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43
SX
10
Vol. 43, No. 10
2015
10
JOURNAL OF THE CHINESE CERAMIC SOCIETY
October, 2015
http://www.gxyb.cbpt.cnki.net
DO!: 10. 14062/j.issn.0454-5648.201 5.10.14
J Iván
ESCALANTE-GARCIA
(Center for Research and Advanced Studies, Cinvestav Campus Saltillo, Av. Industria Metalúrgica 1062, Parque Industrial
Saltillo-Ramos Arizpe, Ramos Arizpe, Coahuila, CP 25900, México)
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Overview of Potential of Urban Waste Glass as a Cementitious Material in
Alternative Chemically Activated Binders
Jlván ESCALANTE-GARCIA
(Center for Research and Advanced Studies, Cinvestav Campus Saltillo, Av. Industria Metalúrgica 1062, Parque Industrial
Saltillo-Ramos Arizpe, Ramos Arizpe, Coahuila, CP 25900, México)
Abstract: The world population in urban areas has increased over the past years and the trends indicate that by the year 2025 it will
reach more than 4.3 billion. Parallel to the aboye, the amount of municipal solid wastes will also increase, from 1 300 million tons as
for today, to 2 200 million tons in 2025. From such wastes, currently
un
average
of 5%
is glass, and less than 30% of that is recycled,
which rneans that 46 million tons are landfilled; by 2025 the estirnation point lo 77 million tons of landfilled glass. Although glass is
fully recyclable, various aspects complicate the recycling by the glass industry, one of them is sorting by color. Waste glass has been
used in the partial substitution of portland cernent and as an aggregate in concretes; nonetheless, the latent risk of alkali silica reaction
is a major concern. The use of urban waste glass in alkali activated binders has great potential as it is readily available in almost any
urban area. However, there has been little research about it and one of the concerns is the viability to produce hydraulic binders, as
sorne of the reaction products can be soluble in water. Activation with alkaline cornpounds used for other alkali activated cernents is
viable and composite bmders with other sources of calcium, such as carbonates or slags, have shown promising results in pastes and
concretes. This paper will discuss the composition and structure of the reaction products in various binders bearing waste glass and
will analyze the advantages of recycling glass as an alternative binder over the recycling in the glass industry.
Key words: soda-lime-silica glass; waste glass; alkali activated binder; alternative binders
Originality: Waste glass has been used as a raw material to produce portland cement clinker, as a substitute of portland cement m
composite binders and as
un
aggregate in mortars or concretes. Little or no attention has been given to waste glass as a raw material
to produce alkali activated binders. Soda-lime-silica glass constitutes more than 90% of the glass produced world wide. Due
to its
t&j: 2015-04-18
i.THj: 2015-07-20
Received date: 2015-04-18.
Revised date: 2015-07-20.
iH:
J Iván ESCALANTE-GARCIA, t,
First author: J Iván ESCALANTE-GARCIA, Professor.
E-mail: ivan.escalante@cinvestav.edu.mx
jf
1442
J Chin Ceram Soc,
2015, 43(10): 1441-1448
2015
IF
chemical and structural features, is prone lo dissolution under alkaline environments such as those of alkali hydroxides or silicates.
Such dissolution leads to the formation of gel compounds that may have cementitious properties, but also show the disadvantage of
the water solubility. Nonetheless, the use of other supplementary cementitious materials, the proper activator and aggregate in
concretes may lead to hydraulic alternative binders. This paper evaluates the potential of glass as a raw material to produce alternative
alkali activated binder and considers how is better to recycle glass as a binder as an alternative to its recycling in the glass industry.
1 Introduction
The world population continues growing and
projections from the United Nations (shown in Fig. 1)
indicate that the concentration in urban areas is
increasing while that of rural areas tends to decrease. It is
estimated that by the year 2 050, from a total of about 9.3
billion people, more than
6.25
billion will live in urban
areas. Such projections poses a great challenge, as it
creates an increased demand for goods, such as the two
rnost commercialized worldwide,
i.e.
water and concrete.
The amount of urban wastes will also increase and
actions must be implemented to exploit the opportunities
in thern.
On the other hand, the energy demands of mankind
are satisfied rnostly by burning fossil fuels and trends
from the US Energy Information Administration point
that such situation will prevail in the near future and that
the world energy consumption will increase
56%
by the
year 2040
111
. In this sense, the production of Portland
cement (PC) production currently contributes with about
8% of the anthropogenic
CO2121
. It relies on buming fuels
and alternative energy sources face barriers
[3]
New
alternatives in cernent technologies are needed to satisfy
the future demands sustainably.
12
,os
fotal populatior
Data from
UN
;
Urban
Rural
01
1 900
1950
2000
2050
2 100
Year
Fig. 1 World population, urban and rural areas
2 Binders for the future
Altemative binders of low emissions are one route
to satisfy the future needs of construction materials in a
sustainable way. Various available raw materials have
cementitious potential of sorne degree, these can be
natural
(e.g.
volcanic materials), synthetic
(e.g.
metakaolin) or byproducts
(e.g.
fly ash). Such niaterials
can be used to develop binders based on the partial or
total substitution of PC, representing a potential
sustainable solution. Partially substituted cements have
been widely studied for decades and are still the subject
of a lot of research. On the other hand, PC cernent free
binders include various families of different composition
and properties, sorne have been used for decades (as the
supersulphated or alkali activated slag) while others are
more recent and are still under intensive
(e.g.
those
known as geopolymers).
One group of PC free binders are those called Alkali
activated cernents (AAC), which are considered among
the most irnportant for the 21
`
century
14
. AAC can be
divided depending on the cornposition of the raw
materials. High-Ca binders
1
51
with cornpositions
Si0
2
—CaO—Al
2
0
3
and may include slags from
blastfurnace, cupola, steel, phosphorous,
etc.,),
these are
the most matare commercially applied. On the other
hand the low-Ca with compositions Si0
2
—Al
2
0
3
and
may include fly ashes, clays, volcanic ash,
etc.
Combination among the aboye groups has been
reported
781
. The aboye cements are regarded by many
the cements of the future, although much research and
work is needed to understand the reaction mechanisms,
the long term durability, to create the standardization
framework towards commercial widespreading,
etc.
3 Glass
One interesting material with potential in construction
materials is waste glass. Glass has been in use by
rnankind for thousands of years in a wide range of
applications due to its chemical, thermal, mechanical
optical and aesthetical features. In 2007, glass production
in Europe was of more than 37 million tons, which was
about 30% of the global production, that can be estirnated
at more than 125 million tons
19
. The global glass industry
generates a revenue of about 75 billion dollars and
Europe, China and north Arnerica account for
75%
of the
global demand g1ass
1101
. Among the various compositions,
the soda-lime-silica glass accounts for more than
95%
of
the glass produced worldwide, and nearly 90% is used as
containers
1
"
1
. Glass is not biodegradable and landfilling
is not a most environmentally friendly solution, so
recycling is the altemative.
3.1 Glass in construction materials
Urban Waste Glass (UWG) is a promising alternative
material for use in construction materials as it requires
IDI
o4
43 tffi 10 M J Iván ESCALANTE-GARCIA:
fYJ7
1443
conventional processing infrastructure in order to turn it
into a useful material; its uses in cement and concrete are
varied. In asphalt applications, the use of waste glass did
not change the mechanical properties and that glass
reflects nocturnal light and increases traffic safety
21 .
UWG has been used as a raw material in the manufacture
of PC, as an aggregate, inert filler or as a binder partially
replacing PC In substitution of PC, another work
reported that the use of 5
1
/o-20% of glass did not
accelerate the setting or increased the early strength of
PC pastes
15
; nonetheless, the glass showed pozzolanic
behavior. A study on mortars, indicated that the
incorporation of 10%-20% of glass as a fuer, increased
in 29
0
/6-86% the flexural strength and 31
0
/G-91% the
compressive strength
161
. In a short term study on
concretes, it was found that glass improved water
absorption by capillanty, the effects on strength
depended on the aggregate size replaced
[17],
However, it
has been reported that strength reduces as the coarse
aggregate is replaced by glass'
81
. In spite of the aboye,
the high alkali content of glass and its reactive nature
poses latent risk of deleterious expansion processes from
the alkali silica reactions
819
, as reported for as early as
14 d
[20]
and shown in Fig. 2, the Iatter authors indicated
that the cracks formed during the glass crushing
propagate the alkali silica reaction.
Fig. 2 Gel from alkali silica reaction in glass aggregate particles. Adapted from
[20]
Considering the aboye, most of the recycled Urban
Waste Glass will be of the type of soda-lime-silica of a
chemical composition of
65%-75%
Si0
2
, 6%-12% CaO
12%-15%
Na
2
O, with other minor components such as
Al
2
0
3
and Fe
2
0
3
. UWG does not fit into the groups of
AAC described aboye due to thé low Al
2
0
3
contents;
nonetheless, it complies with the requisite demanded to
all of the supplementary cementitious materials,
i.e. a
glassy fraction that will promote its reactivity.
3.2 Abundance and recycling of urban waste
glass
In the United States of America, the Municipal Solid
Wastes (MSW) in 2012 reached 251 million tons and
only 87 million tons were recovered; from those 11.6
million tons were UWG and only 28% was recycled and
8.3 million tons were landfilled. Nonetheless, glass
recycling has increased, from 1980 to 2012 as the amount
of glass recycled increased from to 0.75 to 3.2 million
tons
[21 1
. The situation in a developing country like
Mexico points that the amount of MSW increased from
30 to 41 million tons from the year 2000 to 2011; glass is
about
5%
of such waste and only 17% is recycled, about
2 million tons are landfilled per year.
Current MSW are of about 1 300 million tons per year
and given the evolution of the world population, the
increase of population in urban areas, the change in
habits of the society, etc., the figure will increase to 2 200
million tons per year by the year
2025122].
This represent
an increase of 1.2 to 1.42 kg/person a day. The amount of
MSW vares depending on the income level (see Fig. 3),
countries with the highest income generate more MSW.
On the other hand, the composition of MSW changes also
with the culture, economic development, climate and
energy sources, among other factors. Figure 4 shows the
average waste composition in the world in 2009, from
which it can be noted that glass averages 5%[22J
50
45
40
35
! 30
29
25
' 20
19
15
10
ri
5
o
Lower Lower middle Upper middle
High
Leve¡ of income
Fig. 3 Share of MSW generation as a function of income
1
• _—
J Chin Ceram Soc, 2015, 43(10): 1441-1448
2015
Other
Metal
4%
Glass
5%
Plasti
10%
raper
17%
Fig. 4 Average composition of MSW world wide
1221
Considering the aboye, Table 1 presents estimations
of
the amount
of
glass waste from MSW currently available
and a projection for year 2025.
Considering an average
of
5%
of
glass in the MWS and a 30% recycling rate, the
amount
of
glass landfilled, and hence available for use in
cementitious matrices, will increase from (45.5
-77.0)
million tons per year by 2 025. This represents an
interesting figure that could favor the reduction
of
CO2
emissions from the production
of
binders.
3.3 Glass as a binder
Soda-lime silicate glass is prone to dissolution in
alkaline environments; at pH higher than
10.7
amorphous
silica dissolves to form soluble silicates
1231
, this process is
favored by higher temperatures
123-251•
The use
of
NaOH,
Na2CO3 and mixtures
of
them, to dissolve glass, have
been reported in the literaturel
2
•
25
"
281
.
Organic
46%
Table 1 Projections
of waste glass from MSW
Urban resident Municipal solid waste Glass in MSW Glass Landfilled (assuming
Time
(billions) (million tons) (assuming 5% glass in MSW) 30% is recycled)
Ten years ago 2.9
Today
3
1,300
65
45.5
Year2025
4.3
2,200
119
77
3.3.1 Pastes
of
activated glass
and surface area,
etc.
Figure 5 shows that the use
of
Binders
of
alkali activated
100%
glass develop
waterglass is not necessarily more effective for higher
strength over time as shown in Fig.5. The strength is
early strength, in contrast with findings for alkali
affected by the type
of
activator, %Na
2
0,
temperature
activated blast furnace slag
1291
. The effect of
the color
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
Ñ 45
40
0.35
E
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
■
•
a
te'
•
Glass color
■
—
■
— Green
/•
--Blue
• White
—•— Amber
13
7
14
28
Time/d
(a) Activation with Waterglass
85
so
75
70
65
60
55
50
2
45
40
35
É 30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Glass color
—.--
Green
Blue
White
Amber
13
7
14
28
Time/d
(b) Activation with
NaOH/Na2CO3
Fig. 5 Compressive strength development of glass of various colors, for 2 different activators
1
100 pm
Energy/keV
Limestone
particle
Partially rea
Glass particle
43 t1 10 M J Iván ESCALANTE-GARCIA:
1445
of glass seem to be less important for activation
mixtures of NaOH/Na
2
CO
3
. One difference on the
effect of the type of activator from Fig.
5,
is that glass
activated with waterglass show a trend for higher
strength after
28
d, while those activated with mixtures
of NaOHINa
2
CO
3
seem to have reached a steady
strength. The microstructures of binders 100% glass
activated by different activators (Fig.
6)
show the
formation of a dense matrix of reaction products;
cracks appeared due to the a drying effect of the sample
under the high vacuum of the microscope column
[301•
Novel binders based on a combination of glass and
limestone have shown interesting properties. A statistical
'%.
1
100
(a) Binder cured with 12%Na,0
Water glass modulus
of
1.25, curing
T=
40
,
O
analysis pointed an optimal composition indicating the
values for parameters such as CaO/Si0
2
ratio, order of
mixture, type of activator, %NaO, temperature,
etc.
The
analysis of variance revealed that the factors with
significant contribution to the strength were CaO/Si0
2
ratio, % Na
2
0 and curing temperature
12
. A prediction of
the
28
days strength of
(38±13.61)
MPa was confirmed
experimentally. Figure 7 shows a microstructure of a
binder waste glass-limestone activated with
9%
Na
2
0
and a mixture of NaOHINa
2
CO
3
. Two zones of reaction
products were noted, one darker that was rich in Ca and
one brighter rich in Si, also, thermal analysis suggested
the formation of C-S-H hydration products.
(b)
10%Na20 NaOHJNa
2
CO
3
VD is
glass particle,
PR is
reaction product,
T
=60
.
0.
Fig. 6 SEM micrographs of binders activated by different activators
30
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7 SEM micrographs and EDS spectra of binder based on mixtures of waste glass and limestone activated with 9
0
/oNa
2
0 and a
mixture of NaOH/Na2CO3 [21
Figure
8
presents results from of
29
Si magic angle
spinning nuclear magnetic resonance of pastes of waste
glass-limestone and unreacted glass. The backbone of the
glass structure is the network of tetrahedral SiO
4
, which
je connected at al! comers to form a three dimensional
network. The presence of network modifiers reduce the
connectivity on the network, so the unreacted glass
shows predominance of Si in
Q
2
(-86
to
—91)
Q
3
(-93
to
—101) and
Q
4
(-104to
—112)
coordination
[31-321•
After
28
and
180
days of reaction of the activated glass-limestone
binder, the spectra shifted towards a predominance of
Q
2
signals, which evidence the presence of SiO
4
tetrahedra equivalent to chain silicates
[33]
in which the
tetrahedra are middle groups in chains as in C-S-H
[31]•
The signal at
—93
ppm could indicate unreacted glass and
the formation of silica gel condensed after the glass
dissolution and recondensation
[341
in agreement with the
densification of the microstructures (Fig. 7) and energy
50
la
30
1)
20
o.
E
¿510
O
25
ED
20
(II
u
lo
o.
E
o
o
O
1446
-
-
J Chin Ceram
Soc, 2015, 43(10): 1441-1448
2015
dispersive spectroscopy results.
Q
l
Q
2
Q
l
Q
4
28
d
80
I
d
ected
Glass
—Of.)
—(Ii
—SU
—)U —IUU —IIU —12U —IJU
Chemical shifi
Fig.
8
29
Si Magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance
of unreacted glass and reacted glass-limestone
composites
Sodium silicate geis formed after activation of 100%
glass show lack of hydrolytic stability, which results of
strength losses under moist curing of pastes
[28]
Sorne of
our pastes show such behavior as seen in Fig.9. Retaining
glass powder as a major constituent and including
sources of Ca and Al by using ground granulated blast
furnace slag and metakaolin was found to better control the
strength loss under moisture exposure
[23,27-28]
as noted for
composites of UWG-blastfljrnace slag in Fig. 10.
Undergoing research results confirrn indicates the use of
Ca sources is beneficial and that composites of waste
glass activated with quick lime result in hydraulic
binders.
3.3.2 Alkali activated UGW in concretes
Figure 10 shows the strength of a concrete prepared
with 350 kg/m
3
of UWG activated with Na
2
O alkaline
compounds and cured at different conditions. Limestone
was used as aggregates. One day curing at 60 °C then at
20
°
C resulted in strengths of 17 and 32 MPa after 3 and
28 d, respectively. On the other hand, curing permanently
at 40 C resulted in slightly lower strengths. Figure 10
includes the strength development of a composite binder
of glass and metakaolin cured at 20 C, which showed
lower initial strength, but 28 day strength of about
25 MPa.
A concrete with 280 kg/m
3
of UWG combining a
limestone fuer and a water/cement ratio of 0.4, was
activated with less alkaline compounds of Na cornbining
NaOHINa
2
CO
3
cured for 72 h at 40 'C then at room
temperature; the 3 day strengths were of 9-11 MPa,
while those after 28 d were of 28-3
5
MPa
351
. Figure 11
shows a macrostructure of one of such concretes, which
showed water resistance after more than 28 d. More
studies are in progress on concretes with UWG'sed
binders, the results are promising.
6(
50
40
Dry
30
1?
M.
E
o
C) lo
Wet
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
Curing time/d
(a)
100%
glass activated with NaOH, cured at
60 t
Initial
14
days
of
curing
55.2
E:J
Dry
Under water
22.5
Na0HJNa,CO
3
NaOH
Activating agent
(b) Composites
of
glass+blastfurnace slag, cured at Ambient temperature
Fig. 9 Comparison of strength development in dry and wet
conditions strength of composites of glass-blastfurnace
slag cured dry and under water
35
30
cured at
40 'C
Y-
£
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Curing time/d
Fig. 10 Compressive strength development of concretes with
glass and glass-metakaolin binders
43
tffi 10 M J Iván ESCALANTE-GARCIA:
i
4t'
1447
Fig.
11
Macrostructure of a concrete with a binder of Urban
waste glass and a CaCO
3
fuer
4 Availability of glass and other main
byproducts
Blastfurnace slag and fly ash are the by-products most
used in alkali activated cements of high and low calcium,
respectively. In 2013, about 1,167.3 million tons of pig
¡ron were produced
36
; by considering that 250 kg of slag
are produced per ton of pig ¡ron, about 290 million tons
of slag were produced, but data on how much was
granulated is not defined. On the other hand, the world
production of fly ash is of about 770 million tons, from
which only 53% are used
[37j•
Fly ash and blastfumace
slag are relatively abundant, but their availability is
geographically restricted lo industrial activities. In
contrast, UWG is relatively less abundant, but widely
available, which facilitates the possibilities worldwide to
use the more than
65
million tons of glass currently
available in MSW, which will increase to 119 million
tons by the year 2025 (Table 1).
5
Recycling Glass, as a binder or in the
glass industry
Glass can be 100% recycled indefinitively without any
loss in quality
[11];
however, the recycling process waste
glass to produce glass can be a complex task
1241
that
requires recollection, sorting by colors, cleaning,
etc..
In
contrast, the reutilization of waste glass as a raw material
for alkali activated cements does not require color sorting
and the ACC are noble enough to tolerate a range of
impurities, making the recycling of glass as a binder
comparatively simpler. So the question is whether using
glass as a binder is more environmentally friendly.
According to the Glass Packaging Institute
[381
for every
six tons of recycled container glass, a ton of CO
2
is saved;
or 0.167 tons of CO
2
saved per ton of recycled glass. In
contrast, regarding the use of UWG in altemative binders,
assuming that 1 ton of portland cement results in 0.9 tons
of CO
2
, and a conservative estimation that AAC cements
reduce 60% the CO
2
emissions relative to portland
cement, then each ton of glass recycled as a binder,
would save about
0.54
tons of CO
2
. Recycling glass as a
binder saves more than 200% CO
2
than recycling to
produce new glass. This makes the recycling of glass as a
binder a sustainable route to turn a waste into a useful
material and to contribute to reduce the growing CO
2
emissions which have reached more than 33 billion ton
[39]
However, much research is still needed.
6
Conclusions
1)
Soda-lime-silica glass by-product is a promising
raw material to produce alkali activated cements, since it
is a readily available abundant resource in municipal
wastes.
2)
Recycling waste glass as a binder is technologically
simpler and more advantageous in terms of CO
2
emissions than the recycling in the glass industry
3)
Waste glass can be combined with other wastes or
raw materials such as blast furnace slag or metakaolin to
produce green alkali activated cements, which are
attractive towards the production of environmentally
friendly products.
4)
Extensive laboratory work is needed to understand
and promote its hydraulic properties and durability.
5)
Research is needed to correlate formulation,
dosification and properties, as well as to validate mid and
long term behavior to extrapolate laboratory research to
commercial exploitation.
Acknowledgements:
The financial help of the National
Council of Science and Technology of México (Project Ciencia
Basica No
182424)
is gratefully acknowledged.
References:
[1]
US Energy information Administration. http://www.eia.gov/
todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id= 12251, last accesed march 2015
[2]
AVILA-LÓPEZ U, ALMANZA-ROBLES J M, ESCALANTE-
GARCÍA J I. Investigation of novel waste glass asid limestone binders
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[3]
GARTNER E. Industrially interesting approaches to "Low CO2"
cements[J]. Cern Concr Res, 2004, 34: 277-1283.
[4]
SHI C, FERNANDEZ-JIMENEZ A, PALOMO A. New Cemenis for
the 21s century: the pursuit of an alternative to portland cement[J].
Cern Concr Res, 2011,41: 750-763.
[5]
BERNAL S A, PROVIS J L, FERNÁNDEZ-JIMÉNEZ A. Binder
Chemistry - High-Calcium Alkali- Activated Materials, m Alkali
Activated Materials State-of-the-Art Report[M]. RILEM TC 224-AAM.
Springer ISBN 978-94-007-7671-5, 2014.
[6]
PROVIS J L, FERNÁNDEZ-JIMÉNEZ A, KAMSEU E. Binder
Chemistry - Low-Calcium AIkaIi- Activated Materials. in AIkali
Activated Materials State-of-the-Art Report[M]. RILEM TC 224-.AAM
Springer ISBN 978-94-007-7671-5, 2014.
[7]
YANG T, YAO X, ZHANG S, et al. Mechanical properrv and snucture
of alkali-activated fly ash and slag blends [J]. J Sustain Cement-Based
Mater, 2012, 1(4): 167-178.
[8]
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