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Active Listening
Abstract
Listening is now regarded by researchers and practitioners as a highly active skill involving prediction, inference, reflection, constructive recall, and often direct interaction with speakers. In this new theoretical and practical guide, Michael Rost and JJ Wilson demonstrate how active listening can be developed through guided instruction. With so many new technologies and platforms for communication, there are more opportunities than ever before for learners to access listening input, but this abundance leads to new challenges: • how to choose the right input • how to best use listening and viewing input inside and outside the classroom • how to create an appropriate syllabus using available resources.
... To summarize, the four key areas, in which the research has provided insights into the teaching of L2 listening, are (Rost, 2006): a) accessibility of input, including degrees of relevance, difficulty and authenticity; b) top-down processing, involving listeners' background knowledge and mental representations (concept-driven) (Robinson & Ellis, 2007;Rost & Wilson, 2013;Wilson, 2008); c) bottom-up processing, that starts with words decoding from acoustic signal through phonetic and phonological levels to its meaning in the context (data-driven) (Robinson & Ellis, 2007;Rost & Wilson, 2013;Wilson, 2008); d) listener's status and its change towards more active through elaboration techniques, namely, interest invoking, lack of knowledge detection, pre-questions and pre-trainings, etc. (Imhof, 2001). ...
... To summarize, the four key areas, in which the research has provided insights into the teaching of L2 listening, are (Rost, 2006): a) accessibility of input, including degrees of relevance, difficulty and authenticity; b) top-down processing, involving listeners' background knowledge and mental representations (concept-driven) (Robinson & Ellis, 2007;Rost & Wilson, 2013;Wilson, 2008); c) bottom-up processing, that starts with words decoding from acoustic signal through phonetic and phonological levels to its meaning in the context (data-driven) (Robinson & Ellis, 2007;Rost & Wilson, 2013;Wilson, 2008); d) listener's status and its change towards more active through elaboration techniques, namely, interest invoking, lack of knowledge detection, pre-questions and pre-trainings, etc. (Imhof, 2001). ...
... These factors include background knowledge about the topic, text, structure, genre, culture, and other schemas (Brown, 2007;Bodie, Worthington, Imhof, & Cooper , 2008;Rost & Wilson, 2013). Related to the culture and schema, since that language is the cultural product, so that interpretation, schemata, and scripts are surely based on a certain culture (Tschirner, 2001). ...
Being a major part of internationalizing higher education, teaching English taps particular general cognitive abilities. It is mainly regarding listening that is hypothesized to have a higher influence on acquisition of foreign language. The aim of this study was to identify the common listening challenges experienced by Indonesian EFL learners. This research was practical research using descriptive methods of quantitative research. Subject of the study were subsequently randomly chosen, in which EFL learners at even semesters become the representative. In collecting data, the researchers used a self-structured questionnaire that refers to three primary categories: (1) the listener, (2) the passage, and (3), the physical setting. The data was then statistically evaluated by referring to Likert type scales, to discover useful information. After all, the finding showed that distortions, lexis recognition, phonological awareness, complexity of the passage and the speech rate highlighted a high degree response of common listening challenges. The significance of the study expected to contribute learners with a better understanding and propose new ideas for acceptable teaching listening.
... These factors include background knowledge about the topic, text, structure, genre, culture, and other schemas (Brown, 2007;Bodie, Worthington, Imhof, & Cooper , 2008;Rost & Wilson, 2013). Related to the culture and schema, since that language is the cultural product, so that interpretation, schemata, and scripts are surely based on a certain culture (Tschirner, 2001). ...
Being a major part of internationalizing higher education, teaching English taps particular general cognitive abilities. It is mainly regarding listening that is hypothesized to have a higher influence on acquisition of foreign language. The aim of this study was to identify the common listening challenges experienced by Indonesian EFL learners. This research was practical research using descriptive methods of quantitative research. Subject of the study were subsequently randomly chosen, in which EFL learners at even semesters become the representative. In collecting data, the researchers used a self-structured questionnaire that refers to three primary categories: (1) the listener, (2) the passage, and (3), the physical setting. The data was then statistically evaluated by referring to Likert type scales, to discover useful information. After all, the finding showed that distortions, lexis recognition, phonological awareness, complexity of the passage and the speech rate highlighted a high degree response of common listening challenges. The significance of the study expected to contribute learners with a better understanding and propose new ideas for acceptable teaching listening.
... Prueba de ello es que hay libros sobre la didáctica de la comprensión auditiva/audiovisual en los que la pedagogía de los materiales audiovisuales es prácticamente inexistente (p. ej., Richards y Burns, 2012;Rost y Wilson, 2013). ...
Audiovisual comprehension activities are complex, especially in a foreign
language. On the one hand, there is a confict of visual attention between viewing a video
and completing a written task simultaneously. On the other hand, paying attention to the
image, the audio, and the activity at the same time can lead to working memory overload.
This paper describes an innovative proposal that can help limit this complexity in the fields
of teaching and testing second languages: the use of embedded comprehension questions
in the form of subtitles and synchronized with the relevant fragments. The proposal is a
result of a doctoral dissertation in which a multiphase mixed methods design was employed.
Participants were researchers in teaching Spanish as a Second Language (SSL), Spanish
linguistics and/or the use of educational technologies, and SSL university teachers and
students. Overall, informants had positive opinions about this methodology. Quasi-experimental studies revealed that imprinted questions did not have a statistically significant effect on SSL students’ audiovisual
comprehension test performance. However, imprinted questions did increase the
amount of time that test-takers watched the video in a statistically significant way. The latter
suggests that this technique reduces the confict of visual attention between viewing the video
and completing the task.
... According to Suggestopedia principle, learners are totally immersed in rhythm without external interference, which makes them more susceptible to language input and increases their attention [23]. Attention is key element for triggering learning, and developing attention span is considered as a vital instruction task [35]. Apart from functioning as warm-up activity, the prediction element in this activity may inspire learners' curiosity, which sets purpose for later listening activity. ...
... Thus far, SLA research has revealed that the use of learning strategies helps make learning deeper, more effective and more enjoyable and therefore can maximise the outcomes of learning (Gu, 2010). Most research on L2 learning strategies concerns reading skills and vocabulary acquisition (Swan, 2008), although attention has also been devoted to listening (Cross, 2011;Blyth, 2012;Rost and Wilson, 2013;Thorn, 2013) and grammar Pawlak, , 2013 learning strategies. It has also been documented that explicit strategy training has a considerable advantage over implicit instruction (Chamot, 2004). ...
This article takes a step towards bridging the research gap between language- and-culture learning strategies and SLA-oriented outcomes of study abroad programmes. While studies concerning the impact of studying in foreign countries document various language-related benefits of the experience, only a handful addresses the types of language and culture learning strategies employed by study abroad participants. The present study tracks the use of these strategies by Polish students of English philology participating in a semester-long exchange programme in Portugal and Romania. It is revealed that although the use of language and culture learning strategies does not change significantly over the course of students’ stay abroad, the strategies chosen before their departure are used rather consistently. Keywords: language learning strategies, culture learning strategies, study abroad
The use of self-assessing metacognitive strategies has been shown to enhance English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' achievement in face-to-face classes. However, its impact on EFL learners' achievement in online classes, which have become more prevalent due to the development of new technologies has remained largely unex-plored. This study aimed to fill this gap by investigating the effects of online self-assessing metacognitive strategies (OSMLS) accompanied with written languaging on IELTS candidates' listening comprehension (LC) in Iran. A total of 67 IELTS candidates were selected through a convenience sampling method and were homogenized using an IELTS listening test. The participants (n = 44) whose scores were around the mean score were randomly assigned to either a CG (n = 22) or an EC (n = 22). EG received online OSMLS training while the CG did not. Both groups took a pre-test, a post-test, and a delayed post-test of LC. A one-way ANCOVA was used to analyze the collected data. Results indicated that the experimental group outperformed CG on both the post-test and the delayed post-test of LC. The findings suggest that online OSMLS can improve EFL learners' LC skills and have implications for EFL instruction in online settings.
Macro listening skills have received little attention in the literature. This entry first defines macro listening skills through contrasting them with micro listening skills and listening strategies, and provides a taxonomy of the skills. It then uses a classroom scenario to show how macro listening skills can be taught. Finally, the entry looks at the ways in which a formal focus on macro listening skills can influence student behavior as they listen, for example, by encouraging them to focus on ideas, make predictions, and listen critically.
With the growing integration of technologies in TESOL programs, listening instruction now encompasses a range of dynamic visual media, digital devices, and interactive video conferencing. Such integration provides access to a vast array of listening materials, allows for greater learner mobility, and increases learner motivation and interactivity. As technologies are increasingly blended into second language classrooms, the pedagogical and theoretical foundations that support their principled use in the teaching of listening are developing.
Micro listening skills are a relatively new idea in English language teaching, having first come to prominence in the 1980s. This entry defines micro listening skills through contrasting them with macro listening skills and listening strategies, and provides a taxonomy of these skills. It then examines their impact on the profession, using a classroom scenario to show how micro‐skills have led to clearer goals in listening instruction, replacing the generalized objective of improving listening with the more specific goals of working on discrete skills. Finally, the entry places micro listening skills into the context of recent developments in language teaching.
This study explored how teachers undertook listening instruction with learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) through investigating teachers’ authentic classroom practices. Eight experienced EFL teachers working in Iranian private language schools participated in the study. Each teacher was observed six to nine times and each complete teaching session of each of the participants was audio-recorded. Findings revealed that teachers had knowledge of an extensive repertoire of listening techniques, and their teaching was composed of strategies at pre-, during-, and post-listening stages. Teachers also mostly drew on metacognitive and comprehension-based practices. While teachers employed a number of metacognitive classroom practices, there was a lack of teaching and explicitly discussing these strategies. Findings provide some pedagogical implications for novice teachers with regard to expanding their repertoires of practice and employing various classroom activities. The findings might also help inform teacher educators and curriculum developers regarding classroom realities and the extent to which research findings can inform teaching methods and classroom practices.
Effective communication between the doctor and the patient is considered the core element within the clinical care setting, as it can contribute to greater understanding of medical information, resulting in a significant level of engagement, awareness, general competence, and empowerment of the individual, which is personally involved in the decision-making process. From this perspective, the doctor-patient relationship may have significant implications on health outcomes and medical care. Here, we begin by providing a brief overview of the main interpersonal communication skills and contexts in which the doctor-patient relationship occurs. We will continue by summarising the most significant changes in the doctor-patient relationship over the last few decades, as well as the main theoretical models implicated. The rest of the chapter will focus on social cognition (a complex set of mental abilities) with reference to the Theory of Mind (ToM) and Empathy, highlighting the human disposition to mentalize and the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others, which is necessary at all stages of the care processes. Finally, we will discuss the brain areas activated and implicated in response to the patients’ needs and possible future directions.KeywordsDoctor-patient relationshipTheory of mindEmpathyCommunicationClinical care
This article shares an innovative pedagogical experience that approaches diversity through cinema-based affective literacy practices in the EFL/ESL classroom. Following a social justice approach to education, we designed and implemented a workshop to develop affective literacy practices targeted at 49 pre-service teachers from the Master's programme in EFL/ESL Teacher Training at the Complutense University of Madrid (Spain). Then, we analysed the experience's results through semi-structured interviews with 20 teachers who volunteered to participate in the study. Our ultimate intention was to raise pre-service teachers' awareness of teachers' important responsibility as agents of positive social change (Katsiaficas 2020). The conclusions point to the success of the experience and unveil implications for future lines of work. ARTICLE HISTORY
We present a new listening head generation benchmark, for synthesizing responsive feedbacks of a listener (e.g., nod, smile) during a face-to-face conversation. As the indispensable complement to talking heads generation, listening head generation has seldomly been studied in literature. Automatically synthesizing listening behavior that actively responds to a talking head, is critical to applications such as digital human, virtual agents and social robots. In this work, we propose a novel dataset “ViCo”, highlighting the listening head generation during a face-to-face conversation. A total number of 92 identities (67 speakers and 76 listeners) are involved in ViCo, featuring 483 clips in a paired “speaking-listening" pattern, where listeners show three listening styles based on their attitudes: positive, neutral, negative. Different from traditional speech-to-gesture or talking-head generation, listening head generation takes as input both the audio and visual signals from the speaker, and gives non-verbal feedbacks (e.g., head motions, facial expressions) in a real-time manner. Our dataset supports a wide range of applications such as human-to-human interaction, video-to-video translation, cross-modal understanding and generation. To encourage further research, we also release a listening head generation baseline, conditioning on different listening attitudes. Code & ViCo dataset: https://project.mhzhou.com/vico.KeywordsListening head generationVideo synthesis
Second language (L2) listening skills play an important role in both content- and language-focused academic success; however, provision of L2 listening-related pedagogy may be lacking or unsuitable in many contexts. Difficulties transposing research derived knowledge about listening processes to appropriate pedagogy arise because it can be difficult to monitor learners’ L2 listening activities, much research uses group-based data which can be difficult to extrapolate to individual needs, and comprehension and related factors are often measured using static metrics. For educators, situated, learner-centric accounts of listening processes, difficulties, and related responses may enable more appropriate listening-related pedagogy; therefore, this study used idiodynamic methodology to capture the dynamic nature of listening comprehension and to elicit rich accounts of learners’ experiences as they watched English medium instruction (EMI)-situated presentations. The data provides evidence of previously-uncaptured comprehension-related volatility during a single presentation, and different comprehension patterns across presentations and between learners. Idiodynamic methodology further allowed the researcher to pinpoint which listening difficulties – e.g. top-down, bottom-up, knowledge- and vocabulary-related – impacted which learner at any specific moment of the presentations. These results can help provide targeted L2 provision in language and EMI programs, and give guidance to EMI providers as to the level-appropriateness of their programs.
In this conceptual paper, we advance Transformative Leadership Conversation as a form of dialogue that relies on shared meaning-making to activate the motivational energy within people to transform social structures that impede aspirational realities. Transformative Leadership Conversation leverages the most commonly available resource for leaders—conversation—to approach transformation as a process that begins within individuals and moves outward to the relational context where actions and interactions define social structures. There are two interdependent parts to the paper: a conceptual definition and a theory of action. The conceptual definition describes TLC and situates its components in the social and psychological processes that drive transformation. The theory of action advances a simple framework for how leaders might engage TLC across different contexts and situations.
The role of emotions in L2 instruction has been well-recognized. With the rise of positive psychology in SLA, the investigations of L2 learners’ emotions have shifted from concern with negative emotions to inclusion of positive ones. However, few studies from the recent literature on positive and negative emotions have distinguished their emotions across different language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing), although emotions are universally recognized as domain-specific. Moreover, of these few studies, even fewer have reported specifically on emotional experiences of L2 learners in the process of listening learning, which is understandable given the general under-exploration of listening as compared with other language skills. This case study attempts to address this gap by exploring academic emotions of Chinese undergraduate English majors in the process of acquiring English listening skills from the perspective of Positive Psychology. Based on data collected from various sources over two semesters, a refined categorization of listening learners’ academic emotions is proposed and the characteristics of their emotions are revealed in terms of diversity, intensity, and frequency. The categorization and characteristics imply that L2 listening instructors might need to pay special attention to the emotional dimension of their instruction and learn to be an emotional therapist, though this is not their traditionally expected role.
Based on data from the GRAAL group's questionnaire on remote teaching, caused by the Covid-19 emergency as reported in Conti (2021), oral production practice was neglected by both high school and college students. The aim of this paper is to reflect on how to promote and sustain speaking from the beginning of the language learning process, during in-person, remote and/or hybrid teaching. The framework presented indicates task-based language teaching (TBLT) as an effective approach to help learners participate in successful communication. The paper provides: 1. an overview of current literature on the subject; 2. applicable examples integrated with Flipgrid; 3. data analysis of students’ performance.
Current approaches to listening are built on standard cognitive science, which considers the brain as the locus of all cognitive activity. This work aims to investigate listening as phenomena occurring within a brain, a body (embodiment), and an environment (situatedness). Drawing on insights from physiology, acoustics, and audiology, this essay presents listening as an interdependent brain-body-environment construct grounded in dynamic systems theory.
Coupling, self-organization, and attractors are the central characteristics of dynamic systems. This article reviews the first of these aspects in order to develop a fuller understanding of how embodied auditory perception occurs. It introduces the mind-body problem before reviewing dynamic systems theory and exploring the notion of coupling in human hearing by way of current and original analogies drawn from engineering. It posits that the current use of the Watt governor device as an analogy for coupling is too simplistic to account for the coupling phenomena in the human ear.
In light of this review of the physiological characteristics of the peripheral auditory system, coupling in hearing appears more variegated than originally thought and accounts for the diversity of perception among individuals, a cause for individual variance in how the mind emerges, which in turn affects academic performance. Understanding the constraints and affordances of the physical ear with regard to incoming sound supports the embodied listening paradigm.
This study aimed to develop Turkish Teacher Candidates’ Self-Efficacies to Use Listening Strategies Scale. Therefore, the study was designed in sequential explanatory design, and sequential timing has been followed. First, the interview study was conducted with 40 participants, and the qualitative data were analyzed through content analysis. Subsequently, an item pool was designed via the findings obtained from the qualitative findings and literature review. Afterward, the draft form was applied to Turkish teacher candidates and 345 valid forms were obtained. As a result of the exploratory factor analysis conducted for the data obtained, we determined that the items were collected in four factors in total. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated as .927 for the scale. Confirmatory factor analysis was performed in the last stage, and finally, we found that all factors are statistically significant and the obtained model has a good fit. In addition, we determined that the qualitative findings have chronological categorization and the quantitative findings have thematical categorization. This means that thematic categorization to the listening strategies can be more appropriate for listening skills. Consequently, the scale can be used in determining the self-efficacy perceptions of Turkish teacher candidates to use listening strategies. Furthermore, the scale can contribute to similar studies in the literature.
Dinleme becerisi bilişsel yükü fazla olan bir beceridir. Dolayısıyla dinleme becerisinin kendiliğinden gelişmesi beklenemez ve eğitiminin yüzeysel bir şekilde gerçekleştirilmesi kabul edilemez. Bu doğrultuda dinleme becerisinin eğitimi dinlemenin her boyutuna temas edecek ve her aşaması planlanmış şekilde gerçekleştirilmelidir. Dinleme eğitiminin en önemli bileşenlerinden biriyse dinleme sürecinin planlanması, izlenmesi ve değerlendirilmesini kapsayan dinleme stratejilerinin öğretimidir. Alanyazında strateji, yöntem ve teknik kavramlarının sınırlarının net olarak çizilemediği; dinleme stratejilerinin kapsamının tam olarak anlaşılamadığı görülmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı alanyazında yer alan dinleme stratejileri tasniflerini incelemek ve elde edilen verilerin ışığında özgün bir dinleme stratejileri tasnifi önerisinde bulunmaktadır. Nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden Temellendirilmiş Kuram ile gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmada dinleme stratejilerinin tasnifinde alanyazında en çok hangi tasnif türünün kullanıldığı ve tasniflerde hangi dinleme stratejilerinden bahsedildiği tespit edilmiştir. En çok tercih edilen dinleme stratejileri tasnifinin süreç temelli tasnif olduğu ve farklı tasnifler kapsamında ele alınan stratejilerin birbirleriyle örtüştüğü görülmüştür. Çalışmanın sonunda alanyazından elde edilen verilerin ışığında dinleme stratejileri tasnifi önerisinde bulunulmuştur.
Current approaches to listening are built on standard cognitive science, which considers the brain as the locus of all cognitive activity. This work aims to investigate listening as phenomena occurring within a brain, a body (embodiment), and an environment (situatedness). Drawing on insights from physiology, acoustics, and audiology, this essay presents listening as an interdependent brain-body-environment construct grounded in dynamic systems theory.
Coupling, self-organization, and attractors are the central characteristics of dynamic systems. This article reviews the first of these aspects in order to develop a fuller understanding of how embodied listening occurs. It introduces the mind-body problem before reviewing dynamic systems theory and exploring the notion of coupling in human hearing by way of current and original analogies drawn from engineering. It posits that the current use of the Watt governor device as an analogy for coupling is too simplistic to account for the coupling phenomena in the human ear.
In light of this review of the physiological characteristics of the peripheral auditory system, coupling in hearing appears more variegated than originally thought and accounts for the diversity of perception among individuals, a cause for individual variance in how the mind emerges, which in turn affects academic performance. Understanding the constraints and affordances of the physical ear with regard to incoming sound supports the embodied listening paradigm.
This chapter provides a rich, in-depth account of insights about literacy learning in Duavata. We begin with an introduction to the participating children and their families of Duavata, followed by Duavata findings for each of our study’s four research questions: (1) What are the literacy development contexts for preschool children in Duavata? (2) What are the enablers and constraints that impact on Duavata’s capacity to support their preschool children’s literacy learning? (3) What local resources and strategies can be used to foster preschool children’s literacy in their home languages and English in Duavata? (4) What strategies are effective in developing Duavata’s local capacity to support preschool children’s literacy development in their home languages and English? In addressing these questions in the context of the Duavata community case study, we illustrate literacy learning possibilities and their realisation for young children in Duavata and evidence how Duavata’s community capacity developed to support their children’s literacy.
Recent research focusing on the sources of listening anxiety identified individual and external factors (IEF), listeners’ control over input (LC), and perceived level of task difficulty (PTD) as the main causes of anxiety among L2 listeners. This correlational study aims to explore whether the sources of anxiety in L2 listening have a causal relationship to listeners’ self-efficacy and listening proficiency. Data were gathered from 347 students studying in the preparatory program of English in Turkey through Foreign Language Anxiety Scale (FLAC), Listening Self-efficacy Scale (LSS), and listening test scores of the students. Structural equation modeling (SEM) technique was conducted for data analysis. Results showed that there were strong negative associations between individual and external factors causing anxiety and self-efficacy while there were moderate level, negative associations between the perceived level of task difficulty and self-efficacy in L2 listening. Our work further proved that the listeners’ control over input was positively and moderately related to the levels of listeners’ self-efficacy, which was positively and strongly correlated with proficiency in L2 listening.
This chapter presents four broad principles deemed essential for planning and delivering effective listening instruction. These principles — active construction of knowledge, multiple levels of cognition, co‐creation, and participation rights — constitute a mindset that considers the listener to be an active initiator in discourse, selecting and enacting strategies to create meaning. Instruction then becomes a coaching process of leading learners toward developing an active orientation and using listening strategies and behaviors effectively. Based on these principles, four specific teaching approaches are delineated: comprehension building, academic conversations, integrating listening with other learning modalities, and deliberate practice. For each approach, I provide an outline of the steps a teacher can follow along with the specific standards that are used to determine its successful implementation. The chapter concludes with a framework for assessment that is consistent with these instructional principles and approaches.
In this paper, I am going to discuss the fundamental function of two seemingly-similar activities, shadowing and repetition. To examine this, I made a small classroom study in which a total of 44 university students engaged. Along with the obtained data, I will discuss the primary function of each activity. 本稿では、一見類似している二つの活動（シャドーイングとリピーティング）の基本的機能について論じる。44名の大学生を対象に教室内実験を行った。そのデータをもとに、それぞれの活動の主要な機能について議論する。
The purpose of this study is to examine the perceptions of EFL learners and teachers toward vlogs as a source of aural input for L2 listening practice inside and outside of classroom. A total of 389 EFL university students drawn from 29 listening/speaking classes and their teachers participated in this study. After four weeks of exploiting vlogs in the classroom, perceptions from students and teachers were collected through questionnaires, focus group-based discussion, and interviews. The findings of this study indicate that students found vlogs engaging, interesting, up-to-date while simultaneously being a source that will ensure learning. Teachers also had positive perceptions toward the use of vlogs in their classes to improve students’ listening skill and vocabulary learning, as well as other aspects of the L2.
With growing evidence that learners of English as a second language (ESL) may face linguistic disadvantages when studying at English‐medium universities, it is appropriate to identify the most effective ways to optimize their preparation. One area of interest is the relative importance university professors across disciplines place on language skills in their classrooms and how this might inform ESL teaching and learning. Thus, this study sought to identify perceptions of TESOL faculty and their ESL learners in terms of the relative importance of various English language skills such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking, and the extent to which they are aligned with the views of professors in the disciplines. Results suggest that although perceptions of TESOL faculty are well aligned with university content professors who have indicated that listening and reading are most important, students do not share this awareness and consider all language skills to be of equal value. This study also highlights the possible benefits of practitioners helping their students form appropriate and realistic expectations of pronunciation and the need for the field to better prepare practitioners to effectively teach the skill of listening.
Twenty-five years have passed since a teaching technique, called shadowing, was introduced in Japanese EFL contexts. Recently, this technique has gradually been recognized around the world. Given that many studies have been published about shadowing, the time is ripe to summarize the results of the studies and to propose how shadowing should be used. This article introduces shadowing, first referring to theoretical explanations provided so far, especially in terms of attention, cognitive process, and listening process.The article then summarizes past studies on the effects of shadowing on listening and speaking. Next, it discusses challenges in research and also introduces shadowing variations for further use of shadowing. As a classroom teaching tool, this article suggests that beginner level learners should start from shadowing for listening and proceed to shadowing for speaking.
This introductory discussion prefaces the chapters in this volume by surveying some key theoretical and practical insights into the teaching of the four language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. This chapter highlights the importance of contextually based teaching practices and innovations at the local level as well as the increasing incorporation of bottom-up and metacognitive abilities as they apply to the four skills.
Following a brief overview of the major developments that have occurred in the digital age as they relate to listening and language learning, this chapter begins by discussing the affordances and applications that digital technology offers to improving listening comprehension and supporting language acquisition. The next section explores connections between technology for listening and second language acquisition models and theories, drawing on the work of Chapelle (2003) regarding technology-based input modification and enhancement and Plass and Jones (2005) on multimedia theory, among others. The following section reviews both research and practice on a number of these aspects of technology-mediated listening, focusing on the use of captions and transcripts, multimedia, electronic glossaries and dictionaries, and speech rate control. The final section looks further at a few evolving trends touched on previously, as well as exploring future directions.
A FRAMEWORK FOR USING AUDIOVISUAL COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS EMBEDDED IN THE VIDEO AS SUBTITLES: A MIXED METHODS STUDY
Listening, reading and writing simultaneously is extremely difficult, especially in a foreign language (Underwood, 1989). An audiovisual comprehension activity can be even harder. On the one hand, there is a conflict of visual attention between viewing the video and completing a written activity. On the other hand, paying attention to the image, the audio, and the task simultaneously can lead to working memory overload (Vandergrift & Goh, 2012).
This paper is part of a larger research study that explores the use of audiovisual comprehension questions embedded in the image as subtitles and synchronized with the relevant fragments. This innovative teaching technique could provide various benefits over viewings with questions on paper, among them, the reduction of the conflict of visual attention and the cognitive requirements of the activity.
In this convergent mixed methods study (Creswell & Plano, 2011; Creswell, 2012, 2013), six experts in teaching Spanish as a foreign language, Spanish linguistics and/or the use of technology completed a questionnaire designed to elicit both quantitative and qualitative data. The purpose of the survey form was to find out what experts thought about a theoretical framework describing the use of subtitled questions. Quantitative and qualitative results suggest that, overall, the experts agree with most of the framework; results also reveal areas for potential improvement. The consideration of the comments led to the reformulation of the initial proposal.
Note: English versions of the introduction, the study design, the framework and the conclusion can be found in the appendix.
There is considerable evidence from psycholinguistics that first language listeners handle function words differently from content words. This makes intuitive sense because content words require the listener to access a lexical meaning representation whereas function words do not. A separate channel of processing for functors would enable them to be detected faster. The question is of importance to our understanding of second language (L2) listening. Because what is extracted from the input by L2 listeners is generally less than complete, it is useful for the instructor to know which parts of the signal they are likely to recognize, and which parts are likely to be lost to them. On the one hand, L2 listeners might rely heavily on function words because high frequency renders them familiar. On the other, they might have difficulty identifying function words confidently within a piece of connected speech because functors in English are usually brief and of low perceptual prominence. The current study investigated intake by intermediate-level L2 listeners to establish whether function or content words are processed more accurately and reported more frequently. It found that the recognition of functors fell significantly behind that of lexical words. The finding was remarkably robust across first languages and across levels of proficiency, suggesting that it may reflect the way in which L2 listeners choose to distribute their attention.
Humorous communication is extremely complex in both its forms and functions (e.g. Norrick, 1993; 2003). Much of the previous work that has put forth suggestions for incorporating humor into the language classroom (e.g. Trachtenberg, 1979; Deneire, 1995; Schmitz, 2002) has not examined these complexities in the detail necessary for the target audience (i.e. classroom language teachers) to be able to make informed judgments concerning its possible role in their classrooms. In addition, these researchers have not made use of naturally occurring interaction in making their recommendations. This article draws on data (interviews, participant observation and discourse analysis of audiotaped or videotaped interaction) collected from three research projects involving the use and understanding of humor by second language (L2) speakers in both classroom and non-classroom situations to illuminate what has so far been a largely theoretical discussion. I critique recommendations for pedagogical applications of humor in the L2 classroom, using examples to demonstrate how these are inadequate for determining what might be taught and learned and to whom. I then present arguments as to why it is appropriate to address L2 humor in the classroom and close with suggestions for incorporating humor into the language classroom.
Aptitude for second or foreign language learning is the ability to successfully adapt to and profit from instructed, or naturalistic exposure to the L2. Attention allocation, control, rehearsal in memory, self-regulation, analogical reasoning and many more processes combine to facilitate adaptation and learning in instructed settings, and during participation in instructional tasks. The cognitive processing, emotional and behavioural challenges various settings and tasks pose draw on subtly differentiated clusters of abilities and other personal factors. This paper argues research is needed into these in order to identify 'complexes' of abilities or 'aptitudes' for 'types' of situated pedagogic activity. An aptitude battery that assessed strengths and weaknesses in such complexes would be of great diagnostic value in matching learners to optimal learning contexts. Currently available aptitude tests cannot be used to this end, and so new aptitude batteries must be developed. Abstract Aptitude for second or foreign language learning is the ability to 7
This paper originated at a recent IATEFL conference in Slovenia, where Rod Bolitho and Ron Carter spoke on Language Awareness. They later came together with the colleagues named here to explore some of the reasons why Language Awareness has to some degree remained on the periphery of mainstream practices in language teaching and teacher education. The article was written interactively over an extended period of consultation by the authors, and explores questions concerning the theory and practice of language awareness, its descriptive orientations, its relationship with critical social dimensions, and its connections with current theories of language teaching and learning.
The listening comprehension section of the TOEFL has traditionally involved audio presentations of language without accompanying visual stimuli. Now that TOEFL is computer based, listening comprehension items are being created that include both audio and visual information. A nested cross-over design (participants nested in proficiency, level and form) was used to examine the effects of visual condition (present or absent), type of stimuli (dialogues/short conversations, academic discussions and mini-talks) and language proficiency (high or low) on performance on CBT (Computer-based Test) listening comprehension items. Three two-way interactions were significant: proficiency by type of stimuli, type of stimuli by visual condition and type of stimuli by time. The interaction between type of stimuli by visual condition although weak, was perhaps the most interesting and indicated that the presence of visuals results in facilitation of performance when the visuals bear information that complements the audio portion of the stimulus.
For many years, research effort has been devoted to understanding the nature of listening strategies and how listening strategies used by good listeners can be taught to so-called ineffective listeners. As a result of this line of research, strategy training activities have now become a standard feature of most modern listening coursebooks. However, in this article, we maintain that given the lack of evidence of success with this approach to teaching lower proficiency EFL learners and the fact that strategy training places a heavy burden on teachers, an extensive listening approach in the same vein as an extensive reading approach should be adopted. © The Author 2010. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
The purposes of this paper are to explore emerging technologies, engaged learning, and features and students of the Interaction Age and to identify connections across these three realms for future research and practice. We begin by highlighting those elements of the Interaction Age that suggest a shift in the affordances and applications of digital content. The Interaction Age, as an extension of the Information Age, distinguishes digital content as not just content accessed by students but as content around which they engage and construct knowledge in a social manner. Second, we review technologies emerging on college campuses as well as categorize and compare newer technologies including mobile learning, Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality, and ubiquitous learning. These technologies are among those at the leading edge of innovation and hold promise for educational application. However, in light of the Interaction Age, we argue that these technologies must contribute to student learning, and in particular, student engagement in learning. Thus, we present the outcomes of a literature review regarding engagement and engaged learning. Finally, we explore prominent connections between emerging technologies, engaged learning, and students and devices of the Interaction Age, offering examples of these linkages to stimulate future research and practice. The application of a variety of technologies for learning and teaching is influenced by two significant forces: the realm of technological innovation (especially, today, in regard to hardware and software) and the realm of learning theory. In consideration of the technological trajectory, learning has evolved from textbooks to television to computers, and now to mobile digital devices, in a relatively short time. In respect to the theoretical trajectory, expansions in ontological and epistemological thought have provoked a broadening of learning paradigms (e.g., behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism) suggesting moves toward more self-directed, contextualized, and engaged learning environments and approaches. Developments in ways of knowing and ways of learning have evolved against a backdrop of society's evolution from an Industrial and Information Age to an Interaction Age.
The purpose of this article is to familiarize EFL instructors with the effectiveness of using literature in language instruction. While some instructors may still believe that teaching EFL encompasses focusing on linguistic benefits only, so eventually their students will communicate in the target language, others who have integrated literature in the curricula have realized that literature adds a new dimension to the teaching of EFL. Short stories, for example, help students to learn the four skills—listening, speaking, reading and writing-more effectively because of the motivational benefit embedded in the stories. In addition, with short stories, instructors can teach literary, cultural, and higher-order thinking aspects. However, before novice instructors attempt to use short stories in their EFL classes, they 2 should understand the benefits of short stories and plan classes that meet the needs of their students.
This study investigated the effects of training learners of English as a foreign language with different rates of speech and controls over speech rate. Subjects were put into one of four treatment groups: (A) trained on listening comprehension materials recorded at a fast speed, (B) trained on slow recordings, (C) given some choice about the speed, and (D) allowed sometimes to pause playback. The group that was trained on slow materials fared the best, apparently because their bottom-up processing improved. Other groups seem to have developed their strategic listening skills more, but these did not always transfer as well to other contexts. It was also found that learners performed better when they paced their training over several days.
In language learning contexts a primary concern is how to maximise target language interaction both inside and outside of the classroom. With the development of digital technologies, the proliferation of language learning applications, and an increased awareness of how technology can assist in language education, educators are being presented with new opportunities to engage learners in innovative ways. This article reports on how technology was used to deal with the issue of an identified lack of English language interactional opportunities outside of the classroom at the author's university in Japan. An Action Research (AR) project was initiated with a Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) programme being implemented during an eight-week summer vacation period, in order to provide a platform for students to interact in the target language outside of class. The article reports on the action research methodology undertaken and the results of the CMC programme interactions. It shows that a CMC programme can offer students a convenient and useful platform on which to continue to communicate in the target language while outside of their classes, but that the construction of the platform needs input from both teachers and students.
This chapter examines the effect of an individualized Computer-Enhanced Language Learning Listening Comprehension Program (MMExplore) on students' listening comprehension ability in the context of learning English as a Foreign Language in the Thai University system. MMExplore is an audio-visual media browser which is designed to provide learners with a wide variety of ways to interact with authentic listening texts. In 2003, MMExplore was used by twenty first year students of the Suranaree University of Technology (SUT), Thailand for a period of fifteen weeks with a minimum of four hours of training per week to evaluate the effect of this program on student performance. Various forms of evaluation, both qualitative and quantitative, were used. The findings of this research suggest that (a) there is an observable gain in students listening comprehension ability in English after training; and (b) the majority of the students were favourably towards this program.
It almost goes without saying that good language learners are motivated. Common sense and everyday experience suggest that the high achievers of this world have motivation, a word which derives from the Latin verb movere meaning to move. Thus, simply defined, we might say that motivation concerns what moves a person to make certain choices, to engage in action, and to persist in action. The need for personal motivation is a message that resonates across so many stories of major and minor human endeavor, whether in the single-minded dedication of an athlete pursuing an Olympic dream, the drive and ambition of a young executive aiming for the top of the corporate ladder, or the willpower and self-discipline of someone determined to lose weight or to give up smoking. Without motivation, success will be hard to come by, and the case of learning a second or foreign language is little different. Motivation is listed by Rubin (1975) among the three essential variables on which good language learning depends. As Corder (1967, p. 164) famously put it forty years ago, “Let us say that, given motivation, it is inevitable that a human being will learn a second language if he is exposed to the language data.” Yet however commonsensical this general observation might be, the pursuit of its empirical verification has exercised language acquisition scholars for decades and generated an enormous amount of research.
Despite the increasing importance given to pre-listening activities in second language (L2) listening instruction, no empirical research to date has compared the relative effectiveness of different pre-listening activities or examined whether the relative effectiveness of different pre-listening activities varies as a function of multiple exposures to the listening passage. A comparison of the listening comprehension performance of second language learners of Spanish who completed three different pre-listening activities after one and two exposures to the listening passage shows that scores for subjects completing the question preview activity were significantly higher than scores for subjects completing the filler activity and that additional exposure to the listening passage improves listening comprehension performance significantly, irrespective of prelistening treatment. These findings have implications for pedagogy.
This experimental study investigates the differential effects of three conditions (nonnegotiatedpremodified input, negotiation without [Swain, 1985],and negotiation plus pushed output) on L2 learners' vocabulary comprehension andacquisition (receptive and productive). Analyses of variance performed on the data indicated that:(a) negotiated interaction had a positive effect on the comprehension of L2 words; (b) onlynegotiated interaction that incorporated pushed output appeared to have promoted both receptiveand productive acquisition of words as well as an increase in productive word retention; and (c)negotiated interaction plus output did not promote receptive acquisition more than negotiationwithout output, but it was more effective in promoting productive acquisition. The findings of thisstudy provide empirical evidence for the important role of negotiation in facilitating thecomprehension and acquisition of L2 vocabulary, which suggests that output plays a key rolewithin the negotiation process for productive lexical acquisition.
Informed by dual coding theory, this study explores the role of the visual content in L2 listeners' comprehension of news videotexts. L1 research into the visual characteristics and comprehension of news videotexts is outlined, subsequently informing the quantitative analysis of audiovisual correspondence in the news videotexts used. In each of five lessons, ten pairs of Japanese EFL learners participated in a sequence of tasks in which they listened to, and discussed various facets of their comprehension of news videotexts. The pairs' dialogue acted as the unit of analysis for exploring the effect of visual information on their comprehension. The qualitative analysis illustrated that various attributes of the visual content, such as audiovisual correspondence, impacted on comprehension. Moreover, other influences of the visual content found were its general utility in facilitating comprehension, inhibiting of attention to, and processing of audio information, and stimulation of learners' expectations and inferencing of content. Based on these findings, learner variability aspects and several implications for related L2 listening pedagogy are discussed.
This research compared student retention of information in foreign language videos in two advance organizer conditions. The subjects were 39 English-speaking college students enrolled in two sections of an introductory French course. In the Description Only advance organizer condition, the teacher read aloud six sentences that summarized major scenes in the upcoming video. In the Description + Pictures advance organizer condition, the teacher presented the identical six sentence description of major scenes in the video. The difference between conditions was that in the Description + Pictures condition, when the teacher read one of the six sentences aloud, she also showed a picture related in context to the sentence but not a pictorial translation of it. Student performance with 12 videos introduced in each of these two ways was tested. Results indicated that the visual support in the Description + Pictures condition significantly improved comprehension of the videos. The investigators interpreted these results as indicating that extensive listening is facilitated by the richness of context that visual organizers provide.
This review article extends the conventional notion of academic listening to include reciprocal (two-way) listening events in academic settings, as well as (one-way) listening to lectures. The introductory section highlights the comparatively low profile of listening in EAP research, due in part to the inherent complexity of listening and its investigation. The second section, on one-way listening, surveys research into real, course-embedded lectures, experimental lectures, and conference presentations. The third, on two-way listening, covers interactive lectures, student presentations, and supervisions and office hours. The final section looks ahead to likely future directions for academic listening research.
From the argument that in languaging worlds are created (Aragão, 2005; Kalaja, 1995, 2003; Maturana and Varela, 2001; Nuñez, 1997), this article aims at reflecting about the relationship between emotions and beliefs in foreign language learning. It is argued that beliefs and emotions in language learning/teaching are inter-related and can be observed in the way students conceive their classroom environment as they disclose feelings and core beliefs about themselves as students of English as a Foreign Language. Framed by the concepts of languaging, emotions and beliefs in a contextual and discursive approach, results of a qualitative study are presented in which data comes from narrative research documents and visual representations of students shedding light on the historical and situated interplay of beliefs and emotions.
The purpose of this study is to derive the criteria/dimensions underlying learners' L2 oral ability scores across three tests: an oral interview, a narration and a read-aloud. A stimulus tape of 18 speech samples was presented to three native speaker rater groups for evaluation. The rater groups included teachers of Arabic as a foreign language in the USA, nonteaching Arabs residing in the USA for at least one year and nonteaching Arabs living in their home country (Lebanon). Each of the raters provided a holistic score for every speech sample. Holistic scores were analysed using the INDSCAL multidimensional scaling model. Results showed that the nonmetric three-dimensional solution provided a good fit to the data. Both regression and speech sample analyses were employed to identify those dimensions. Additionally, subject weights indicated that the three rater groups were emphasizing the three dimensions differentially, thus demon strating that native speaker groups with varied backgrounds perceive the L2 oral construct differently. The study contends that researchers might need to reconsider employing generic component scales. A research approach that derives scales empirically according to the given tests and audiences, and according to the purpose of assessment, is recommended. Finally, replicating this study using other languages, L2 oral ability levels, tests and rater groups is suggested.
The assessment of listening comprehension in a second language has received relatively little attention until recently. This study investigated the effectiveness of providing different types of listening support for learners in a foreign language environment with a low level of English proficiency. The research was conducted with 140 students taking an English listening course at a college in Taiwan. The participants took sections of a listening test under four different conditions. Two of the conditions provided support in the form of either a set of pictures or a written background text. The third condition was a repetition of the test input, whereas the fourth one was simply no type of support. After the test, the participants completed a short questionnaire and some of them were also interviewed. According to the results, repeating the input was the most effective treatment, followed by having visual and textual support. However, the limits of the learners' English competence meant that all of the types of support could improve their comprehension only to a certain degree. Nevertheless, the provision of appropriate support may motivate foreign language learners to improve their listening proficiency by making adequate comprehension more attainable for them.
This article describes a small-scale study into learners’ attributions for success and failure in learning French. The study investigated the way in which learners conceptualise the notion of doing well, together with their perceived reasons for their successes and failures. Interviews were conducted with students from 10 to 15 years of age who were learning French in the Southwest of England. The results indicated that most of these learners tended to judge their success by external factors such as teacher approval, marks, or grades, and that the range of attributions increased with age. Many of the attributions mentioned, however, were superficial in nature. It appears that the teacher plays a significant role in the development of students’ attributions. Implications are drawn with regard to language teaching and to the nature of the learning environment.
Many EFL learners find that they are unable to comprehend natural spoken English delivered at normal speed. The paper reports a study of listening problems encountered in the EFL classroom in the ESP Centre at Damascus University, as reported by the learners themselves. It looks in particular at learner strategies, features of the listening text, characteristics of the speaker, attitudes of the listener, the task to be completed as a result of understanding the text, and the degree of visual or written support for the aural input. The results of the study show that EFL learners experience a range of listening problems. To overcome them, various techniques which help learners to utilise effective strategies to confront problems of listening comprehension are discussed and the pedagogic implications are stated.
The role of formulaic language has generally received only marginal attention within linguistic and second language acquisition
theory While there has been continuing interest in the phenomenon, no coherent overall model has yet emerged. This paper provides
an up-to-date survey of the second language literature on the role of formulaic language, drawing on a variety of approaches,
and including reference to native language learning and use I consider three different functions of formulaic language, i
e as communicative, production, and learning strategy, and discuss children as well as adults, naturalistic as well as classroom
learning. The paper argues that the most urgent task is to address the theoretical and methodological difficulties surrounding
the definition and identification of formulaic language and to place the study of formulaic language within a larger, coherent
theoretical framework. It is suggested that this may only be possible by taking seriously theories which abandon strict boundaries
between language knowledge and use
Providing copies of an instructor's lecture notes before lectures is enthusiastically approved of by university students in introductory biology classes. Surprisingly, students who use the notes tend to perform less well onexams than students who avoid using the notes. However, there is no evidence that using the notes is harmful to learning; rather, those students who choose not to use the notes enter the course with better preparation or knowledge than the class as a whole. Pre-circulated notes may improve the clarity of lectures and encourage advance preparation by students — a learning discipline possibly as valuable as organising and reviewing one's own notes.
Two theoretical frameworks that examine the nature of adaptability and mutual influence in interaction, interpersonal deception theory and interaction adaptation theory, were used to derive hypotheses concerning patterns of interaction that occur across time in truthful and deceptive conversations. Two studies were conducted in which senders were either truthful or deceptive in their interactions with a partner who increased or decreased involvement during the latter half of the conversation. Results revealed that deceivers felt more anxious and were more concerned about self-presentation than truthtellers prior to the interaction and dis- played less initial involvement than truthtellers. Patterns of interaction were also moderated by deception. Deceivers increased involvement over time but also reciprocated increases or decreases in receiver involvement. However, deceivers were less responsive than truthtellers to changes in receiver behavior. Finally, partner involvement served as feedback to senders regarding their own performance.
Service learning involves learning a variety of skills through the act of service. It is a powerful teaching strategy that can enrich student learning, enhance teaching, and revitalize communities. This increasingly popular strategy offers a framework in which students can recall and apply more of what they learn than in traditional content-based and faculty-centered curricula, while having meaningful real-life experiences that force critical thinking. Service learning focuses on youth leadership by empowering students and getting them more involved with helping others. At the same time, students benefit academically and socially from an education that integrates challenging academics with a commitment to creating a caring and civil community. Suggestions for incorporating service learning into an existing curriculum are presented in this article. (Contains 5 photos.) ["The Power of Linking Service to Learning" was written with the assistance of George E. Rogers.]
As a person who has been actively involved in research in French immersion education for approximately two decades, I am frequently told "immersion anecdotes" which often serve to provide a possible explanation for our research results. I wish now that I had kept a file of those anecdotes: They have been rich in description and detail, and are unique for the insights they contribute into the second language learning process. These anecdotes have come from parents, teachers and learners. It has been especially the anecdotes of the immersion learners themselves which have provided much of the stimulus for my own thinking about "the output hypothesis." This brief paper outlines some of that thinking and some of the implications it has for immersion pedagogy in particular, and second language learning in general.
In this corpus driven study, the scripts of 143 movies consisting of 1,267,236 running words were analyzed using the RANGE program (Heatley et al. 2002) to determine the number of encounters with low frequency words. Low frequency words were operationalized as items from Nation's (2004) 4th to 14th 1,000-word BNC lists. The results showed that in a single movie, few words were encountered 10 or more times indicating that only a small number of words may be learned through watching one movie. However, as the number of movies analyzed increased, the number of words encountered 10 or more times increased. Twenty-three percent of the word families from Nation's (2004) 4th 1,000-word list were encountered 10 or more times in a set of 70 movies. This indicates that if learners watch movies regularly over a long period of time, there is the potential for significant incidental learning to occur.
An accumulating body of research suggests that it is profitable to treat human cognition as a system that is primarily concerned with goal management. More specifically, it appears that the symbolic representation of goals, the location of relevant objects and operations and the construction of plans to achieve them, using objects and operations as components, are processes which are central to human cognition. The aim of the present paper is to suggest that relevance-based goal management processes are consistent with recent neuropsychological evidence that the human cognitive apparatus is duplex in nature. Furthermore, relevance information can provide a much-needed bridge between connectionist networks and the symbolic planning modules that characterise mature human cognition. The paper explores some phenomena, such as ethical reasoning, that have not been explained within previous theoretical frameworks. Finally, it is argued that, in addition to offering new explanations of familiar phenomena, the theoretical analysis of cognitive processes developed in the early part of the paper also suggests a range of novel technological interventions.
Creating classroom environments that are enjoyable to students and support their learning can be challenging for instructors. The purpose of this article is to: (a) discuss self-determination theory and how it can be used to motivate students; and (b) provide specific examples of how we implemented this theory in an undergraduate foreign language course to increase students’ intrinsic motivation. Our questionnaire results and firsthand observations indicate that intentionally implementing the self-determination perspective can be an effective way to create enjoyable and interesting classes. We present six successful examples of how we motivated students by: having students create Play-Doh objects, conducting review sessions, discussing personal objects, facilitating peer interactions, creating assignments of varying difficulties, and showing unusual pictures. We believe that this article will help instructors better connect self-determination theory to practice by providing specific examples that can be imitated or modified for use by other instructors.
Recent critical discussion of the Oral Proficiency Interview has questioned the adequacy and validity of the interview guidelines. The present study considers the role of accommodation in interview discourse and suggests that the extent of interviewer accommodation reveals an overlooked criterion for gauging the authenticity of the interview as simulated conversational interaction. The issue of misplaced accommodation as a threat to both the validity of the interview and the subsequent rating process is also raised, and supplementary criteria for training interviewers and evaluating the interview process are considered.
This study examines whether aural processing of input in a situation
of implicit instruction can build a knowledge base that is available for
both comprehension and production tasks. Fifty-five Dutch students learned
a miniature linguistic system based on Spanish. Three training conditions
were compared in which noun-adjective gender agreement was the learning
target. The first group of participants received receptive training, the
second group received receptive and productive training, and a third group
served as a control. The control group received no training of the target
structure and only read an explanation of the target structure rule.
Receptive knowledge was assessed with a self-paced listening test, a
match-mismatch test, and a grammaticality judgment task. Productive
knowledge was tested with a picture description task in single- and
dual-task conditions. A postexperimental questionnaire tested whether any
explicit knowledge had been induced. Results suggest that the receptive
and receptive + productive training programs succeeded in building a
knowledge base that was used in comprehension but much less so in
production. These results will be interpreted in light of processing and
the distinction between implicit and explicit knowledge. a
An important priority for the English Profile programme is to incorporate empirical evidence of the spoken language into the Common European Framework (CEFR). At present, the CEFR descriptors relating to the spoken language include references to fluency and its development as the learner moves from one level to another. This article offers a critique of the monologic bias of much of our current approach to spoken fluency. Fluency undoubtedly involves a degree of automaticity and the ability quickly to retrieve ready-made chunks of language. However, fluency also involves the ability to create flow and smoothness across turn-boundaries and can be seen as an interactive phenomenon in discourse. The article offers corpus evidence for the notion of confluence, that is the joint production of flow by more than one speaker, focusing in particular on turn-openings and closings. It considers the implications of an interactive view of fluency for pedagogy, assessment and in the broader social context.
Three experiments were conducted to examine the effects of three types of elaboration—marked paraphrase, unmarked paraphrase, and unnecessary detail—on NNS listening comprehension. Participants (both NSs and NNSs) were asked to listen to instructions and then draw or alter drawings on a page in front of them. The instructions were heard in one of four conditions, the basic set or one of the three elaboration conditions. Subsequent analyses of the participants' comprehension indicated that all listeners had significantly more difficulty following instructions in the unnecessary detail condition than in any other. Marked paraphrase was found to facilitate comprehension in some cases. It was concluded that the quality of elaboration has implications for listening comprehension, in both the classroom and the workplace.(Received July 19 1995)
This study reports on two experiments on input enhancement used to support learners’ selection of focus of attention in second language listening material. Eighty-four upper intermediate learners of Spanish took part. The input consisted of video recordings of quasi-spontaneous dialogues between native speakers, in tests and treatment. Exact repetition and speech rate reduction were examined for their effect on comprehension, acquisition of decoding strategies, and linguistic features. Each of three groups listened to each utterance of the dialogue three times, in different speed combinations: fast-slow-fast, fast-slow-slow, fast-fast-fast, respectively. A fourth group served as a baseline and received no treatment. Comparisons of pretest and posttest scores showed significant effects for all three parameters. No difference with regard to effect could be established between treatment conditions.
ABSTRACT This paper reports on a study of the relationship between the types of listening comprehension strategies reported, the frequency of their use, and the differences in reported use across four variables: level of language proficiency, gender, listening ability, and learning style. High school students of French reported on their thought processes during a think-aloud procedure. All students reported using metacognitive and cognitive strategies, with an overall increase in total number of strategies reported by proficiency level. Results indicate clear differences in reported strategy use by listening ability and proficiency level. The use of metacognitive strategies, such as comprehension monitoring, problem identification, and selective attention appeared to be the significant factor distinguishing the successful from the less successful listener. Differences for gender were minimal, and differences for learning style were inconclusive. A qualitative analysis of representative protocols also pointed to the integral role of metacognitive strategies as well as differences in the use of prior knowledge, inferencing, prediction skills, and monitoring. Results are discussed in the light of information-processing theory. Implications for pedagogy conclude the paper.