
Jackie grates the cheese carrots.) Control condition: Sentences with nonaction verbs 1. Lucas décide de se promener dans la campagne
  • Les Carottes Joseph Râpe
Joseph râpe les carottes. (Jackie grates the cheese carrots.) Control condition: Sentences with nonaction verbs 1. Lucas décide de se promener dans la campagne. (Lucas decides to go for a walk in the countryside.)
Steve lathers the hair of his dog
  • Steve Savonne Les Poils De Son Chien
Steve savonne les poils de son chien. (Steve lathers the hair of his dog.)
Karine sweeps the sidewalk
  • Karine Balaye Le Trottoir
Karine balaye le trottoir. (Karine sweeps the sidewalk.)
Anne shakes the juice bottle
  • Anne Secoue La Bouteille De Jus
Anne secoue la bouteille de jus. (Anne shakes the juice bottle.)
Bruno sweeps the floor
  • Bruno Balaye Le Plancher
Bruno balaye le plancher. (Bruno sweeps the floor.)
Joseph indicates/shows the moun- tains
  • Les Montagnes Joseph Montre
Joseph montre les montagnes. (Joseph indicates/shows the moun- tains.)
Jade flatten the pie dough
  • Jade Aplatit La Pâte À Tarte
Jade aplatit la pâte à tarte. (Jade flatten the pie dough.)
London: Sage. Retrieved from http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view Proprioception does not quickly drift during visual occlusion
  • M Goldstone
  • P Vindras
  • H Gréa
  • P Viviani
  • S T Grafton
Goldstone (Eds.), Handbook of cognition (pp. 130–160). London: Sage. Retrieved from http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/hdbk_ cognition/SAGE.xml Desmurget, M., Vindras, P., Gréa, H., Viviani, P., & Grafton, S. T. (2000). Proprioception does not quickly drift during visual occlusion. Experimental Brain Research, 134, 363–377.
Patrick taps on the steering wheel
  • Patrick Pianote Sur Le Volant
Patrick pianote sur le volant. (Patrick taps on the steering wheel.)
Patrick taps on the steering wheel.) 40. Nina pianote sur la table
  • Patrick
Patrick pianote sur le volant. (Patrick taps on the steering wheel.) 40. Nina pianote sur la table. (Nina taps on the table.)
Max presses the red button.) 52. Morgane appuie sur l'agrafeuse. (Morgan presses on the stapler.) 53. Jade aplatit la pâte à tarte. (Jade flatten the pie dough.) 54. Jérémie aplatit la pâte à modeler
  • Max Appuie Sur Le Bouton Rouge
Max appuie sur le bouton rouge. (Max presses the red button.) 52. Morgane appuie sur l'agrafeuse. (Morgan presses on the stapler.) 53. Jade aplatit la pâte à tarte. (Jade flatten the pie dough.) 54. Jérémie aplatit la pâte à modeler. (Jeremiah flattened the modeling pastes.)
Jackie indicates the way to go.) 66. Joseph montre les montagnes. (Joseph indicates/shows the mountains.) 67. Jacques brosse ses dents. (Jacques brushes his teeth.) 68. Samantha brosse son chat
  • Jackie Montre Le Chemin À Prendre
Jackie montre le chemin à prendre. (Jackie indicates the way to go.) 66. Joseph montre les montagnes. (Joseph indicates/shows the mountains.) 67. Jacques brosse ses dents. (Jacques brushes his teeth.) 68. Samantha brosse son chat. (Samantha brushes her cat.) 69. Jackie râpe le fromage. (Jackie grates the cheese.)