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Effect of the forest environment on physiological relaxation using the results of field tests at 35 sites throughout Japan
Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to clarify the physiological relaxation effect of a forest environment using field tests. We conducted field experiments in 35 forests across Japan. The subjects were twelve male university students at each location (420 in total; age range 21.8 ± 1.6 years). On the first day, 6 subjects were sent to a forest area, and the others to a city area. On the second day, each group was sent to the other area. The subjects walked (for 16 ± 5 min) around their assigned areas, and sat on chairs viewing the landscapes of their assigned areas (for 14 ± 2 min). Salivary cortisol, blood pressure, pulse rate, and heart rate variability (HRV) were used as indices. Measurements were taken at the place of accommodation in the morning, before and after walking, and before and after viewing at their assigned field areas. The R-R interval was also measured during the walking and viewing periods. The results show that forest environments promote lower concentrations of cortisol, lower pulse rate, lower blood pressure, greater parasympathetic nerve activity, and lower sympathetic nerve activity than city environments. These results will contribute to the development of a research field dedicated to forest-based therapy.
... An accumulation of data has resulted in the concept of "forest therapy"; this refers to evidence-based forest bathing with the aim of achieving preventive medical effects that render a state of physiological relaxation and boost weakened immune functions to prevent diseases [3]. Numerous studies have demonstrated the effects of forests in mitigating stress states and inducing physiological relaxation in healthy individuals [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. Walking through a forest and/or viewing sceneries can reduce levels of salivary cortisol, a stress hormone [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]17], blood pressure [8,11,12,15,17], and pulse rate [8,10,11,13,15,17,18]. ...
... Numerous studies have demonstrated the effects of forests in mitigating stress states and inducing physiological relaxation in healthy individuals [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. Walking through a forest and/or viewing sceneries can reduce levels of salivary cortisol, a stress hormone [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]17], blood pressure [8,11,12,15,17], and pulse rate [8,10,11,13,15,17,18]. It can also increase parasympathetic nervous activity, which is enhanced during relaxation [8,10,[12][13][14][15][16][17][18], and can suppress sympathetic nervous activity, which increases in stressful situations [8,[12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. ...
... Numerous studies have demonstrated the effects of forests in mitigating stress states and inducing physiological relaxation in healthy individuals [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. Walking through a forest and/or viewing sceneries can reduce levels of salivary cortisol, a stress hormone [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]17], blood pressure [8,11,12,15,17], and pulse rate [8,10,11,13,15,17,18]. It can also increase parasympathetic nervous activity, which is enhanced during relaxation [8,10,[12][13][14][15][16][17][18], and can suppress sympathetic nervous activity, which increases in stressful situations [8,[12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. ...
Research Highlights: This study demonstrated that viewing forest landscapes induced physical and mental health benefits on young women. Background and Objectives: The health-promoting effects of spending time in forests have received increasing attention; however, there is a lack of evidence-based research investigating the effects of spending time in forests on women. This study aimed to evaluate the physiological and psychological effects of viewing forest landscapes on young women. Materials and Methods: The experiments were conducted in six forests and six city areas and included 65 women (mean age, 21.0 ± 1.3 years). Participants viewed a forest and a city area for 15 min, during which their heart rate variability and heart rate were measured continuously. Blood pressure and pulse rate were measured before and after the viewing. After the viewing, participants’ psychological responses were assessed using the modified semantic differential method, Profile of Mood States (POMS), and the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Results: Compared with viewing city areas, viewing forest landscapes was associated with significantly higher parasympathetic nervous activity and lower sympathetic nervous activity and heart rate. Moreover, scores of the comfortable, relaxed, and natural parameters and vigor subscales of POMS were significantly higher with forest viewing. The scores of negative feelings, such as tension–anxiety, depression–dejection, anger–hostility, fatigue, and confusion, were significantly lower, as were scores for the total mood disturbance observed using POMS and the anxiety dimension observed using STAI. Conclusions: Viewing forest landscapes resulted in physiological and psychological relaxations in young women.
... Therefore, nature therapy, which is a health-promotion method using medically proven effects such as relaxation by exposure to natural stimuli from forests, urban green spaces, plants, and wooden materials, has been receiving increasing attention [40]. Exposure to stimuli from natural sources increases parasympathetic nervous activity [41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48], suppresses sympathetic nervous activity [41][42][43][44][45][46][47], reduces stress hormone levels [44][45][46][47][48][49][50], and sedates prefrontal cortex activity [50], thereby rendering a relaxed state in people, which can progress to a normal relaxed state wherein a person feels comfortable. Nature therapy is defined as "a set of practices aimed at achieving 'preventive medical effects' via exposure to natural stimuli that render a state of physiological relaxation and boost weakened immune functions to prevent diseases" [40,51]. ...
... Therefore, nature therapy, which is a health-promotion method using medically proven effects such as relaxation by exposure to natural stimuli from forests, urban green spaces, plants, and wooden materials, has been receiving increasing attention [40]. Exposure to stimuli from natural sources increases parasympathetic nervous activity [41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48], suppresses sympathetic nervous activity [41][42][43][44][45][46][47], reduces stress hormone levels [44][45][46][47][48][49][50], and sedates prefrontal cortex activity [50], thereby rendering a relaxed state in people, which can progress to a normal relaxed state wherein a person feels comfortable. Nature therapy is defined as "a set of practices aimed at achieving 'preventive medical effects' via exposure to natural stimuli that render a state of physiological relaxation and boost weakened immune functions to prevent diseases" [40,51]. ...
... Therefore, nature therapy, which is a health-promotion method using medically proven effects such as relaxation by exposure to natural stimuli from forests, urban green spaces, plants, and wooden materials, has been receiving increasing attention [40]. Exposure to stimuli from natural sources increases parasympathetic nervous activity [41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48], suppresses sympathetic nervous activity [41][42][43][44][45][46][47], reduces stress hormone levels [44][45][46][47][48][49][50], and sedates prefrontal cortex activity [50], thereby rendering a relaxed state in people, which can progress to a normal relaxed state wherein a person feels comfortable. Nature therapy is defined as "a set of practices aimed at achieving 'preventive medical effects' via exposure to natural stimuli that render a state of physiological relaxation and boost weakened immune functions to prevent diseases" [40,51]. ...
Population growth and increased stress caused by urbanization have led to social problems that are predicted to intensify in the future. In these conditions, the recently established ”nature therapy” has revealed that an environment rich in various plant life significantly contributes to the relief of physical and mental stress. Meanwhile, from the perspective of reduction in the energy required for transportation and the retention of plant freshness, urban horticulture, in which plant life exists harmoniously with the city, has attracted considerable attention. Interactions between humans and plants in urban horticulture are considered to contribute to the good health and wellbeing of people. Therefore, we incorporate human-centered thinking based on nature therapy into horticultural produce-centered thinking based on conventional urban horticulture. By introducing a pioneering urban horticulture plant factory as an example, we propose the possibility of sustainable urban horticulture based on nature therapy.
... In addition to many studies targeting healthy young men, studies including large sample sizes [9,16] and population-based studies, have also been reported [17][18][19]. In a study involving 420 participants, Park et al. [16] demonstrated that forest therapy mitigated stress and led to physiological relaxation, as evidenced by the index of heart rate variability (HRV), blood pressure, pulse rate, and salivary cortisol concentration. ...
... In addition to many studies targeting healthy young men, studies including large sample sizes [9,16] and population-based studies, have also been reported [17][18][19]. In a study involving 420 participants, Park et al. [16] demonstrated that forest therapy mitigated stress and led to physiological relaxation, as evidenced by the index of heart rate variability (HRV), blood pressure, pulse rate, and salivary cortisol concentration. They performed the experiments at 35 locations throughout Japan including 12 participants in each area and summarized the data. ...
... However, most studies involving forest therapy experiments have reported the various effects on male subjects [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]24,25,28], with few reports focusing on female subjects [23,[29][30][31]. In a study of elderly women, Lee and Lee [23] reported that walking in a forest for 1 h improved arterial stiffness and pulmonary function. ...
The effects of forest activities on health promotion have received increasing attention. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physiological and psychological effects of brief walks in forests on young women. The experiments were conducted in 6 forests (test) and 6 city areas (control). Overall, 12 participants in each area (60 participants in total, mean age: 21.0 ± 1.3 years) were instructed to walk in a forest and a city area for approximately 15 min; simultaneously, their heart rate variability, heart rate, blood pressure, and pulse rate were measured to quantify their physiological responses to walking. The modified semantic differential method, Profile of Mood States (POMS), and the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) were used to determine their psychological responses. Walking in a forest was associated with significantly higher parasympathetic nervous activity and lower sympathetic nervous activity and heart rate. In addition, scores for the comfortable, relaxed, and natural parameters and vigor subscale of POMS were significantly higher, whereas scores for negative feelings, such as tension–anxiety, depression–dejection, anger–hostility, fatigue, and confusion, were significantly lower, as were the total mood disturbance of POMS and the anxiety dimension of the STAI. The subjective evaluations were generally in accordance with the physiological responses. A brief walk in a forest resulted in physiological and psychological relaxation effects in young women.
... In particular, there have been many reports related to forest therapy experiments, for example, these have investigated reduction of prefrontal cortex activity [6], enhancement of parasympathetic nervous activity [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18], inhibition of sympathetic nervous activity [7][8][9][10][11][14][15][16][17][18], reduction of blood pressure [8-11, 16, 19], reduction of pulse rate [7][8][9][10]19], and reduction in the concentrations of stress hormone (e.g., cortisol) [7][8][9][10][11]19]. Those results demonstrate the relaxation effects of forest therapy. ...
... In particular, there have been many reports related to forest therapy experiments, for example, these have investigated reduction of prefrontal cortex activity [6], enhancement of parasympathetic nervous activity [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18], inhibition of sympathetic nervous activity [7][8][9][10][11][14][15][16][17][18], reduction of blood pressure [8-11, 16, 19], reduction of pulse rate [7][8][9][10]19], and reduction in the concentrations of stress hormone (e.g., cortisol) [7][8][9][10][11]19]. Those results demonstrate the relaxation effects of forest therapy. ...
... In particular, there have been many reports related to forest therapy experiments, for example, these have investigated reduction of prefrontal cortex activity [6], enhancement of parasympathetic nervous activity [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18], inhibition of sympathetic nervous activity [7][8][9][10][11][14][15][16][17][18], reduction of blood pressure [8-11, 16, 19], reduction of pulse rate [7][8][9][10]19], and reduction in the concentrations of stress hormone (e.g., cortisol) [7][8][9][10][11]19]. Those results demonstrate the relaxation effects of forest therapy. ...
It is empirically known that wood can cause a comfort enhancement effect in humans. On the other hand, not enough scientific knowledge based on evidence-based research is available on this subject. However, data using physiological indices have increasingly accumulated in recent years. This review provides an overview of the current situation for peer-reviewed reports related to the physiological effects of wood. We reviewed reports that elucidated the effects of wood-derived stimulations on the olfactory, visual, auditory, and tactile sensations using physiological indices such as brain activity (e.g., near-infrared spectroscopy) and autonomic nervous activity (e.g., heart rate variability and blood pressure). It became clear that many studies were limited by (1) a small number of participants, mostly aged in their 20s; (2) use of only a single stimulus (e.g., only olfactory or only visual), or (3) an incomplete experimental design. In addition, this review examined the field of forest therapy, for which there is abundant research. Further study is needed to elucidate the physiological effects of wood on humans.
... From 2005 to 2015, a physiological experiment was conducted over a one-week period on 744 participants in 62 forests located all over Japan. There are many reports related to this experiment describing indicators such as salivary cortisol levels [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24], heart rate variability(HRV)-related sympathetic [22][23][24][25][26][27] and parasympathetic nervous activity [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27], blood pressure [19,[21][22][23]27], and pulse rate [19][20][21][22][23][24]27] to demonstrate the effects of relaxation. ...
... From 2005 to 2015, a physiological experiment was conducted over a one-week period on 744 participants in 62 forests located all over Japan. There are many reports related to this experiment describing indicators such as salivary cortisol levels [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24], heart rate variability(HRV)-related sympathetic [22][23][24][25][26][27] and parasympathetic nervous activity [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27], blood pressure [19,[21][22][23]27], and pulse rate [19][20][21][22][23][24]27] to demonstrate the effects of relaxation. ...
... From 2005 to 2015, a physiological experiment was conducted over a one-week period on 744 participants in 62 forests located all over Japan. There are many reports related to this experiment describing indicators such as salivary cortisol levels [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24], heart rate variability(HRV)-related sympathetic [22][23][24][25][26][27] and parasympathetic nervous activity [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27], blood pressure [19,[21][22][23]27], and pulse rate [19][20][21][22][23][24]27] to demonstrate the effects of relaxation. ...
Humans have evolved into what they are today after the passage of 6-7 million years. If we define the beginning of urbanization as the rise of the industrial revolution, less than 0.01% of our species’ history has been spent in modern surroundings. Humans have spent over 99.99% of their time living in the natural environment. The gap between the natural setting, for which our physiological functions are adapted, and the highly urbanized and artificial setting that we inhabit is a contributing cause of the “stress state” in modern people. In recent years, scientific evidence supporting the physiological effects of relaxation caused by natural stimuli has accumulated. This review aimed to objectively demonstrate the physiological effects of nature therapy. We have reviewed research in Japan related to the following: (1) the physiological effects of nature therapy, including those of forests, urban green space, plants, and wooden material and (2) the analyses of individual differences that arise therein. The search was conducted in the PubMed database using various keywords. We applied our inclusion/exclusion criteria and reviewed 52 articles. Scientific data assessing physiological indicators, such as brain activity, autonomic nervous activity, endocrine activity, and immune activity, are accumulating from field and laboratory experiments. We believe that nature therapy will play an increasingly important role in preventive medicine in the future.
... Several studies have shown that time spent in a forest can decrease blood pressure (BP) [2][3][4][5][6], pulse rate [2][3][4][5][6][7], sympathetic nervous activity [4][5][6][8][9][10], and cortisol levels [2][3][4][5]7,8,11,12], while increasing parasympathetic nervous activity [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Furthermore, forest stimulation decreased cerebral blood flow in the prefrontal cortex [12], and Bratman et al. reported that a brief nature experience decreased both self-reported rumination and neural activity in the subgenual prefrontal cortex (sgPFC) [13]. These studies suggest that accessible natural areas are a critical resource for improving mental health in our rapidly urbanizing world [13]. ...
... Several studies have shown that time spent in a forest can decrease blood pressure (BP) [2][3][4][5][6], pulse rate [2][3][4][5][6][7], sympathetic nervous activity [4][5][6][8][9][10], and cortisol levels [2][3][4][5]7,8,11,12], while increasing parasympathetic nervous activity [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Furthermore, forest stimulation decreased cerebral blood flow in the prefrontal cortex [12], and Bratman et al. reported that a brief nature experience decreased both self-reported rumination and neural activity in the subgenual prefrontal cortex (sgPFC) [13]. These studies suggest that accessible natural areas are a critical resource for improving mental health in our rapidly urbanizing world [13]. ...
... Several studies have shown that time spent in a forest can decrease blood pressure (BP) [2][3][4][5][6], pulse rate [2][3][4][5][6][7], sympathetic nervous activity [4][5][6][8][9][10], and cortisol levels [2][3][4][5]7,8,11,12], while increasing parasympathetic nervous activity [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Furthermore, forest stimulation decreased cerebral blood flow in the prefrontal cortex [12], and Bratman et al. reported that a brief nature experience decreased both self-reported rumination and neural activity in the subgenual prefrontal cortex (sgPFC) [13]. These studies suggest that accessible natural areas are a critical resource for improving mental health in our rapidly urbanizing world [13]. ...
The natural environment is increasingly recognized as an effective counter to urban stress, and "Forest Therapy" has recently attracted attention as a relaxation and stress management activity with demonstrated clinical efficacy. The present study assessed the physiological and psychological effects of a forest therapy program on middle-aged females. Seventeen Japanese females (62.2 ± 9.4 years; mean ± standard deviation) participated in this experiment. Pulse rate, salivary cortisol level, and psychological indices were measured on the day before forest therapy and on the forest therapy day. Pulse rate and salivary cortisol were significantly lower than baseline following forest therapy, indicating that subjects were in a physiologically relaxed state. Subjects reported feeling significantly more "comfortable," "relaxed," and "natural" according to the semantic differential (SD) method. The Profile of Mood State (POMS) negative mood subscale score for "tension-anxiety" was significantly lower, while that for "vigor" was significantly higher following forest therapy. Our study revealed that forest therapy elicited a significant (1) decrease in pulse rate, (2) decrease in salivary cortisol levels, (3) increase in positive feelings, and (4) decrease in negative feelings. In conclusion, there are substantial physiological and psychological benefits of forest therapy on middle-aged females.
... Statistical significance was fixed at p < 0.05. A one-side test was used in this study on the basis of the hypothesis that humans would also be relaxed by walking in urban parks during fall because it was found that nature-derived stimulation confers physiological and psychological relaxation effects, as reported in our previous research [31,32,[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50]. ...
... Furthermore, in previous studies, the relaxation effects of walking or being in nature forests relative to those in an urban area were shown. These studies reported decreased blood pressure [42][43][44][45][46] and pulse rate [42][43][44][45][46][47][48], suppressed sympathetic nerve activity [42,[44][45][46][47][48][49], increased parasympathetic nerve activity [42,[44][45][46][47][48][49], decreased salivary cortisol levels [43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50], and decreased cerebral blood flow in the prefrontal cortex [50]. ...
... Furthermore, in previous studies, the relaxation effects of walking or being in nature forests relative to those in an urban area were shown. These studies reported decreased blood pressure [42][43][44][45][46] and pulse rate [42][43][44][45][46][47][48], suppressed sympathetic nerve activity [42,[44][45][46][47][48][49], increased parasympathetic nerve activity [42,[44][45][46][47][48][49], decreased salivary cortisol levels [43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50], and decreased cerebral blood flow in the prefrontal cortex [50]. ...
In recent times, attention has been focused on the role of urban green spaces in promoting human health and well-being. However, there is a lack of evidence-based research on the physiological effects of walking in urban green areas. This study aimed to clarify the physiological and psychological effects of walking in urban parks during fall. Twenty-three males (mean age 22.3 ± 1.2 years) were instructed to walk predetermined 15-min courses in an urban park and in a nearby city area (control). Heart rate and heart rate variability were measured to assess physiological responses, and the semantic differential method, Profile of Mood States, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were used to measure psychological responses. We observed that walking in an urban park resulted in a significantly lower heart rate, higher parasympathetic nerve activity, and lower sympathetic nerve activity than walking through the city area. In subjective evaluations, participants were more "comfortable," "natural," "relaxed," and "vigorous" after a walk in the urban park. Furthermore, they exhibited significantly lower levels of negative emotions and anxiety. These findings provide scientific evidence for the physiological and psychological relaxation effects of walking in urban parks during fall.
... )와 그 가족 (Cho et al., 2008) 및 미혼모 (Song et al., 2009) Lee et al., 2011;Park et al., 2007;Park et al., 2008;Park et al., 2009;Park et al., 2010;Park et al., 2012;Song et al., 2013;Tsunetsugu et al., 2007;Tsunetsugu et al., 2010;Tsunetsugu et al., 2013). (Cacioppo et al., 1994). ...
... (1) 생리평가 산림지역 및 도시지역에서의 생리평가 결과를 Figure 13 부터 Figure 15까지 점이였으며, 산림지역은 도시지역과 비교하여 유의하게 불안감이 낮았다(p<0.01, Figure 18) (Hartig et al., 2003;Laumann et al., 2003;Lee et al., 2011;Park et al., 2007;Park and Miyazaki, 2008;Park et al., 2009;Park et al., 2010;Park et al., 2012;Song et al., 2013;Tsunetsugu et al., 2007;Tsunetsugu et al., 2010;Tsunetsugu et al., 2013). Park et al.(2012) Lee et al., 2011;Park et al., 2007;Park et al., 2009;Park et al., 2011;Song et al., 2011;Song et al., 2013;Tsunetsugu et al., 2010;Tsunetsugu et al., 2013 ...
... (1) 생리평가 산림지역 및 도시지역에서의 생리평가 결과를 Figure 13 부터 Figure 15까지 점이였으며, 산림지역은 도시지역과 비교하여 유의하게 불안감이 낮았다(p<0.01, Figure 18) (Hartig et al., 2003;Laumann et al., 2003;Lee et al., 2011;Park et al., 2007;Park and Miyazaki, 2008;Park et al., 2009;Park et al., 2010;Park et al., 2012;Song et al., 2013;Tsunetsugu et al., 2007;Tsunetsugu et al., 2010;Tsunetsugu et al., 2013). Park et al.(2012) Lee et al., 2011;Park et al., 2007;Park et al., 2009;Park et al., 2011;Song et al., 2011;Song et al., 2013;Tsunetsugu et al., 2010;Tsunetsugu et al., 2013 ...
The aim of this study was to clarify the physiological and psychological effects of walking around and viewing a lake in a forest environment. The subjects included 11 male Japanese university students (age: 22.0?1.2 years) who were randomly assigned to visit either a forest or an urban (control) setting. They were instructed to walk a predetermined 15-min course and to view the setting from a seated position for 15 min. Heart rate variability, heart rate, blood pressure, pulse rate, and salivary cortisol levels were measured to assess the subject`s physiological responses to the environment. Four questionnaires (SD method, reports of "refreshed" feeling, POMS, and STAI) were administered to assess the subjects` psychological responses. It was found that walking around and viewing a lake in a forest environment can suppress sympathetic nerve activity, increase parasympathetic nerve activity, and decrease the heart rate, blood pressure, pulse rate, and cortisol levels. In addition, a forest environment can enhance the "comfortable," "soothing," "natural," and "refreshed" feelings, improve the mood state, and reduce anxiety. These results provide scientific evidence of the physiological and psychological effects of forest therapy.
... With the increasing social attention given to health and the development of physiological measurement devices, researchers have been collecting scientific data on nature therapy. Several study outcomes have shed light on the benefits of nature therapy, such as physiological relaxation and immunity function improvement, by direct exposure to natural environment [18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32] and natural elements (flowers [33][34][35][36][37][38], green plants [39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48], or wooden materials [49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58]) or by indirect exposure to natural environments through a display [59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67] or projector [68][69][70][71][72][73]). ...
... The rapid development of physiological indicators has enabled evaluation of body responses such as cerebral activity (functional magnetic resonance imaging [fMRI], near-infrared spectroscopy [NIRS] and electroencephalography [EEG]), autonomic nervous activity (heart rate variability [HRV], heart rate, pulse rate and blood pressure) and endocrine activity (salivary cortisol concentration). Such data could be helpful in understanding the mechanisms underlying the physiological responses emerging from contact with nature; furthermore, the data would be useful for understanding the different effects shown by field [19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32] and indoor experiments . In particular, compared with studies that examine the effects of the other senses, studies on the visual effects of nature are at the forefront of research. ...
Contact with nature has been proposed as a solution to achieve physiological relaxation and stress recovery, and a number of scientific verification outcomes have been shown. Compared with studies of the other senses, studies investigating the visual effects of nature have been at the forefront of this research field. A variety of physiological indicators adopted for use in indoor experiments have shown the benefits of viewing nature. In this systematic review, we examined current peer-reviewed articles regarding the physiological effects of visual stimulation from elements or representations of nature in an indoor setting. The articles were analyzed for their stimulation method, physiological measures applied, groups of participants, and outcomes. Thirty-seven articles presenting evidence of the physiological effects of viewing nature were selected. The majority of the studies that used display stimuli, such as photos, 3D images, virtual reality, and videos of natural landscapes, confirmed that viewing natural scenery led to more relaxed body responses than viewing the control. Studies that used real nature stimuli reported that visual contact with flowers, green plants, and wooden materials had positive effects on cerebral and autonomic nervous activities compared with the control. Accumulation of scientific evidence of the physiological relaxation associated with viewing elements of nature would be useful for preventive medicine, specifically nature therapy.
... Field experiment studies, in which all five senses of participants were involved, have reported a physiological relaxation effect of a forest compared with the effect of an urban environment, with findings such as increased parasympathetic nervous activity, decreased sympathetic nervous activity, and decreased cortisol levels and cerebral blood flow in the prefrontal cortex [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. Moreover, residents who lived near a large amount of greenery were shown to have lower chronic stress levels than those who did not [17,18]. ...
... The results of the psychological assessments using the modified SD method showed that exposure to the forest sound increased psychological relaxation, eliciting greater feelings of comfort, relaxation, and naturalness compared with exposure to the city sound. These results are similar to those of previous studies that have compared the effects of forest and city stimuli in field and laboratory experiments [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]19]. The POMS questionnaire scores of mood states showed that forest sounds can relieve psychological tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion compared with city sounds, and that they could enhance psychological vigor. ...
Exposure to natural sounds is known to induce feelings of relaxation; however, only few studies have provided scientific evidence on its physiological effects. This study examined prefrontal cortex and autonomic nervous activities in response to forest sound. A total of 29 female university students (mean age 22.3 ± 2.1 years) were exposed to high-resolution sounds of a forest or city for 60 s, using headphones. Oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in the prefrontal cortex were determined by near-infrared spectroscopy. Heart rate, the high-frequency component of heart rate variability (which reflects parasympathetic nervous activity), and the ratio of low-frequency to high-frequency (LF/HF) components (which reflects sympathetic nervous activity) were measured. Subjective evaluation was performed using the modified semantic differential method and profiles of mood states. Exposure to the forest sound resulted in the following significant differences compared with exposure to city sound: decreased oxy-Hb concentrations in the right prefrontal cortex; decreased ln(LF/HF); decreased heart rate; improved feelings described as “comfortable,’’ “relaxed,” and “natural”; and improved mood states. The findings of this study demonstrated that forest-derived auditory stimulation induced physiological and psychological relaxation effects.
... In the present study, we only consider the results that focused on the change in the distribution characteristics (but not the average values) of the concentrations of salivary cortisol. The results and detailed measurement procedures for the other indicators have been reported elsewhere [19,20]. ...
... On the other hand, the present study demonstrated significantly lower salivary cortisol concentrations upon exposure to forest environments than to urban environments. The present results on the changes in mean concentration were almost identical to our previous results [20]. Except for those in epidemiological investigations, such as a study by Mitchell and Popham [5], the dataset analyzed in the present study may be the largest yet in experimental studies on the effect of forest environments on cortisol concentrations. ...
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of a forest environment on salivary cortisol concentration, particularly on the characteristics of its distribution. The participants were 348 young male subjects. The experimental sites were 34 forests and 34 urban areas across Japan. The subjects viewed the landscape (forest or urban environment) for a period of 15 min while sitting in a chair. Saliva was sampled from the participants at the end of this 15-min period and then analyzed for cortisol concentration. Differences in the skewness and kurtosis of the distributions between the two environments were tested by performing a permutation test. The cortisol concentrations exhibited larger skewness (0.76) and kurtosis (3.23) in a forest environment than in an urban environment (skewness = 0.49; kurtosis = 2.47), and these differences were statistically significant. The cortisol distribution exhibited a more peaked and longer right-tailed curve in a forest environment than in an urban environment.
... In many Asian countries, forest bathing is a widespread outdoor activity and an alternative health-promotion approach [7]. Forest bathing or forest therapy refers to immersing oneself in nature and experiencing a forest's atmosphere to improve mental and physical health [10,[15][16][17][18][19]. A five-senses experience from walking or staying in a forest was reported to relieve stress and thus yield health benefits [20]. ...
... Pulse rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure were determined to be significantly lower after the program. Previous studies have shown that heart rate and blood pressure are significantly lower in forest environments than in urban environments [6,7,19,[23][24][25][26]. However, these studies have not indicated the efficacy of forest bathing per se in terms of stress reduction. ...
The present study investigated changes in autonomic nervous system activity and emotions after a short (2 h) forest bathing program in the Xitou Nature Education Area (XNEA), Taiwan. One hundred and twenty-eight (60.0 ± 7.44 years) middle-aged and elderly participants were recruited. Physiological responses, pulse rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate variability (HRV), and psychological indices were measured before and after the program. We observed that pulse rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure were significantly lower after the program, which indicated physiological benefits from stress recovery. The Profile of Mood States negative mood subscale scores of “tension-anxiety”, “anger-hostility”, “fatigue-inertia”, “depression-dejection”, and “confusion-bewilderment” were significantly lower, whereas the positive mood subscale score of “vigor-activity” was higher. Furthermore, participants exhibited significantly lower anxiety levels according to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. However, changes in sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve activity were nonsignificant. Our study determined that the short forest bathing program is a promising therapeutic method for enhancing heart rate and blood pressure functions as well as an effective psychological relaxation strategy for middle-aged and elderly individuals.
... However, physiological evidence of the effect of forest-related tourism on tourists' health and how long these effects last are not yet available; nor is such evidence available for rural tourism in general. In this respect, scientific evidence of the benefits of forest therapy was sought by Lee, Park, Tsunetsugu, Kagawa, & Miyazaki, 2009Park et al., 2007Park et al., , 2010Park et al., , 2012Tsunetsugu et al., 2007Tsunetsugu et al., , 2010Tsunetsugu et al., , 2013 blood pressure, pulse rate, heart rate variability physiological examinations business management perspectives, how long objective and subjective relaxation effects last after visiting tourism sites Li et al., 2007Li et al., , 2008aLi et al., , 2008b Miyazaki and colleagues (Park, Tsunetsugu, Lee, Kagawa, & Miyazaki, 2012), and their results indicated that stress can be relieved by forest therapy. ...
... However, physiological evidence of the effect of forest-related tourism on tourists' health and how long these effects last are not yet available; nor is such evidence available for rural tourism in general. In this respect, scientific evidence of the benefits of forest therapy was sought by Lee, Park, Tsunetsugu, Kagawa, & Miyazaki, 2009Park et al., 2007Park et al., , 2010Park et al., , 2012Tsunetsugu et al., 2007Tsunetsugu et al., , 2010Tsunetsugu et al., , 2013 blood pressure, pulse rate, heart rate variability physiological examinations business management perspectives, how long objective and subjective relaxation effects last after visiting tourism sites Li et al., 2007Li et al., , 2008aLi et al., , 2008b Miyazaki and colleagues (Park, Tsunetsugu, Lee, Kagawa, & Miyazaki, 2012), and their results indicated that stress can be relieved by forest therapy. ...
Considering the increasing demand for rural areas to play a role in easing stress mainly experienced by
urban dwellers, we investigated from a multidisciplinary collaborative approach, i.e., physiological,
psychological, and rural business management perspectives, the relaxation effects of forest-therapy
tourism, an emerging type of rural tourism, on a group of urban office workers. Also investigated were
conditions necessary for a sustainable rural business in Chizu, western Japan. First, the results verified
physiological and psychological relaxation effects, which lasted from three to five days after forest
therapy. The lasting physiological and psychological effects among those with systolic blood pressure
�120 mmHg, however, were weaker than in the entire sample. Second, due to the ageing and depopulation
of the local community, increasing the number of households that provided home stay services
was difficult. In summary, it is necessary to fully integrate scientific evidence to support a viable new
rural tourism business.
... The first study to report that shinrin-yoku reduces stress was conducted in 1996 [2]. Many studies have since shown the stress-relieving effect of shinrin-yoku [3][4][5][6][7]. These studies measured cortisol in saliva, sympathetic and parasympathetic functions, blood pressure, and heart rate variability as indices of stress. ...
... Studies on forest bathing shinrin-yoku, most of which have been conducted in Japan [2][3][4][5][6][7], have shown that spending time in a forest reduces the pulse rate, reduces cortisol, suppresses sympathetic activity, increases parasympathetic activity, and lowers blood pressure compared with spending time in an urban area. Similar results are obtained even after only about 15 to 20 minutes of walking in the forest [8][9][10][11][12]. ...
Background: Studies have shown that walking in forests can have a relaxation effect, but the participants only walked for about 15 minutes.
Methods and findings: The study adopted an open crossover design, in which 22 healthy male volunteers were randomly assigned to two groups. The first group walked the Kodo forest course first and the urban course second, while the second group completed the walks in the reverse order. The Kodo course was 4 km from the foot to the pass and back, and took around 2 hours. The participants walked the urban course at an exercise intensity equal to that of the Kodo course. We used both physiological and psychological measures to examine the relaxation effect of walking. Salivary amylase concentrations significantly increased from the start to the end of the urban course, and were significantly higher at the end of the urban course than at the end of the Kodo course. Saliva cortisol concentrations decreased from the start to the end of both courses, and were significantly lower at the end of the Kodo course than the urban course. Analysis of the Profile of Mood State data showed significant decreases in “Tension-Anxiety”, “Depression-Dejection depression”, “Anger-Hostility” and “Confusion” after walking both courses, and a significant decrease in “Vigor” after the urban course. Visual analog scores were significantly higher on the Kodo course, but decreased significantly on the urban course. The electrocardiogram analysis showed no noticeable change in the HF component time series for the urban course, although it tended to be higher on the Kodo course than the urban course. The LF/HF ratio was slightly higher for the urban course than for the Kodo course throughout.
Conclusions: The physiological and psychological measures indicate that walking for 2 hours in the forest is effective for relaxation.
... We have studied the effects of nature-derived stimulation, such as that of a forest [28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36], parks [37,38], a rooftop garden [39], flowers [40][41][42], foliage plants [43,44], and olfactory stimulation [45][46][47][48][49]. We observed that these natural environments and plants have physiological relaxation effects and can reduce stress states. ...
... This result resembles that reported by a previous study on chrysanthemum transplantation for male university students with the Type A behavior pattern [27]. In contrast, some previous studies have reported increased parasympathetic nerve activity in addition to decreased sympathetic nerve activity, e.g., when viewing a forest environment in a sitting position [29,31,33,34] and following visual stimulation of high school students with fresh roses [41]. In addition, in some reports, only parasympathetic nerve activity increased, e.g., when viewing a forest environment in a sitting position [32] and following visual stimulation of office workers [40] or medical workers [42] with fresh roses. ...
The relaxation effects of gardening have attracted attention; however, very few studies have researched its physiological effects on humans. This study aimed to clarify the physiological and psychological effects on high school students of viewing real and artificial pansies. Forty high school students (male: 19, female: 21) at Chiba Prefectural Kashiwanoha Senior High School, Japan, participated in this experiment. The subjects were presented with a visual stimulation of fresh yellow pansies (Viola x
wittrockiana “Nature Clear Lemon”) in a planter for 3 min. Artificial yellow pansies in a planter were used as the control. Heart rate variability was used as a physiological measurement and the modified semantic differential method was used for subjective evaluation. Compared with artificial pansies, visual stimulation with real flowers resulted in a significant decrease in the ratio of low- to high-frequency heart rate variability component, which reflects sympathetic nerve activity. In contrast, high frequency, which reflects parasympathetic nerve activity, showed no significant difference. With regard to the psychological indices, viewing real flowers resulted in “comfortable”, “relaxed”, and “natural” feelings. The findings indicate that visual stimulation with real pansies induced physiological and psychological relaxation effects in high school students.
... As a forest-specific requirement (Table 2), the criteria catalog provides information on the quality of the tree population, the forest floor, additional special features, forest images or special "sensory rooms", as well as the forest environment and forest management, based on their recreational potential [37,[43][44][45][46]. Basic requirements for tree population are varied forest area (deciduous forest, mixed forest, coniferous forest) with different (site-appropriate) tree species in different age classes, prominent individual trees, as well as light and dense forest areas with a largely closed canopy and diverse light conditions. Park et al. (2012) already describe a canopy that is as closed as possible as particularly beneficial to health [47]. A recent study detected more differentiated relations between the sky-leaf-trunk ratio of the canopy in regard to stress reduction [48]. ...
Background: Based on the increasing evidence of forest on health, a research project assessed the structural certification criteria of recreational and therapeutic forests in 15 Bavarian pilot sites. The main project objectives were (1) to develop a certification standard for recreational and therapeutic forests and (2) to establish a certification and designation process. Methods: Relevant criteria were identified by a literature review. The findings, in conjunction with landscape planning principles, were used to develop a catalog of certification criteria, which was then tested and amended in field testing in the pilot sites. Results: The criteria catalog for recreational and therapeutic forests was structured into four sections: general requirements, forest-specific requirements, safety and infrastructure, and preventive and/or therapeutic interventions. At 13 pilot sites, 13 recreational forests and 3 therapeutic forests were designated, 47 professionals were trained, the designation process and a certification body were established, and the results were published in a manual (BayKK KuH). Conclusions: This newly developed Bavarian certification standard for recreational and therapeutic forests represents an innovative synthesis of science and empirical on-site experience. It enables interested parties to develop a recreational or therapeutic forest on the basis of transparently published standards in order to use the health-promoting effects of the forest in prevention and therapy.
... Das Konzept basiert auf dem menschlichen Grundbedürfnis, sich einer Gemeinschaft oder einem "größeren Ganzen" zugehörig fühlen zu wollen (Lumber et al. 2017). Studien zeigen (Capaldi et al. 2014, Cervinka et al. 2012 Tsunetsugu et al. 2010, Park et al. 2011, Stier-Jarmer et al. 2021 • positive psychologische Effekte (Morita et al. 2007) • Reduzierung von Selbstzweifeln und negativen Gedanken (Bratman et al. 2015) • Beseitigung von Angstgefühlen und Stimmungstiefs (Yu et al. 2017) • Verbesserung von depressiven Zuständen, Depressionsscore sinkt (Shin et al. 2012, Lee et al. 2017 • Reduzierung post-traumatischer Beschwerden bei US-Veteranen (Poulsen et al. 2016) • Besserung von Autismus (Barakat et al. 2019) und ADHS-Symptomen (Taylor et al. 2009) • Steigerung von Aufmerksamkeit, Konzentration und Kreativität (Bratman et al. 2015) • Verbesserung von Selbstwahrnehmung, Eigenakzeptanz und Selbstbild (Hupperts & Schatanek 2021) ...
Die Ergebnisse eines dreijährigen Forschungsprojekts wurden in einem deutschsprachigen Handbuch zusammengefasst, um die strukturellen Anforderungen an Wälder für Prävention (Kurwald) und Therapie (Heilwald) zu definieren. Neben der Literaturrecherche wurden in 15 Regionen Ortsbegehungen in verschiedenen Wäldern Bayerns, Deutschland, durchgeführt, um die Qualität des Waldes zu beurteilen. Ebenfalls wurde ein Kriterienkatalog und ein Screening-Tool zur Bewertung der Waldstruktur für Gesundheitsinterventionen (präventive und therapeutische Maßnahmen) entwickelt sowie eine professionelle Weiterbildung für ein Wald-Gesundheitstraining bzw. Waldtherapie durchgeführt. Nun kann jede Gemeinde, jeder Waldbesitzer oder jede Gesundheitseinrichtung in der Nähe eines Waldes den Ausweisungsprozess für einen Kur- oder Heilwald in Bayern starten.
The results of a three-year research project were summarized in a German-language manual to define the structural requirements of forests for prevention (Kurwald or recreational forest) and therapy (Heilwald or therapy forest). In addition to the literature reviews, site visits were conducted in 15 regions in various forests in Bavaria, Germany, to assess the quality of the forest. Also, a criteria catalog and a screening tool for assessing forest structure for health interventions (preventive and therapeutic measures) were developed, and professional training for forest health training or forest therapy was conducted. Now, any community, forest owner or health facility near a forest can start the designation process for a recreational or therapy forest in Bavaria.
... Time in and around nature has been shown to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression (Ulrich et al., 1991;Frumkin et al., 2017;Kondo et al., 2018;Bratman et al., 2019;Roberts et al., 2019). Nature engagement has also been correlated with reduced sympathetic and increased parasympathetic nervous activity (Brown et al., 2013;Gladwell, 2012), reduced blood pressure (Shanahan et al., 2016), and lower pulse rates (Park et al., 2013;Song et al., 2014). Evidence also points to a positive correlation between time spent in nature and increased synthesis of cells that boost immune functioning (Kuo, 2017). ...
... Many people are thus attracted to the physiological and psychological relaxing effect of exposure to plants. Field experiments in urban parks and forest bathing have proved the psychological and physical relaxing effects of contact with plants [8,9]. Forest bathing also increased natural killer cell function and improved immune function [10]. ...
Coriander is a popular herb with versatile applications. However, the current research about coriander medicinal values have been mainly focusing on its extracts while lacking in the relationship between living coriander plants and emotion. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effects of coriander plants on human emotions and physiological activities. The results showed that the main Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of coriander plants were 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, d-limonene, eucalyptol, benzyl alcohol, Isophorone, dimethyl glutarate, α-terpineol, styrene, methyl methacrylate, α-pinene. Coriander plants could significantly reduce the angry sub-scores, alpha amylase and amino acids (arginine, proline, histidine, and taurine) concentrations in saliva. Theta (4–8 Hz) band activity of the cerebral cortex was significantly enhanced. Moreover, taurine significantly positively correlated with anger and negatively correlated with vigor. All the results signified that coriander plant could influence the activity of brain electrophysiological and salivary secretion through its VOCs to improve people’s negative emotions.
... It has long been shown that time spent in nature can have a positive impact on reducing stress, anxiety, and depression; 8-10 as reflected in reduced salivary cortisol levels; 11 blood pressure; 12 and pulse rates. 13,14 first-year seminar; loneliness; mental health; nature instruction; nature rx; social isolation; stress mitigation; well-being Indeed, conviction is gaining ground among public health practitioners that health and healthy behaviors are not derived solely from personal factors, but additionally from one's surrounding physical and social environment. 15 This has increased the number of health practitioners embracing the benefits of contact with nature, resulting in healthcare professionals prescribing time in nature to their patients. ...
Objective: To seek to find a way to address stress and build social bonds among U.S. college students, an East Coast private institution and a West Coast state institution each offered an undergraduate Nature Rx course. Participants: Seventeen undergraduate students were enrolled in the West Coast state institution seminar, and sixteen undergraduate students were enrolled in the East Coast private institution seminar. Methods: A mixed methods approach was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the pilot such that students were given pre- and post-course questionnaires and asked to write reflective essays to describe their experiences in the class. Results: While no significant changes in self-perceived stress were reported in questionnaire items, the qualitative data indicated students attributed their participation in the course with factors that contributed to reduced stress and important social connections. These included a strengthened belief in the value of spending time in nature to reduce stress, the creation and solidification of social bonds, and an expectation that the class would have a lasting impact. Conclusion: Overall, participants indicated they experienced frequent and meaningful interactions with other students and the instructors while gaining greater familiarity with the natural elements of their respective campuses.
... Many studies demonstrated forest environments promote humans' mental and physical health in many ways. For example, spending time in a forest environment reduces pulse rate and blood pressure [12,13], sympathetic nervous activity [14,15], and levels of salivary cortisol [16,17], and increases parasympathetic nervous activity [18,19] and NK cell activity, which relate to the immune system [20,21]. In addition, many studies have shown the beneficial effects on mental health of being in the forest. ...
There are generally two types of forest therapy. One is to walk or view the forest alone without a guide, and the other is to be accompanied by a guide. This study aimed to investigate the healing factors and health benefits of self-guided forest therapy and guided forest therapy programs and examine the differences in characteristics between interventions. Thirty-seven undergraduate students participated in a randomized experiment (19 in the self-guided forest therapy and 18 in the guided forest therapy program). Data were collected from 111 self-reported essays after each intervention (three essays per person). Results revealed that the forest healing factors contained four categories in common: auditory element, visual element, tactile element, and olfaction element. Forest therapy’s health benefits included five categories in common: change of mind and body, introspection, change of emotion, cognitive change, and social interaction. Among the typical differences, the self-guided forest therapy group mentioned more keywords related to introspection than the guided forest therapy program group. On the other hand, the guided forest therapy program group mentioned more keywords associated with the change of emotion and social interaction than the self-guided forest therapy. Our findings show that self-guided forest therapy provides an opportunity for self-reflection to focus on and think about one’s inner self. On the other hand, guided forest therapy programs provide positive emotional changes and promoting social bonds through interaction with others. Therefore, because the effects that can be obtained vary depending on the type of forest therapy, participants can utilize forest healing to suit the desired outcomes.
... Besides others, they rely on these effects on the higher chance of social contacts in green spaces, which may improve mental health even when adhering to social distancing regulations. Previous studies, mainly conducted in the Asian region, already proved that forests significantly contribute to improving mood and have positive effects on the well-being and health of those seeking recreation (Park et al., 2009;Park et al., 2010;Tsunetsugu et al., 2010;Park, 2011;Ikei et al., 2015;Craig et al., 2016;Korpela et al., 2018). This empirical evidence shows that spending time in forests can reduce stress, stabilize the psyche, and positively affect the coronary vessels and blood pressure. ...
Out of nowhere the COVID-19 pandemic has turned people’s everyday lives upside down. Public places in urban areas were closed. However, leaving the house for recreational and leisure purposes in nature was still allowed in Germany – even during lockdown in March and April of 2020. As a result, urban forests have gained unprecedented importance – not only for recreational activities, but also for maintaining social contacts and coping with psychological stress. With these diverse requirements, many people have appropriated urban forests in new and changed ways. Using the example of the forests around the southern German city of Freiburg, a team of researchers from the Department of Societal Change at the Forest Research Institute Baden-Württemberg (FVA) carried out a mixed-method study to investigate how these appropriation practices are working and to shed some light on the relevance of forests for city residents in these circumstances. In addition to the statistical analysis of an online questionnaire, ethnographic observation data and Instagram posts were analyzed. This methodological triangulation was carried out in order to purposefully combine the strengths of each method while at the same time reducing the intrinsic biases and blind spots. This resulted in a better understanding of the importance of urban forest during this extraordinary period of time. Our results show that urban forests became critically important during the lockdown. Many visitors appropriated the forest with very different motives and for different purposes. For many visitors, the forest provided the same functions during this extraordinary period that public spaces otherwise do. The forest was not only consumed as a natural space, but also constructed by visitors as a social space. We can illustrate how this social meaning was both negotiated and reproduced. To provide an abstraction of our results, we refer to the theory of spatial appropriation as well as to new approaches in sociology of space that conceptualize space as a network of social relations. These results give rise to broader questions for future research projects, recreational forest research, forest and health, and forest planning.
... What's more, converging evidence suggests that engagement in shinrin-yoku benefits psychological wellbeing as well. Shinrin-yoku has been shown to effectively reduce a host of psychologically-relevant indices, including depression, anxiety, anger, selfishness, and stress (Kotera, Richardson, & Sheffield, 2020;McEwan et al., 2021;Park, Tsunetsugu, Lee, 4 Kagawa, & Miyazaki, 2012;Pritchard et al., 2019). Moreover, a three-day shinrin-yoku intervention reportedly led to significantly reduced scores on dimensions of tension-anxiety, anger-hostility, depression-dejection, as well as confusion-bewilderment within a Profile of Mood States (Yu & Hsieh, 2020). ...
Shinrin-yoku (forest bathing) is a cost-effective healing practice that has recently attracted the interest of social scientists who have attributed it, in part, to mental health benefits. Japanese university students suffer from high rates of mental health problems, and the number of suicides remain high despite the total number of suicides in Japan decreasing. Effective mental health approaches which increase mental wellbeing and self-compassion, and reduce associated deficits, such as loneliness, are sought after for Japanese students, however healthful treatment has not been identified to date. Accordingly, this pre-post pilot study evaluated the levels of mental wellbeing, self-compassion, and loneliness among 25 Japanese undergraduate students who participated in a three-day shinrin-yoku retreat in Fukushima. Measurements were taken prior, straight after, and two weeks-post intervention. One-way ANOVA with Tukey post hoc analysis revealed that the mean scores of self-compassion, common humanity, and mindfulness increased statistically significantly from pre-retreat to follow-up. The mean scores of mental wellbeing and loneliness did not statistically significantly change. The positive effects on self-compassion indicate that shinrin-yoku retreat should be evaluated within a larger sample and in a shorter time frame to establish optimal shinrin-yoku parameters in this arena.
... Spending time in nature influences both components of the stress response system by upregulating PNS activity while downregulating SNS activity, and reducing activity within the HPA axis [50,51]. This induces a physiological state of relaxation and recovery from previous stress [52,53]. As a result, nature provides myriad benefits to both physiological and psychological health and wellbeing. ...
Heavy goods vehicle (HGV) driving is recognised as a highly hazardous occupation due to the long periods of sedentary behaviour, low levels of physical activity and unhealthy food options when working. These risk factors combine with shift work and concomitant irregular sleep patterns to increase the prevalence of fatigue. Fatigue is closely linked with stress and, subsequently, poor physiological and psychological health. In parallel, a wealth of evidence has demonstrated the health and wellbeing benefits of spending time in nature. Here, we sought to examine whether spending time in nature was associated with lower levels of fatigue, anxiety and depression in HGV drivers. 89 long-distance drivers (98.9% male, mean ± SD age: 51.0 ± 9 years, body mass index: 29.8 ± 4.7 kg/m2) participating in a wider health promotion programme reported time spent in nature (during and before the Covid-19 pandemic) and symptoms of occupational fatigue, depression and anxiety. After controlling for covariates, truck drivers who visited nature at least once a week exhibited 16% less chronic fatigue prior to the pandemic, and 23% less chronic fatigue and 20% less acute fatigue during the pandemic. No significant differences were observed for either anxiety or depression. As fatigue has a range of physical and mental health sequelae, we propose that increased exposure to natural settings may make a valuable contribution to interventions to promote the health and wellbeing of this underserved group.
... Other physiological measures that have been used to assess the level of stress and psychological conditions, including depression, natural killer cell activity [53], salivary amylase activity [54,55], salivary and serum cortisol, immunoglobulin A (IgA) concentrations [56], and urinary adrenaline levels [57]. In addition, electroencephalogram-based biomarkers (i.e., rACC theta, LDAEP, iAPF, P300, frontal theta activity) were found to predict the prognosis of the course of mental illness and treatment response [58]. ...
The purpose of this study was to systematically review forest therapy programs designed to decrease the level of depression among adults and subsequently identify the gaps in the literature. This systematic review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The authors independently screened full-text articles from various databases using the following criteria: 1) intervention studies assessing the effects of forest therapy on depression in adults aged 18 years and over; 2) studies including at least one control group or condition; 3) been peer-reviewed; and 4) been published either in English or Korean before July 2016. The Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Network (SIGN) measurement tool was used to assess the risk of bias in each trial. In the final sample, a total of 28 articles (English: 13, Korean: 15) were included in the present systematic review. This review concluded that forest therapy is one of the emerging and effective interventions for decreasing the level of depression in adults. However, the studies included in this review lacked methodological rigor. Future studies assessing the long-term effect of forest therapy on depression using rigorous study designs are needed.
... What's more is that seemingly there is converging evidence to suggest that engagement in shinrin-yoku leads to benefit in psychological wellbeing as well. Shinrin-yoku has been shown to be effective for reducing a host of psychologically-relevant indices, including depression, anxiety, anger, selfishness, and stress (Kotera, Richardson, & Sheffield, Sensitivity: Internal 2020;Park, Tsunetsugu, Lee, Kagawa, & Miyazaki, 2012;Pritchard et al., 2019). Moreover, a three-day shinrin-yoku intervention reportedly led to significantly reduced scores on dimensions of tension-anxiety, anger-hostility, depression-dejection, as well as confusionbewilderment within a Profile of Mood States (Yu & Hsieh, 2020). ...
Shinrin-yoku (forest bathing) is a cost-effective healing practice, and has attracted the interest of scientists. Recently, its effects on mental health has been increasingly reported. Japanese university students suffer from high rates of mental health problems, and the number of suicides remain high, despite the total number of suicides in Japan has been decreasing. Effective mental health approaches are sought after for Japanese students, however healthful treatment has not been identified to date. Accordingly, this pre-post pilot study evaluated the levels of mental wellbeing, self-compassion, and loneliness among 25 Japanese undergraduate students who participated in a three-day shinrin-yoku retreat in Fukushima, before, straight after and two weeks after the retreat. The mean scores of mental wellbeing increased significantly from pre-retreat to post-retreat; self-compassion and common humanity increased significantly from pre-retreat to follow-up; and mindfulness increased significantly from pre-retreat to post-retreat, and from pre-retreat to follow-up. The mean scores of loneliness did not make any significant changes. As self-compassion has been found strongly associated with mental health of university students, shinrin-yoku retreat should be evaluated with a larger sample and in a shorter time frame.
... A brief walk through a forest or taking the opportunity to view forest scenery has been associated with decreased cortisol levels as well as decreased blood pressure and pulse rate. These activities serve to increase the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system, which results in increased comfort and relaxation; they also suppress the activity of the sympathetic nervous system, thereby limiting sensations of arousal and modulating stressful situations [16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26]. Moreover, forest therapy has been associated with improved immune function, with a measurable impact lasting up to one month [27][28][29]. ...
Benefits related to health promotion by getting closer to forests have received increasing attention in modern stressful society; however, evidence-based research about how our brain activity changes when we stay in a forest environment is limited. Thus, the goal of this study was to evaluate the influence of viewing real forest landscapes on the activity in the prefrontal cortex area of young women’s brains. The experiment included 29 women (age: 21.0 ± 1.4 years) and was executed in five forest and five urban areas. The participants stayed in the forest and urban areas and viewed each view for 15 min. While viewing scenery, they had the oxyhemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in the left and right areas of their prefrontal cortexes measured continuously. Viewing real forest landscapes was associated with a significantly lower oxy-Hb concentration in the right area of the prefrontal cortex than when seeing urban areas. In conclusion, viewing real forest landscapes substantially diminished oxy-Hb concentrations in the right area of the prefrontal cortex, which is linked to physiological relaxation.
... effective in treating mood disorders (e.g., depression and anxiety) and stress, enhancing relaxation, gratitude and selflessness (Park, Tsunetsugu, Lee, Kagawa & Miyazaki, 2012;Pritchard, Richardson, Sheffield & McEwan, 2019). The positive effects of shinrin-yoku on mental health effects are particularly noteworthy as poor mental health is one of today's global challenges. ...
Shinrin-yoku ('') (i.e., forest bathing), a Japanese wellbeing practice, aims to harmonise a person with a forest by bathing in the forest mindfully using our five senses (Miyazaki, 2018). Practitioners can choose whatever they like to focus on in the forest: different colours of leaves, the sounds of streams, or the warmth of sunshine beaming between leaves. Since the birth of this practice in 1982, shinrin-yoku has been widely used in the Japanese clinical fields (Hansen, Jones, & Tocchini, 2017). Recently, this healing practice has received attention from healthcare practitioners and researchers worldwide (Wen, Yan, Pan, Gu, & Liu, 2019). In this commentary, we will discuss limitations of the current shinrin-yoku research, and how future research can be conducted to appraise the effects of shinrin-yoku on addiction.
... Literature reviews reported diverse health benefits of shinrin-yoku: on immune system functioning by increasing natural killer cells (preventing cancer), and the cardiovascular and respiratory systems (Williams, 2016). The health benefits of shinrin-yoku are not limited to physical wellbeing; improvements have been described in mood disorders (e.g., depression and anxiety) and stress, and mental relaxation (preventing disorders such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder) (Park, Tsunetsugu, Lee, Kagawa & Miyazaki, 2012). ...
Shinrin-yoku (forest-bathing), immersing oneself in nature using one's senses, has been receiving increased attention internationally. While most of the existing studies have focused on physical health, this systematic review and meta-analysis examined the mental health benefits of shinrin-yoku (i.e., depression, anxiety, anger), using the PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO registery: BLINDED). Articles in English were retrieved on research databases including PubMed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. Of 481 articles retrieved, twenty met the inclusion criteria (eight non-randomised and twelve randomised controlled trials). All studies were conducted in Asia and Europe and used a variety of different bathing approaches (e.g., breathing, walking, yoga). While noting a need for more rigorous research and more extensive follow-up assessments, the findings indicate that shinrin-yoku can be effective in reducing negative mental health symptoms in the short-term (large effects, g> .80); particularly, the effects on anxiety were largest. Overall, forest bathing improved depression, anxiety and anger in the short-term but there were a number of moderators of the effects. More careful examination of shinrin-yoku practices are needed; longer follow-up with participants from a range of countries along with greater examination of potential mechanisms of action are needed for shinrin-yoku to be accepted into mainstream interventions.
... Literature reviews reported diverse health benefits of shinrin-yoku: on immune system functioning by increasing natural killer cells (preventing cancer), and the cardiovascular and respiratory systems (Williams, 2016). The health benefits of shinrin-yoku are not limited to physical wellbeing; improvements have been described in mood disorders (e.g., depression and anxiety) and stress, and mental relaxation (preventing disorders such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder) (Park, Tsunetsugu, Lee, Kagawa & Miyazaki, 2012). ...
Objectives
The Japanese healing practice of shinrin-yoku (forest-bathing) involves immersing oneself in nature using one's senses; it has been receiving increased attention internationally. Many studies have reported health benefits but most have focused on physical health. Given the concerns regarding mental health worldwide, the purpose of this systematic review and meta- analysis was to evaluate the mental health benefits of shinrin-yoku, using the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines.
Methods
Academic articles in English were retrieved on research databases including PubMed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. Of 481 articles retrieved (search terms: ‘shinrin-yoku [n = 204]’ ‘forest bathing [n = 148]’, and ‘nature therapy [n = 129]’), twenty met the inclusion criteria (eight non-randomised trials and twelve randomised controlled trials).
Results
All studies were conducted in Asia and Europe and used a variety of different bathing approaches; for example, in studies participants rested and relaxed in the forest whereas in others they engaged in activities including yoga and cooking. While noting a need for more rigorous research and for more extensive follow-up assessments, the findings indicate that shinrin-yoku can be effective in reducing negative mental health symptoms (i.e., depression, anxiety, anger) in the short-term. In particular, the effects on anxiety were largest (but not significant due to considerable heterogeneity of effects), but the effects for anxiety, depression and anger were all large (g > .80); a number of factors were correlated with effect sizes. Examination of RCTs also revealed large effects indicating improvements in mental health parameters.
Conclusions
Overall, in 20 studies, forest bathing improved depression, anxiety and anger in the short- term but there were a number of moderators of the effects. More careful examination of shinrin-yoku practices and its effects are needed; longer follow-up with participants from a range of countries along with greater examination of potential mechanisms of action are needed for shinrin-yoku to be accepted into mainstream mental health approaches.
... Forest therapy research typically utilizes an evidence-based approach and field experiments to evaluate the health-related effects resulting from participants' experiences. Previous studies have demonstrated the restorative effects of forest therapy on mental health, whereby individuals' negative emotions were observed to decrease, and their positive emotions were noted to increase after immersion in forest environments (Lee et al., 2009Lee et al., 2014;Morita et al., 2007;Park et al., 2011;Takayama et al., 2014). The mental stress recovery effects were further identified in middle-aged and elderly groups, (Chen et al., 2018;Ochiai et al., 2015a;Yu et al., 2017) as well as in individuals with chronic conditions (Mao et al., 2012;Ochiai et al., 2015b;Shin et al., 2013;Song et al., 2015a). ...
This study had three purposes: (1) assessing physiological and psychological responses of a 3-day forest therapy workshop, (2) evaluating the effects of the forest therapy workshop on creativity, and (3) examining the relationship between change in emotions and improvements in creativity. We employed a within-subject design in the current study and recruited 23 participants from the attendees of the 2018 Da’an Forest Therapy Workshop in Taiwan. Physiological responses, heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure were recorded, and participants’ emotional states were measured. Furthermore, the Chinese Word Remote Associates Test (CWRAT) was used as the indicator of creativity. The study findings indicated the 3-day forest therapy workshop contributed to participants’ physical and mental health by regulating physiological responses as well as increasing positive emotions and reducing negative emotions. In regards to the creativity enhancement, the forest therapy workshop improved participants’ creative performances by 27.74 %, which indicates forest therapy is beneficial for high-level cognitive functioning. Moreover, we noted the change in creativity correlated significantly and negatively with change in the confusion–bewilderment emotion. This result indicates alleviation of confusion–bewilderment correlates with enhancement of creativity. In this study creativity enhancement was quantified in the forest therapy workshop, and an approach for measuring creativity in forest therapy studies was provided. This study extends typical stress-recovery forest therapy research by investigating high-level cognitive functioning (e.g., creativity). The contribution of this study is in the use of the creativity task in a forest therapy study, in addition to comparing the changes in creativity to changes in different aspects of mood.
... Diurnal effect was ignored as testing time was approximately the same for both treatments. Using the same experimental approach, Park et al. (2012) expanded the database to include 420 participants at 35 different forests throughout Japan. They reported that participants walked their assigned areas for 16 ± 5 min, then sat and viewed the area for 14 ± 2 min. ...
Stress reduction through contact with nature is well established, but far less is known about the contribution of contact parameters – duration, frequency, and nature quality. This study describes the relationship between duration of a nature experience (NE), and changes in two physiological biomarkers of stress – salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase. It is the first study to employ long-term, repeated-measure assessment and the first evaluation wherein study participants are free to choose the time of day, duration, and the place of a NE in response to personal preference and changing daily schedules. During an 8-week study period, 36 urban dwellers were asked to have a NE, defined as spending time in an outdoor place that brings a sense of contact with nature, at least three times a week for a duration of 10 min or more. Their goal was compliance within the context of unpredictable opportunity for taking a nature pill. Participants provided saliva samples before and after a NE at four points over the study period. Before-NE samples established the diurnal trajectory of each stress indicator and these were in line with published outcomes of more closely controlled experiments. For salivary cortisol, an NE produced a 21.3%/hour drop beyond that of the hormone’s 11.7% diurnal drop. The efficiency of a nature pill per time expended was greatest between 20 and 30 min, after which benefits continued to accrue, but at a reduced rate. For salivary alpha-amylase, there was a 28.1%/h drop after adjusting for its diurnal rise of 3.5%/h, but only for participants that were least active sitting or sitting with some walking. Activity type did not influence cortisol response. The methods for this adaptive management study of nature-based restoration break new ground in addressing some complexities of measuring an effective nature dose in the context of normal daily life, while bypassing the limitations of a clinical pharmacology dose–response study. The results provide a validated starting point for healthcare practitioners prescribing a nature pill to those in their care. This line of inquiry is timely in light of expanding urbanization and rising healthcare costs.
... Our results indicated that the participant's blood pressure significantly decreased after the 15-minute walk in a bamboo forest, which demonstrated that the forest environment had a significant relaxing effect on the human body. Our results are in some respects similar to those in previous studies examining the relaxing effects of forest bathing on humans [20,[32][33][34]. Normal physical and habitual walking exercises have a positive effect on lowering blood pressure [35][36][37]. ...
Background. In Japan, "Shinrin-yoku" or forest bathing (spending time in forests) is a major practice used for relaxation. However, its effects on promoting human mental health are still under consideration. The objective of this study was to investigate the physiological and psychological relaxation effects of forest walking on adults. Sixty participants (50% males; 50% females) were trained to walk 15-minute predetermined courses in a bamboo forest and a city area (control). The length of the courses was the same to allow comparison of the effects of both environments. Blood pressure and EEG results were measured to assess the physiological responses and the semantic differential method (SDM) and STAI were used to study the psychological responses. Blood pressure was significantly decreased and variation in brain activity was observed in both environments. The results of the two questionnaires indicated that walking in the bamboo forest improves mood and reduces anxiety. Moreover, the mean meditation and attention scores were significantly increased after walking in a bamboo forest. The results of the physiological and psychological measurements indicate the relaxing effects of walking in a bamboo forest on adults.
... Other physiological measures that have been used to assess the level of stress and psychological conditions, including depression, natural killer cell activity [53], salivary amylase activity [54,55], salivary and serum cortisol, immunoglobulin A (IgA) concentrations [56], and urinary adrenaline levels [57]. In addition, electroencephalogram-based biomarkers (i.e., rACC theta, LDAEP, iAPF, P300, frontal theta activity) were found to predict the prognosis of the course of mental illness and treatment response [58]. ...
This study systematically reviewed forest therapy programs designed to decrease the level of depression among adults and assessed the methodological rigor and scientific evidence quality of existing research studies to guide future studies. This systematic review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The authors independently screened full-text articles from various databases using the following criteria: (1) intervention studies assessing the effects of forest therapy on depressive symptoms in adults aged 18 years and older; (2) studies including at least one control group or condition; (3) peer-reviewed studies; and (4) been published either in English or Korean before July 2016. The Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Network measurement tool was used to assess the risk of bias in each trial. In the final sample, 28 articles (English: 13, Korean: 15) were included in the systematic review. We concluded that forest therapy is an emerging and effective intervention for decreasing adults’ depression levels. However, the included studies lacked methodological rigor. Future studies assessing the long-term effect of forest therapy on depression using rigorous study designs are needed.
Interest in nature-based tourism is increasing day by day. Forests are areas where this type of tourism can realize in, a source of both mental and physical healing. In this study, it is aimed to determine the activities for forest bathing, which can be a new nature-based tourism type, and to suggest a route by choosing the Kafkasör Urban Forest study area. In addition, in questionnaire the emotional states of individuals participating in various activities in the Kafkasör Urban Forest were measured using the Positive and Negative Effect Schedule. In the study, it was determined that walking, contact with water and plants, eating and drinking, watching the scenery, meditation and sitting-relaxing activities are suitable activities for forest bathing. A route was created by determining the areas where these activities can be carried out. According to obtained data from questionnaire, it was determined that the participants had a decrease in their negative mood and an increase in their positive mood after participating in the activities in the Kafkasör Urban Forest. Some suggestions were proposed regarding the workshops that can be carried out within the scope of forest bathing in the urban forest and what should be done for forest bathing, which is a new concept for our country. It is thought that this type of tourism will be developed in the Black Sea region and will provide brand value.
This chapter presents the relevant studies on the short- and long-term health effects of forest bathing and forest therapy. They are scientifically prepared and evaluated. A distinction is made between the relaxing and restorative effects as well as the psychological and physical effects, also on various disease patterns.
Exposure to forest environment is beneficial to human health and has complex physiological and psychological effects. Here, we synthesized the results from 40 peer-reviewed publications, and conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate the general responses of 15 variables related to physiological and psychological functions to forest exposure. We summarized the evidence that forest exposure was beneficial to health, such as reducing systolic blood pressure (SMD = −0.27), diastolic blood pressure (SMD = −0.28), heart rate (SMD = −0.27), sympathetic nervous activity (SMD = −0.24), salivary cortisol (SMD = −0.26), and increasing parasympathetic nervous activity (SMD = 0.23). Evidence showed that lower levels of systolic blood pressure and sympathetic nervous activity, and higher levels of parasympathetic nervous activity were associated with duration exposure to the forest, while lower levels of heart rate and higher levels of parasympathetic nervous activity were associated with methods of intervention with forest environment. When exposed to the forest, it was positive in terms of comfortable – uncomfortable (SMD = 2.07), natural – artificial (SMD = 2.56), and soothing – awakening (SMD = 2.01). Our results also showed that significant, moderate-sized reductions in negative emotions, such as anger, confusion, depression and fatigue (SMD = −0.73–−1.28), but large-sized improvements in vigor (SMD = 0.64) following exposure to forest environments. Subgroup analysis of duration and intervention methods showed that the psychological effects of forest exposure had no significant difference among different groups except for the effect of duration on tension-anxiety. Publication bias was detected in some parameters. Further large-scale clinical trials should be conducted to identify the mechanism of forest exposure to human health.
This study aimed to examine the psychological effects of forest activities in a campus forest. A pre-test and post-test control group design was employed to evaluate the psychological effect of forest activities in a campus forest. A total of 38 participants participated in this study (19 in the forest activities group; 19 in the control group). The Profile of Mood State (POMS) questionnaire, the Concise Measure of Subjective Well-Being (COMOSWB), and the modified form of the Stress Response Inventory (SRI-MF) were administered to each participant to assess psychological effects. This study revealed that participants in the forest activities intervention group had significantly positive increases in their mood, stress response, and subjective well-being, comparing with those of control group participants who did not partake in any forest activities. In conclusion, the implementation of forest activities in a campus forest is an efficient strategy to provide psychological well-being benefits to college students.
Der bloße Aufenthalt in der Natur hat schon eine förderliche Wirkung auf Körper, Geist und Seele. Diese heilsamen Eigenschaften wirken auf einer zusätzlichen Ebene, sind in Natur-Coaching, -Therapie und -Mentaltraining aber nicht das zentrale Anliegen. Wenn der Arbeitsraum Natur mit seinen vielen Vorteilen und Besonderheiten genutzt wird, dann wird nicht nur die eigene Praxis in ein gesundes Umfeld verlegt, sondern es entsteht eine ganz neue, mehrschichtige Dynamik. Die Natur ist dann nicht nur ein erholsames Setting, sondern erweist sich als überaus hilfreich sowohl für den Klienten als auch für den Prozessbegleiter. Dieses Kapitel möchte die vielen Aspekte dieses wertvollen Arbeitsraums mit unterschiedlichen Studien, Untersuchungen, Theorien und eigenen Erfahrungen auf ganzheitlicher Ebene untermauern und als theoretisches Fundament für den eigenen Naturzugang vorstellen.
Zusammenfassung
Die Ökopsychosomatik beschreibt die Wirkung von stofflichen sowie nicht-stofflichen Stimulanzien aus Ökosystemen auf die psychische und somatische Gesundheit des Menschen. Sie erforscht die pathogenen und salutogenen Umwelt- und Natureinflüsse, um die daraus gewonnen Erkenntnisse für die öffentliche Gesundheit sowie für die Therapie von Krankheitszuständen nutzbar zu machen. Im ökopsychosomatischen Paradigma wird der menschliche Organismus als eingebunden in einen evolutionsbedingten Funktionskreis mit seinen natürlichen Lebensräumen betrachtet. Der Mensch ist Teil der Biodiversität. Nicht nur Umweltschadstoffe wirken sich ungünstig auf Gesundheit und Genesungsaussichten aus, sondern auch die Durchbrechung des Funktionskreises durch Trennung von den Einflüssen intakter Ökosysteme. Die „Waldmedizin“ ist als evidenzbasiertes Beispiel der angewandten Ökopsychosomatik zu betrachten. Der Artikel gibt einen Überblick über das interdisziplinäre Feld der Ökopsychosomatik.
In diesem Kapitel werden Ihnen die relevanten Studien zu den kurz- und langfristigen gesundheitlichen Effekten des Waldbadens bzw. der Waldtherapie vorgestellt. Sie werden wissenschaftlich aufbereitet und bewertet. Dabei wird zwischen den entspannenden und erholsamen Effekten sowie den psychischen und den körperlichen Auswirkungen, auch auf verschiedene Krankheitsbilder, unterschieden.
Flowers have played a key role all throughout human history. Some types of flowers were used as food and continue to be used as food until the present day; others have healing properties and are used as medicine. For Psychological sportive also used flower for relaxation by creating positive energy for sportive. Early man also recognized the aesthetic function of flowers; in fact, some ancient cultures believed that they could appease the spirits of their ancestors by decorating their tombs with a particular type of flower. The most important function that flowers have, however, is their power to convey deep human emotions especially for sportive. the physiological relaxing effect brought by nature is becoming clear; however, many workers find it difficult to be exposed to nature in their working environment. So, we work to classify flower dataset. the problem concerns the identi?cation of IRIS plant species on the basis of plant attribute measurements. Classification of IRIS data set would be discovering patterns from examining petal and sepal size of the IRIS plant and how the prediction was made from analyzing the pattern to form the class of IRIS plant and comparing between accuracy results and ratio of errors. By using this pattern and classification to simplify the problem of classification naive Bayes, decision tree, support vector machine and PSO are being introduced. This paper focuses on IRIS plant classification using Nave Bayes, decision tree and SVM (kernel=radial, polynomial, sigmoid) and compare between accuracy and error ratio of this algorithms.
Plant factories for the steady production of high-quality vegetables year round, and which can be divided into solar and artificial-light types, have recently been expanding in Japan as trigged by a report by a collaboration study group in 2009 and the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011. Common solar-type plant factories with mulch-span roofs are often difficult to construct in the northern areas of Japan, especially along the Japan Sea coast, because of limited sunshine duration and heavy winter snowfall, while artificial light-type factories are more promising in this region although high running costs due to electricity bills for irradiating plants and cooling the room often hinder the promotion of such facilities. The use of LEDs has recently increased in artificial light-type plant factories, but fluorescent lights are still predominant for economic reasons. Generally only small plants can be grown commercially in artificial light-type factories and the light intensity reaching the lower leaves decreases continuously as the stem of the plant elongates, deteriorating light use efficiency. Flexible organic electroluminescent devices able to cover the whole plant when irradiation is required and that can easily be applied/removed like a plastic film are expected to be introduced in both types of plant factories.
With lifestyles in modern society becoming increasingly stressful, there is growing interest in the physiological relaxing effects of the natural environment. Particular interest has been paid to the physiological effects of indoor plants, however, no studies have revealed the effects of such visual stimulation on minors. In this study 85 (41 male and 44 female; 16.5±0.9 years; mean±SD) students were exposed, or not as control, to a typical foliage plant, dracaena (Dracaena
deremensis; Lemon Lime), for 3 min. Physiological indices included heart rate variability (HRV) and pulse rate, using an accelerated plethysmography at the fingertip, were collected continuously during the experiments. The results indicated that the high-frequency component (HF), a general index of parasympathetic nervous activity, was significantly higher; the low-frequency component [LF/(LF+HF)], a general index of sympathetic nervous activity, was significantly lower; and the pulse rate was significantly lower. After exposure, or not, the subjects completed a questionnaire as psychological evaluation. A 13-point rating scale was used for following parameters: "comfortable-uncomfortable", "relaxed-awakening", and "natural-artificial". Results of the study showed that subjects felt more comfortable, relaxed and natural after visualizing the dracaena plants. Overall, the physiological and psychological relaxing effects of visual stimulation with foliage plants in high school students is confirmed.
Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) skin contains the phenolic compound resveratrol which is important not only for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses but also for human health. However, little is known about resveratrol transport in plant cells. ABC (ATP binding cassette) transporters are well-known transporters responsible for secondary metabolite accumulation in plants. Previous reports speculated that the full-size ABCG transporter pleiotropic drug-resistant (PDR) is involved in resveratrol transport in fungi and plants. In this paper, all full-size ABCG transporters found in the grape genome database are listed and focus is placed on VvABCG44/VvPDR14 as a candidate resveratrol transporter. The fulllength cDNA of VvABCG44 was cloned by RT-PCR using mRNAs extracted from grape berry skin. VvABCG44 expression was induced by UV irradiation, and the expression pattern of VvABCG44 in various grape organs was similar to that of stilbene synthase (STS), a key enzyme in resveratrol synthesis. Resveratrol content in grape berry skin increased after UV irradiation. These results suggest that VvABCG44 functions as a resveratrol transporter in grape.
To examine the psychological effects of forest therapy program on workers.
The subjective symptoms index, a shortened version of the profile of mood states (POMS), and a semantic differential (SD) method were used to measure the psychological effects.
The evaluations were performed 3 days before, during, and 1, 3, and 5 days after the forest therapy. The following results were obtained: (1) the subjective symptoms improved before breakfast and continued for 5 days; (2) the mood evaluated using POMS improved before breakfast and continued for 3 days; and (3) "comfortable," "relaxed," and "natural" feelings evaluated using the SD method were enhanced before breakfast, lunch, and dinner during forest therapy.
These results provided scientific evidence of the psychological effects of forest therapy program on workers.
Although D-Limonene can be considered an important component of nature-based stimuli, the physiological effects of olfactory stimulation with D-Limonene have not been completely clarified by scientific studies. The physiological and psychological effects of olfactory stimulation with D-Limonene were studied measuring heart rate variability (HRV), heart rate, and subjective evaluation using a modified semantic differential method; thirteen Japanese female university students (mean age±SD, 21.5±1.0 years) participated in the study. A concentration of 60 μL of D-Limonene was used as olfactory stimulant and room air as control. Subjects were exposed for 90 s while sitting with eyes closed. During D-Limonene inhalation: (1) the high-frequency (HF) value of HRV, a marker of parasympathetic nervous activity that is enhanced in relaxing situations, was significantly higher; (2) the heart rate was significantly lower; and (3) subjects reported feeling significantly more comfortable during D-Limonene administration than control. The results obtained clearly indicate that olfactory stimulation with D-Limonene induced physiologicaling important scientific evidence of the health benefits of D-Limonene.
To investigate differences between burnout patients and healthy controls regarding basal physiological values and physiological stress responses. Measures of the sympathetic-adrenergic-medullary (SAM) axis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis were examined.
SAM axis and HPA axis activity was compared between 22 burnout patients and 23 healthy controls. SAM axis activity was measured by means of heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP). HPA axis activity was investigated by means of salivary cortisol levels. Resting levels of HR, BP, and cortisol were determined as well as reactivity and recovery of these measures during a laboratory session involving mental arithmetic and speech tasks. In addition, morning levels of cortisol were determined.
Burnout patients showed higher resting HR than healthy controls. BP resting values did not differ between burnout patients and healthy controls, nor did cardiovascular reactivity and recovery measurements during the laboratory session. Basal cortisol levels and cortisol reactivity and recovery measures were similar for burnout patients and healthy controls. However, burnout patients showed elevated cortisol levels during the first hour after awakening in comparison to healthy controls.
The findings provided limited proof that SAM axis and HPA axis are disturbed among burnout patients. Elevated HR and elevated early morning cortisol levels may be indicative of sustained activation.
The purpose of this study was to examine the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest). The subjects were 12 male university students. On the first day of the experiments, six subjects went to the forest area, and the other six went to a city area as a control. On the second day, subjects went to the opposite areas as a cross-check. In the afternoon, they were seated on chairs watching the landscapes of their given area for 15 min. Heart rate variability (HRV), salivary cortisol and pulse rate were measured as physiological indices in the morning and in the evening at the place of accommodation, before and after watching the landscapes in the field areas. The high-frequency power of HRV of subjects in the forest area was significantly higher than that of subjects in the city area. The pulse rate of subjects in the forest area was significantly lower than that of subjects in the city area. The salivary cortisol concentration of the subjects in the forest area was significantly lower than that of subjects in the city area. The results of physiological measurements show that Shinrin-yoku was an effective form of relaxation.
Heart period, systolic time intervals, low and high frequency heart period variability, blood pressure, and respiration were measured in female subjects under three drug conditions (saline, atropine sulfate, metoprolol) while sitting and standing on three consecutive days. Following preinfusion baseline recordings, saline, metoprolol (14 mg), or atropine sulfate (2 mg) was infused for 15 min (by using a double-blind procedure). Recordings were taken during a postinfusion baseline and in response to an orthostatic stressor (standing versus sitting postures). At the end of the metoprolol session, atropine sulfate was infused and responses were monitored during the post-infusion (i.e., double blockade) baseline and during orthostatic stressor. Analyses of the blockade data revealed that the preejection period (PEP) reflected sympathetic but not vagal influences on the heart, and high frequency (HF, 0.12–0.40 Hz) heart rate variability (respiratory sinus arrhythmia) reflected vagal but not sympathetic influences on the heart. No other measure provided a specific index of the tonic sympathetic or vagal activation of the heart. Postinfusion PEP under saline predicted individual differences in postinfusion cardiac sympathetic activation, whereas postinfusion heart period (but not HF variability) under saline predicted individual differences in postinfusion cardiac vagal activation.
The experiments were carried out to study the influence (a) of 3 different respiratory frequencies (0.12, 0.20 and 0.35 Hz) on heart rate power spectra during orthostatic load with special reference to the peak frequency of mid-frequency heart rate fluctuations, and (b) of variation in respiratory depth on this peak frequency in supine position. The peak frequency of mid-frequency heart rate fluctuations was shifted to lower frequency values in response to orthostasis despite the constant respiratory frequency for either posture. No differences in peak frequency were observed between respiratory frequencies of 0.20 and 0.35 Hz in both supine and standing position and between the two extreme patterns of respiratory depth. We suggest that the shift of the peak frequency of mid-frequency heart rate fluctuations to the lower end of the heart rate power spectrum during orthostasis represents an original effect independent of depth and frequency of respiration.
We investigate how biological markers of individual responses to stressful experiences are associated with profiles of physical and mental functioning in a national sample of middle-aged and elderly Taiwanese. Data come from a population-based sample of middle-aged and elderly Taiwanese in 2000. The data combine rich biological measures with self-reported information on physical and mental health. Grade of membership methods are used to summarize functional status, and multinomial logit models provide information on the association between biological measures and function. The analysis identifies significant associations between biomarkers of stressful experience and profiles of physical and mental functioning. The estimates reveal the potential importance for health of both low and high values of biological parameters. The findings point to directions for future research regarding development of aggregate measures of cumulative dysregulation across multiple physiological systems.
The incidence of diabetes mellitus is higher in patients with schizophrenia than in the general population. Antipsychotic drugs have been implicated in the development of diabetes, but as non-medicated patients with schizophrenia have high rates of diabetes it is likely that factors other than medication are involved.
To examine the role of stress in the emergence of diabetes mellitus in patients with schizophrenia.
Selective literature review.
A model is developed suggesting that patients with schizophrenia show over activation of both the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and sympathoadrenal medullary axes, manifested by increased production of cortisol and adrenaline. Both of these hormones are known to be diabetogenic and are proposed as playing a part in the onset of diabetes mellitus in schizophrenia.
Stress has an important role in the onset of schizophrenia and may also play a part in relapse. Further research is needed to clarify the extent to which stress accounts for the genesis of diabetes in such patients.