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Abstract
Several native bird species have recently successfully colonized many Australian cities. The presence of some of them may be largely beneficial, but their urban ecology is poorly understood. We conducted short-term studies of the foraging ecology of Rainbow and Musk Lorikeets and Red-rumped Parrots in Melbourne parklands to help fill this knowledge gap. The nectar (and/or pollen) of six eucalypt species, mostly not native to the Melbourne area, strongly dominated the lorikeets' diet year-round. The key eucalypt species variously flowered for 80-100% of winter and 72-84% of summer. In winter, 80% of the Red-rumped Parrot's diet comprised the abundant seeds of four exotic grasses and herbs. There was little evidence of significant inter-specific competition, particularly through aggressive interference, for any of the lorikeets' or parrots' urban food resources. Thus a critical factor facilitating urban colonization by these birds seems to be that, collectively, ornamental eucalypts planted last century, turf grasses commonly occurring on sports grounds and in parks and common weeds provide abundant food resources in Melbourne's parklands that are broadly similar to those of their non-urban habitats. Moreover, exploitation of these resources by other urban birds seems to be fairly limited.
... Over the past few decades, however, lorikeets populations have increased dramatically in many cities, fuelled in part by the superabundance of nectar-bearing plants favoured by gardeners (Smith & Lill 2008;Lill 2009) and the provision of seed by householders (Rollinson et al. 2003). One of the most conspicuous traits of Rainbow Lorikeet presence in urban areas is the formation of large roosting colonies, often comprising many thousands of birds (Higgins 1999). ...
... Despite the spectacular growth in urban populations of Rainbow Lorikeets throughout Australia (Fitzsimons et al. 2003;Lill 2009), little is known about most aspects of their roosting behaviour. An important exception is a recent study conducted in Sydney, Australia (Jaggard et al. 2015). ...
... They inhabit many habitat types but are especially abundant in areas dominated by eucalypts and melaleuca (Higgins 1999). Their movements are generally nomadic and somewhat seasonal, responding to the flowering patterns of the native trees in which they forage (Lill 2009). They feed primarily on nectar and pollen, although they will often feed on a wide variety of fruits, seeds and some insects (Higgins 1999;Lill 2009). ...
1. The formation of large communal roosts is a conspicuous phenomenon associated with a wide range of bird species successfully exploiting urban environments. In many Australian cities, the abundance of the Rainbow Lorikeet (
2. We investigated the selection of roosting sites in this species in Brisbane, Australia, by comparing characteristics of both the general sites of these roosts as well as individual trees used within roosting sites and trees that were avoided.
3. Lorikeets used a wide variety of tree types for roosting but demonstrated a clear preference for clumped trees within sparsely treed areas that received significantly more artificial light at night than otherwise suitable sites and trees nearby.
4. These features of roosting sites may enhance the detection of nocturnal predators by Rainbow Lorikeets, suggesting a potential positive impact of anthropogenic lighting. Our findings provide valuable insights into the management of roost-related conflicts in urban areas. We encourage further investigations into the possible benefits of artificial light.
... Our results support previous research highlighting the importance of urban settlements for granivorous birds [26,56], given that seeds were mostly consumed in the town. Seeds produced by grasses and herbs [81,82], as well as crops (e.g., rice) that local people provide for urban bird species (e.g., rock pigeon), might be responsible for such a pattern. ...
Agriculture impacts both human welfare and biodiversity at the same time. Still, social and ecological assessments have commonly analyzed the relevance of agroecosystems separately. We evaluated the human and avian feeding use of the biocultural landscape in Jardín, Colombia, using a socioecological approach. Together with farmers, we identified the main socioecological units of the landscape (i.e., fincas, grazing lands, town, forests) and determined the use of each unit in terms of food foraging from forests, crop cultivation, cattle grazing, food commercialization, and food industrialization. We compared the richness of the food resources produced among finca sections (i.e., gardens, coffee–banana plantations, grazing lands). Then, we surveyed avian behavior to contrast the richness of bird species, feeding use and intensity, and food types consumed by birds among the units. Fincas were shown to play a pivotal role in feeding both humans and birds. Gardens provide food for people as well as nectarivore and frugivore birds. Coffee–banana plantations are economically relevant, but their food provision is limited and could be enhanced by increasing the diversity of the food crops within them. The town supports commerce and granivorous birds, whereas grazing lands have limited feeding importance. Forests are used by birds to capture invertebrates but do not supply much food for the people. Our approach fosters the identification of key socioecological units, demonstrating that studying both humans and wildlife enhances the comprehension of biocultural landscapes.
... Loss of natural habitat and the resulting limitation of resources can 'push' animals to search for alternative resting and foraging habitat in urban environments [see 10]. Alternatively, adaptable species can be attracted to urban landscapes by novel food sources [11], reduced predation pressure [12], and lowered inter-species competition for resources [13]. However, while the presence of wildlife in urban areas can be perceived as beneficial to human physical and psychological well-being [14][15][16], the growing urban human-wildlife interface can result in increased human-wildlife conflict and so poses wildlife management challenges. ...
Urban expansion is a major threat to natural ecosystems but also creates novel opportunities that adaptable species can exploit. The grey-headed flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) is a threatened, highly mobile species of bat that is increasingly found in human-dominated landscapes, leading to many management and conservation challenges. Flying-fox urbanisation is thought to be a result of diminishing natural foraging habitat or increasing urban food resources, or both. However, little is known about landscape utilisation of flying-foxes in human-modified areas, and how this may differ in natural areas. Here we examine positional data from 98 satellite-tracked P. poliocephalus for up to 5 years in urban and non-urban environments, in relation to vegetation data and published indices of foraging habitat quality. Our findings indicate that human-modified foraging landscapes sustain a large proportion of the P. poliocephalus population year-round. When individuals roosted in non-urban and minor-urban areas, they relied primarily on wet and dry sclerophyll forest, forested wetlands, and rainforest for foraging, and preferentially visited foraging habitat designated as high-quality. However, our results highlight the importance of human-modified foraging habitats throughout the species’ range, and particularly for individuals that roosted in major-urban environments. The exact plant species that exist in human-modified habitats are largely undocumented; however, where this information was available, foraging by P. poliocephalus was associated with different dominant plant species depending on whether individuals roosted in ‘urban’ or ‘non-urban’ areas. Overall, our results demonstrate clear differences in urban- and non-urban landscape utilisation by foraging P. poliocephalus. However, further research is needed to understand the exact foraging resources used, particularly in human-modified habitats, and hence what attracts flying-foxes to urban areas. Such information could be used to modify the urban foraging landscape, to assist long-term habitat management programs aimed at minimising human-wildlife conflict and maximising resource availability within and outside of urban environments.
... Most of the parrot species are omnivorous (Lill 2009) and opportunistic when presented with new feeding opportunities, but sometimes also feed on plants and insects (Clarke 1971, Brejaart 1988. ...
Parrots (Psittaciformes) are a unique and diverse avian group and vary tremendously in size, shape, and colour. Mainly distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, most species of parrots are largely or exclusively arboreal with several exceptions. The species also differ in diet and habitat, which led to different musculoskeletal adaptations of the skull. However, parrots have conspicuous generalized external features; in this recent study, we tried to increase our knowledge of the cranial shape and foraging habits. A geometric morphometric approach was used to analyse two-dimensional cranial landmarks. We used principal component (PC) analyses on measurements that may be related to diet. The PCs described the relative height of the cranium , the relative length and curvature of the beak, differences in the orientation and curvature of the lacrimal bone and the upper margin of orbits, variation in the size and position of the palatine bone and the relative width of the cranium, and variation in the relative size of the neurocranium compared to the viscerocranium . The dietary categories overlap in the morphospace but the analysis in lateral and ventral view resulted in significant differences.
... (Baker 2014, Lamont & Burbidge 1996, Jaggard 2014. They cause several nuisances to resident humans and other animal species, although they are drawn to the cities due do the abundance of flowers planted by gardeners and the seeds provided by delighted bird lovers (Lill 2009, Rollinson et al. 2003, which has boosted growth up to an estimated 35 000 birds (Daoud-Opit 2011) in urban flocks. ...
Psittaciformes, or parrots, are universally and historically recognized not only for their innate vocalizations and mimicry skills, but also for their cognitive skills, compared to the ones of primates. The origin of these two features is still discussed, many times symbiotically, on various biological and scientific levels. The two main evolutionary hypotheses that explain these – the social brain hypothesis and the relationship intelligence hypothesis – greatly draw on the complex social structure, predominance of monogamy and daily foraging variety of these birds as a basis for the appearance of these attributes. Psittaciformes are, furthermore, of interest on the research of the evolution of language, since they too exhibit cultural drift from flow of individuals between populations, resulting in dialects in the vocalization repertoires. Parrots are, however, not very well studied in relation to their worldwide fame. They are common exotic pets whose wild populations are under threat due to long-lasting intense trading market, and at the same time have become invaders of new environments by escaping or being deliberately released.
My aim was to describe the vocal and behavioural repertoires of a previously less-know Australian parrot, Trichoglossus moluccanus, or rainbow lorikeets, and correlate these with hypotheses on vocal learning and evolution of cognition. Through a descriptive study complete by and acoustical approach, these birds showed complex group dynamics between the 11 analysed individuals and evidence of a possible convergence of vocalizations within the group. Their behavioural and vocal repertoire here described are the most complete on this species so far, including 45 behaviours and the acoustic characteristics of 12 call types, with respective contextual association between the two. One fully recorded mating event, unprecedented in rainbow lorikeets, is described in detail.
These features make this species one of good value for research on both its healthy wild and captive populations, on themes such as parrot ecology, the influence of the human presence on their behaviour, the evolution of dialects and ritualized behaviours from cultural differentiation, vocal learning and mimicry, and the evolution of non-primate and general cognition, intelligence and language. Findings on species such as these could help improve conservation efforts to similar endangered species, through the increase of knowledge on this taxonomic group, while calling attention to the importance of cultural assimilation in programs for reintroduction.
... Proposed reasons for this greater abundance include: (a) availability of additional, novel foods, such as human food waste and food supplements intentionally provided at feeding stations [7,8], (b) extension of flowering and fruiting seasons, resulting from the urban heat sink effect and artificial watering regimes [9,10], and (c) planting of multiple, non-indigenous plant species that increase the amount and seasonal availability of nectar, pollen and fruit [11,12]. A second facilitating factor may be a low level of interspecific food competition, probably resulting partly *Address correspondence to this author at the School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Victoria 3068, Australia; Tel: +61 411 694 084; Email: A.Hirund@gmail.com from the reduced species richness in urban bird communities, which may also effectively increase food availability for urban adapters [13,14]. However, the combined effect of increased food abundance and low interspecific food competition must be substantial in order to counteract the effect of an increased population density and intraspecific competition level in the urban adapter [15][16][17]. ...
Avian urban colonization is thought to be facilitated by a capacity for innovative feeding, ecological generalism and social foraging. However, the relative importance in exploiting urban resources and avoiding urban predators of being inherently ‘pre-adapted’ to the urban environment or adjusting to it through phenotypic plasticity requires more examination. These issues were explored in a native ‘urban adapter’, the Little raven Corvus mellori , by comparing its foraging ecology, group size and nest site use in Melbourne, Australia, and the surrounding exurban environment. Urban individuals manipulated human food waste and gleaned from sealed surfaces more than exurban conspecifics (suggesting behavioural flexibility), but foraging behaviour and substrate use were broadly similar in both environments (suggesting ‘preadaptation’). Little ravens foraged close to conspecifics and heterospecifics more frequently in the urban than the exurban environment, but some potential dietary competitors rarely foraged near urban Little ravens, possibly indicating some niche partitioning. Mean urban rate of agonistic interaction with other bird species was low (0.023 interactions per foraging raven observed). Although displacement of a raven >10 m occurred in 61-70% of such interactions, the displaced individual usually rapidly resumed foraging nearby. Thus aggressive, interspecific interference competition for food appeared limited. Large groups of Little ravens were twice as common in the exurban as the urban environment, which was inconsistent with the hypothesis that social foraging facilitated urban colonization. Nest tree type (predominantly eucalypts), size and isolation were similar in urban and exurban environments, but urban nests were significantly more concealed. We suggest that ‘preadaptation’, behavioural innovation and a relative lack of significant, interspecific food competition have contributed to urban colonization by Little ravens.
... Parrots have colonised Australasian cities (Lowry and Lill 2007;Lill 2009;Davis et al. 2014;Santos and Ragusa-Netto 2014;Tella et al. 2014;Jaggard et al. 2015;Irumba et al. 2016). Human-avian conflicts, especially involving parrots, are described in the literature, as birds have become more abundant in cities (Long 1985;Jaggard et al. 2015;Spur et al. 2016). ...
Wildlife reintroductions to peopled landscapes pose socio-ecological opportunities and risks, and a responsibility to people as well as wildlife. Human–wildlife conflicts can escalate rapidly where anthropogenic foods and feeding cause wildlife to congregate and damage property. Those conflicts polarise attitudes to the wildlife and may cascade into conflicts between people over wildlife. The native parrot, kākā (Nestor meridionalis), was reintroduced to Wellington City in 2002 and we suspect that it initiated a classical human–wildlife conflict cascade. We tested for feeding-induced damage, and different attitude scores amongst neighbours using a postal household survey. We received 313 completed surveys, a 55.9% response rate, across eight suburbs. Minor to severe damage, costing up to NZ$3000 to repair, was reported to trees, buildings, and outdoor furniture. Seventeen respondents reported feeding kākā, mostly fruit and vegetables, but also sugar water, bread, and nuts and seeds, and we received surveys from 33 of their non-feeding neighbours. Feeding significantly increased reports of kākā, and kākā abundance was positively associated with kākā damage. Neighbourhoods closer to Zealandia (the wildlife sanctuary where kākā are fed) and the neighbours of people who fed kākā were statistically more likely to incur property damage than more distant suburbs and residents. Neighbours’ attitudinal scores about kākā and native birds were significantly negatively associated with greater kākā damage. The reintroduction of kākā has initiated a feeding-induced wildlife–human conflict. We discuss what can be learned from the experience with kākā in Wellington City for urban wildlife conservation in the future.
... Kea (Psittaciformes: Nestor notabilis) are endemic to the alpine regions of New Zealand. In contrast with most other parrot species, they are omnivorous (Clarke 1970;Brejaart 1988;Higgins 1999;Lill 2009) and opportunistic when presented with new feeding opportunities. In addition to feeding on plants and insects (Clarke 1970;Brejaart 1988), kea have also been reported feeding on Hutton's shearwater (Puffinus huttoni) chicks and eggs (Temple 1996;Harrow 1976), mice (Mus musculus; Beggs and Mankelow 2002), and domesticated sheep (Ovis aries; Marriner 1908). ...
... As for other parrot species, such as the rainbow lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus, musk lorikeet Glossopsitta concinna, and red-rumped parrots Psephotus haematonotus that have successfully colonized city parklands in Australia (Lill 2009), the kaka has recently been reintroduced to sites in or near the NZ capital, Wellington city (Miskelly et al. 2005;Kerry and Linklater 2013). Recent management objectives for the city identify a need to improve functional connectivity for wildlife species, and recognize the importance of understanding animal movements within patches to guide management strategies (Wellington City Council 2013). ...
Urbanization and exotic species are major threats to the conservation of forest-dependent wildlife species. Some emblematic species, indicators of habitat quality for the conservation of other species, might successfully be reintroduced within cities when habitat restoration and pest management programs are combined. We studied the landscape resource selection of juvenile kaka Nestor meridionalis tracked with Global Positioning System (GPS) units and released into the predator-free reserve of Zealandia in Wellington city, New Zealand. Kaka moved beyond the predator exclusion fence into urban suburbs. The home range size and areas of high use estimated using local convex hull (a-LoCoH) ranged from 20 to 240 ha and 2 to 21 ha, respectively. Using resource selection functions and model selection we found that native forest patches and urban areas close to the reserve were selected by kaka to establish their home ranges. At a lower scale of selection (i.e., selection of habitats within home ranges), kaka selected the same habitat, but not necessarily those close to the reserve. Native forest patches throughout the city can facilitate the dispersal of individuals, while the reserve provides protection and opportunities for supplementary feeding. Urban areas might have been selected due to the placement of feeders in private backyards. Survival of forest-dwelling species in cities requires careful urban planning and management to provide the necessary habitat patches, refugia, and food sources.
... Much research has been KITCheN, LILL & PRICe FIeLd ORNIThOLOgy conducted on urban colonisation by native Australian birds (e.g. Catterall 2004;French et al. 2008;Lill 2009), but their tolerance of vehicular and pedestrian traffic is poorly documented and understood. ...
To successfully colonise cities, birds must be highly tolerant of human traffic. We examined this tolerance in a native urban coloniser, the Magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca, in suburban Melbourne, Victoria. We compared flushing behaviour and the Flight Initiation Distance (FID) of urban and rural individuals, and of urban individuals encountered near to and farther away from roads and pathways carrying vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Mean FID to a researcher was 12 ± 1 m in Melbourne, compared with 35 ± 3 m in rural Victoria. Rural birds also flushed more by flying (100% versus 57.6%) and fled farther than urban individuals. Mean FID to a researcher was 1.9 times larger farther from (13 ± 2 m) than near to (7 ± 0.6 m) urban roads, but time allocations to vigilance (24.1%) and foraging (65.5-69.4%) and the percentage of birds that flushed (86% and 75%) were similar in the two locations. People caused more of the flushing of Magpie-larks near to (55%) than farther from (20%) urban roads and pedestrian pathways. We speculate that the disparities in flushing behaviour (urban/rural and near to/farther from urban roads) probably resulted mainly from habituation, a learning process that could be critical in facilitating urban colonisation and use of habitat near busy urban traffic corridors by members of temperamentally inherently 'bold' species.
Amazona lilacina is a threatened species endemic to Ecuador, existing across a patchwork of mangroves, lowland coastal forests, agricultural and community owned land. The species was described in 2014 and listed as ‘Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List, however, full assessment of the population was lacking. Using a combination of field observations, roost surveys and community questionnaires, conducted over the last 20 years, we provide up-to-date information on the species’ Extent of Occurrence, estimate its global population size, and evaluate its level of threat. Our results suggest the species occurs across an area of 19,890 km ² in three distinct geographically isolated subpopulations. Roost surveys across the range estimate the minimum remaining population at 741–1,090 individuals and we present evidence to suggest a 60% decline over the past 19 years in one part of the species’ range. We conducted community questionnaires with 427 people from 52 communities. The presence of pet parrots was reported in 37 communities, including 17 communities which reported pet A. lilacina. From this we predict that over half of all communities within our study area keep parrots as pets and at least 96 communities keep A. lilacina. Our findings justify an IUCN Red Listing of at least ‘Endangered’ for this species and highlight the need for conservation support. In order to assess population health in more detail, further research is required to assess genetic diversity and roost dynamics, and to identify areas that may be important for feeding and nesting throughout the range. As many of these areas are likely to overlap with community owned land, we suggest that future conservation actions should revolve around, and be led by, these communities.
Lorikeet densities were measured across four habitat types in urban Melbourne. Musk Glossopsitta concinna and Rainbow Lorikeets Trichoglossus haematodus were shown to preferentially use established streetscapes with predominantly native vegetation. The high densities of Musk Lorikeets recorded possibly reflect a paucity of flowering in Victorian Box-Ironbark forests during the autumn/winter of 2002 and the availability of supplementary nectar resources in the urban environment. Future planting decisions in recently developed streetscapes will dictate the long-term resource potential for lorikeets and other nectarivores in urban Melbourne.
Rainbow Trichoglossus haematodus and Musk Glossopsitta concinna Lorikeets have increased in abundance in Melbourne, Australia in recent years. We documented the diet and feeding behaviour of these lorikeets at 20 parkland sites in autumn and winter to increase our understanding of factors facilitating this urban colonisation. Both species' diets were dominated (≥89%) by nectar and/or pollen of eucalypt species, more than two thirds of which were not native to the Melbourne area. Small numbers of invertebrates and some fruit and seeds were also consumed. Two or three of the eucalypt species used were flowering at any given time and two of the most exploited species flowered almost continuously. Introduced eucalypts have probably been important in the recent winter increase in abundance of the lorikeets in Melbourne. Both lorikeets used the same five feeding postures, perching upright (∼58%) and dexterously hanging inverted (∼40% of records) being the most common. Six other Australian native bird species exploited the lorikeets' eucalypt nectar resources, but mostly infrequently; however, they did use the same foraging substrate and exhibit similar feeding behaviour. Only 11 aggressive inter-specific interactions involving the lorikeets were observed in 4.5 months. Significant interference competition from other bird species for the lorikeets' highly abundant food resources seemed unlikely; its absence could also be facilitating the lorikeets' winter colonisation of the city. Planting more eucalypts in streets and parks, including ones native to the Melbourne area, could potentially lead eventually to further increase in lorikeet densities in the city in autumn and winter.
The abundance and distribution of Rainbow (Trichoglossus haematodus) and Musk (Glossopsitta concinna) Lorikeets in Melbourne have increased markedly in recent years. We studied the feeding ecology of the two species, and their interspecific aggressive interactions, in some parks in Melbourne in spring and summer to determine how availability of food might affect the success of this urban proliferation. The diets of both species were dominated by nectar or pollen (the two were not distinguished in this study) from 5-6 species of eucalypts. Feeding on native plants not indigenous to the Melbourne region accounted for 61% and 74% of feeding records of Rainbow and Musk Lorikeets respectively. Both lorikeets foraged mainly in the tree canopy (99% of records), mostly perching upright or hanging to reach their food. Nectar and pollen were readily available through spring and summer because five important eucalypt food-plant species flowered constantly and several other food-plant species flowered for a substantial proportion of the time. There was little use of lorikeet food resources by other species of bird, and lorikeets were only involved in 3.5 interspecific aggressive encounters at feeding sites per observation week. The feeding ecology of the lorikeets in spring-summer was broadly similar to that reported for Melbourne in winter and for non-urban habitats in northern and eastern Australia. Abundant nectar and pollen from ornamental eucalypts planted in the twentieth century and the apparently low level of competitive interactions with other bird species for these resources have probably been important in facilitating the recent increase in abundance and distribution of both lorikeets in Melbourne.
Abstract Over the previous three decades, the rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus Family Psittacidae) has increased in urbanized areas of Australia. To help understand the nature of this increase, we investigated the influence of road density, tree cover and season on the occurrence of the rainbow lorikeet in the Melbourne region. Bayesian logistic regression was used to construct models to predict the occurrence of rainbow lorikeets, using Birds Australia atlas data at 207 2-ha sites. The results demonstrate a strong relationship between tree cover and urbanization and the distribution of the species. The best model incorporated quadratic terms for road density and tree cover, and interaction terms, as well as season as a categorical variable. Probability of occurrence of rainbow lorikeets was highest at medium tree cover (40% to 70% of the site covered) and medium road density (9% to 12% of the surrounding area covered by roads). There was a close correspondence between the predictions of the model and new observations from bird surveys conducted at randomly selected field sites. The increased abundance of the species in urban areas has occurred despite a paucity of hollows that would act as suitable nesting sites, suggesting that only a small proportion of the population is breeding in these areas.