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Enhancing spirituality and positive well-being through nature
Abstract
The study of spirituality has repeatedly fallen in and out of favour during the history of psychology. However, recently psychology in general, and positive psychology in particular, have recognized spirituality as a legitimate and important research topic. Several studies demonstrate that spirituality is associated with positive well-being. For instance, spirituality is a key predictor of subjective well-being (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999; Fredrickson, 2002), is associated with having a more positive outlook on life (Fabricatore, Handal, & Fenzel, 2000), and predicts children's happiness independently of religion (Holder, Coleman, & Wallace, 2010). Many researchers conceptualize spirituality as a multidimensional construct. For example, the 1975 National Interfaith Coalition on Aging identified spiritual well-being as consisting of relationships with God, self, community, and the environment (Ellison, 1983). Research supports the concept of spirituality as a four-dimensional construct comprised of a belief in a transcendental dimension (God), personal meaning (self), relations with others (community), and an awe and appreciation of beauty in nature (environmental) (Fisher, Francis, & Johnson, 2000). The environmental dimension of spirituality includes the awe, appreciation, or wonderment evoked by experiences with nature which is perceived as larger, more powerful, or more important than the self (Keltner & Haidt, 2003; Saroglou, Buxant, & Tilquin, 2008). A sense of awe is often felt when individuals are exposed to natural settings (Loeffler, 2004; Schmidt & Little, 2007) as exposure to nature can elicit a sense of reverence and a connection with something greater than the individual, allowing time for introspection and cognitive processes (Stringer & McAvoy, 1992). Individuals often prioritize one dimension of spirituality over another and those who focus on nature may enhance their relationships with the other spiritual domains through nature (Fisher, Francis, & Johnson, 2000). Various theories (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1995; Ulrich et al., 1991; Wilson, 1984) have been proposed to explain the improved cognitive performance (Berto, 2005; Taylor & Kuo, 2009) and other psychological benefits that are derived from exposure to nature (Berman, Jonides, & Kaplan, 2008; Hartig, Evans, Jamner, Davis, & Gärling, 2001). For example, the Attention Restoration Theory asserts that exposure to nature can restore cognitive resources by allowing directed-attention pathways an opportunity to replenish (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1995). The concept that the environment can aid in a restorative process is supported by Heintzman and Mannell (2003) who found that individuals who were motivated, had leisure time, and spent time outdoors, were more likely to use their leisure time to foster their spirituality. As well, the biophilia hypothesis (Wilson, 1984) argues that humans respond favourably to environmental features that may increase their probability of survival. The biophilia hypothesis claims that people cannot achieve their full measure of responsiveness if they are removed from the natural world. Given that spirituality is associated with many psychological benefits and that nature may be an important domain of spirituality, future research assessing the impact of exposure to nature on spirituality and positive well-being is of great value.
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The rising popularity of spirituality is accompanied by a flood of research in numerous disciplines to probe its relationships with health, wellness, and countless other topics. Initially subsumed under religion, especially Christianity, and still overlapping with it, spirituality is increasingly treated as a distinct topic that applies to all religions and to persons who have none with their diverse assumptions, variables, and terminology. Besides issues common to all social and behavioral sciences, spirituality research faces special challenges because of its subject matter. In the context of Christian values, it is immeasurable, yet numerous scales serve the measurement need as its indicators or reflectors. Much more research is needed, ideally with methodological and philosophical precautions to avoid reification, reductionism, and other traps. Because spirituality pervades everything that is human, its study is central to investigations of the essence of human nature. A 1986 article on spirituality and science began with the words, "Most social and behavioral scientists avoid attention to the spiritual nature of humanity." 1 That still is true in some specialties, but spirituality has become a prominent subject of research in those most closely related to religion, health, and well-being. This article sum-marizes and critiques significant devel-opments in psychological and other research on spirituality. It provides an introductory foundation for beginning research on the subject and critically analytic suggestions for persons already grounded in it. Endnote references can guide readers deeper into aspects of spirituality that intrigue them.
Bowlby proposed that the individual's social experiences, as early as in infancy, contribute to the construction of Internal Working Models (IWMs) of attachment, which will later guide the individual's expectations and behaviors in close relationships all along his or her life. The qualitative, individual characteristics of these models reflect the specificity of the individual's early experiences with attachment figures. The attachment literature globally shows that the qualities of IWMs are neither gender specific nor cultural specific. Procedures to evaluate IWMs in adulthood have been well established, based on narrative accounts of childhood experiences. Narrative procedures at earlier ages (e.g., in the preschool years) have been proposed, such as Bretherton's Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT), to evaluate attachment representations. More than 500 ASCT narratives of preschoolers, coming from five different countries, have been collected, in the perspective of examining possible interactions between gender and culture regarding attachment representations. A specific Q-Sort coding procedure (CCH) has been used to evaluate several dimensions of the narratives. Girls' narratives appeared as systematically more secure than those of same-age boys, whatever their culture. The magnitude of gender differences, however, varied between countries. Taylor's model of gender-specific responses to stress and Harwood's and Posada's hypothesis on inter-cultural differences regarding caregiving are evoked to understand the differences across gender and countries.
This study investigated at-risk behaviors among Black and White adolescents using data from a nationally representative sample of United States high school seniors that permits examination of cohort, gender, and race effects. Designed both to describe trends in at-risk behaviors and to examine the strength and stability of a 10-variable regression model, this study found that (a) Black high school seniors reportedfewer at-risk behaviors than did White seniors, (b) Black girls consistently reported fewer at-risk behaviors than did other race/gender groups, (c) the 10-variable model lost predictive power between 1976 and 1985, and (d) the number of nights per week that seniors went out 'forfun and recreation, "their religiousness, and their college plans had the greatest predictive power for at-risk behaviors.
Exploring the ways in which leisure contributes to managing, relieving, or counteracting stress has become an increasingly popular area of study in recent years. Findings from a multi-year study of stress and coping among diverse residents of a western Canadian city are reported in this paper. In particular, the key findings presented are specific to the role of leisure in stress-coping, with an emphasis on those that are relevant to guidance and counselling. The participants in the study included: (a) Aboriginal individuals with diabetes, (b) individuals with physical disabilities, (c) older adults with arthritis, (d) gays and lesbians, and (e) a group of professional managers. Grounded in a qualitative framework, data were collected using a focus group method, while phenomenology was adopted as the analytical framework. Our findings demonstrated leisure's role as a palliative coping strategy. This strategy incorporates two elements: a positive diversion or ‘time-out’ from stress-inducing situations and thoughts, and a context for rejuvenation and renewal. Leisure also provided opportunities for promoting life balance, whereby the intentional creation of a leisure space became an oasis for personal renewal (physical, psychological, emotional) that facilitated resilience and the capacity to proactively cope with or counteract stress. Implications of the findings for guidance and counselling are discussed.
Religious involvement is associated with a variety of positive developmental outcomes including restraint from risk, increased coping, and prosocial values and behavior. This study examines a model that explains religious influence on these positive outcomes through the mediating effects of developmental resources important in adolescence. Tests of the model on questionnaire responses derived from a sample of 20,020 youth in grades 6-12 suggest that religious factors are associated with increased developmental assets that in turn predict positive behaviors and values among youth. Findings support the hypothesis that religious influences upon positive outcomes are mediated primarily through their effect on developmental assets. While differences in outcomes were noted across gender and grade cohorts, little variation in the proposed model was noted in cohort comparisons. Results of the study question the unique influence of religion on adolescent risk and prosocial behavior. Instead religious influence may be better understood as giving youth increased access to a variety of social and personal resources.
Certain highly emotional experiences have the potential to produce long-lasting and meaningful changes in personality. Two such experiences are spiritual transformations and experiences of profound beauty. However, little is known about the cognitive appraisals or narrative elements involved in such experiences, how they are similar, and how they differ. In a study of emotion-related narratives, these experiences were found to share many features but also differ in their valence. Experiences of profound beauty are almost always positive, but spiritual transformations are both positive and negative. Moreover, spiritual transformations seem to produce long-lasting change, but experiences of profound beauty, although evocative, do not seem to produce long-lasting change. An emotion approach helps to elucidate two understudied but important emotional experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A sample of 331 students completed German editions of the Oxford Happiness Inventory and the Francis Scale of Attitude toward Christianity, together with the short form Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. These data provide no evidence for a relationship between religiosity and happiness among German students, contrary to the conclusions of recent studies that have employed the same indices in the UK and in the USA.
This study argues for the assessment of spiritual health in terms of four domains of wellbeing concerned with self, community, environment, and God. This view of spiritual health is supported by data from 311 teachers in the UK. The Spiritual Health in Four Domains Index (SH4DI) developed from these data both provides an overall index of spiritual health and distinguishes among six different spiritual health perspectives represented by personalists, communalists, environmentalists, religionists, existentialists, and globalists.
The purpose of this study was to examine what, if anything, caregivers and teachers of 3- to 5-year-old children from the U.S. (n = 412), China (n = 244), Taiwan (n = 222), Korea (n = 574), and Turkey (n = 214), had in common in terms of self-reported beliefs and self-reported practices related to the National Association for the Education of Young Children's (NAEYC) policy statement for developmentally appropriate practices (DAP). DAP is widely endorsed by early childhood education and care professionals in the U.S. and is assumed to have far reaching impact on curricular beliefs and practices throughout the world. Pearson correlations and one-way ANOVA were used to compare overall mean scores for beliefs measured by the Teachers Beliefs Scale (TBS) to those of practices measured by the Instructional Activities Scale (IAS) [Charlesworth, R., Hart, C. H., Burts, D. C., & Hernandez, S. (1991). Kindergarten teachers’ beliefs and practices. Early Child Development and Care, 70, 17–35]. Item-by-item analyses were conducted using factor analysis and χ2 analyses within and across countries. Similarities emerged related to, in particular, those beliefs and teaching practices associated with integrating across the curriculum, promoting social/emotional development, providing concrete/hands-on materials, and allowing play/choice in the curriculum.
This study explored lived, leisure experiences for 24 self-selected individuals who identified having experienced leisure that was spiritual. Using a phenomenological approach, the study revealed complex descriptions of these experiences where individuals simultaneously felt, acted, thought and were aware. Analysis of the data indicated that spiritual experiences could occur in a range of leisure contexts, could be triggered by catalysts such as nature or newness, evoked responses including awe and appreciation, and led to outcomes of connection, awareness, growth and freedom. Results of the present study support previous conceptual propositions of the spiritual dimension of leisure and suggest further avenues of inquiry to explore the experiential and emotional dispositions people bring to their leisure.
Both researchers and practitioners have demonstrated considerable interest in identity development, and positive personal identities have been associated with numerous positive mental health outcomes. However, major theories of identity development have neglected the salience of spiritual identity, even though the early work of William James placed this as a central component of personality. This article reviews four major theories of identity development (cognitive, psychodynamic, systems, and narrative) and suggests spiritual identity parallels to these theories. A tentative model of spiritual identity development is presented. Implications for therapy and future research concerning spiritual identity development are discussed.
The aim of the present work was to test for an association between religiosity and happiness. In the first study, 154 undergraduate students completed the Francis Scale of Attitude towards Christianity (FSAC: Francis & Stubbs, 1987), the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS: Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffen, 1985), and the Depression-Happiness Scale (D-H S: McGreal & Joseph, 1993). No association was found between scores on the FSAC and scores on the SWLS (r = 0.03, NS) or between scores on the FSAC and scores on the D-H S (r = - 0.02, NS). In the second study, 67 undergraduate students completed the FSAC, the Purpose in Life Test (PIL: Crumbaugh, 1968), and the D-H S, No association was found between scores on the FSAC and scores on the PIL (r = 0.12, NS) or between scores on the FSAC and scores on the D-H S (r = -0.09, NS). The present data provide no evidence that, among two samples of undergraduate students, religious people are happier.
The relationship between religion and happiness has been the focus of much research. The present review provides a critical examination of this research and, in particular, focuses on conceptual and methodological concerns. The majority of studies report a positive association between measures of religion and happiness; however, contradictory findings are common. This is exemplified in the literature that has systematically employed the Francis Scale of Attitude toward Christianity alongside two different measures of happiness among a variety of samples. Two opposing conclusions have found consistent support. Research with the Oxford Happiness Inventory has consistently found religiosity to be associated with happiness, while research employing the Depression–Happiness Scale has consistently found no association. It is argued that such contradictions may reflect both conceptual and methodological weaknesses in this literature.
The articles in this issue each contribute uniquely to the growing field of adolescent religious and spiritual development. Together, they also illustrate important themes in the field, including the multidimensionality of the domain of religious and spiritual development and a growing emphasis on themes consistent with developmental systems theory, such as a focus on developmental processes, ecological perspectives, and strength-based emphases. At the same time, the articles highlight critical challenges for the future for this area of inquiry to become accepted as integral, core dimensions of human development.
Naturalistic inquiry methods were used to explore the spiritual dimension of wilderness experiences among 26 participants in wilderness adventure programs. Participants identified their spiritual experiences and factors contributing to or inhibiting such experiences. Program recommendations are offered for planning wilderness trips conducive to spiritual development. (KS)
Kohlberg’s characterization of moral development as displaying an invariant hierarchical order of structurally
consistent stages is losing ground. However, by applying Rasch analysis, Dawson recently gave
new interpretation and support to his characterization of stage development. Using Rasch models, we replicated and strengthened her findings in a re-analysis of three sets of longitudinal socio-moral reasoning data collected in Iceland. A new application of Rasch analysis provided support for upward development. Our
results supported Kohlberg’s characterization of stage development and the cross-cultural stability of Dawson’s findings that were exclusively based on US samples.We conclude that proposals to replace Kohlberg’s characterization of moral development are premature.
This article describes the relation between spirituality and well-being. First, we differentiate spirituality from religion by focusing on the inner attitude of living life directly related to the sacred that is not restricted to a membership of a religion. Next, a review is provided of empirical studies on the beneficial effects of spirituality on well-being. Then, spirituality is proposed as an element of eudaimonic well-being.
A number of recent studies have consistently reported a positive association between religiosity and happiness, when happiness is operationalised in terms of the Oxford Happiness Inventory and religiosity is operationalised in terms of the Francis Scale of Attitude toward Christianity. However, this general finding is not consistent across other measures of either construct. The present aim was to examine the generalisability of the link between religion and happiness using the Francis Scale and the Depression-Happiness Scale. Among two samples (Anglican priests and members of the Anglican Church), no significant associations were found between scores on the religiosity and happiness measures. Further research is now required to clarify the components of happiness that are associated with the Francis Scale.
Objectives. The aim of the present study was to examine the role of religious acts within the relationship between measures of religious orientation and psychological well-being, to examine the theoretical view that religion can act as a coping mechanism. Design. Correlational statistics, principal components analysis with oblimin rotation and multiple regression were used to examine the relationships between a number of religiosity and psychological well-being measures. Method. A sample of 474 UK students (251 males, 223 females) were administered questionnaire measures of three aspects of religious orientation (intrinsic, extrinsic, Quest), frequency of personal prayer and church attendance, alongside measures of depressive symptoms, trait anxiety and self-esteem. Results. Though a number of significant correlations were found between measures of religiosity and psychological well-being, a multiple regression analysis using identifiable religious components suggests that frequency of personal prayer is the dominant factor in the relationship between religiosity and psychological well-being. Conclusions. The results suggest two points: (1) that the correlations between a number of measures of religiosity and psychological well-being may be mediated by the relationship between frequency of personal prayer and psychological well-being; (2) that personal prayer may be an important variable to consider within the theory of religious coping.
The explosion of evidence in the last decade supporting the role of spirituality in whole-person patient care has prompted proposals for a move to a biopsychosocial-spiritual model for health. Making this paradigm shift in today's multicultural societies poses many challenges, however. This article presents 2 theoretical models that provide common ground for further exploration of the role of spirituality in medicine.
The 3 H model (head, heart, hands) and the BMSEST models (body, mind, spirit, environment, social, transcendent) evolved from the author's 12-year experience with curricula development regarding spirituality and medicine, 16-year experience as an attending family physician and educator, lived experience with both Hinduism and Christianity since childhood, and a lifetime study of the world's great spiritual traditions. The models were developed, tested with learners, and refined.
The 3 H model offers a multidimensional definition of spirituality, applicable across cultures and belief systems, that provides opportunities for a common vocabulary for spirituality. Therapeutic options, from general spiritual care (compassion, presence, and the healing relationship), to specialized spiritual care (eg, by clinical chaplains), to spiritual self-care are discussed. The BMSEST model provides a conceptual framework for the role of spirituality in the larger health care context, useful for patient care, education, and research. Interactions among the 6 BMSEST components, with references to ongoing research, are proposed.
Including spirituality in whole-person care is a way of furthering our understanding of the complexities of human health and well-being. The 3 H and BMSEST models suggest a multidimensional and multidisciplinary approach based on universal concepts and a foundation in both the art and science of medicine.
The spatial distribution of directed attention is coordinated by a large-scale neural network. The three principal cortical components of this network are located in the region of the frontal eye fields, posterior parietal cortex, and the cingulate cortex. We injected a retrogradely transported fluorescent dye into the frontal eye fields and another into the posterior parietal cortex of the monkey brain. Large numbers of neurons in the cingulate cortex were retrogradely labeled with each of the two fluorescent dyes. The two types of retrogradely labeled neurons were extensively intermingled, but neurons labeled with both tracers constituted less than 1% of retrogradely labeled cingulate neurons. Other cortical areas that contained retrograde neuronal labeling included the premotor, lateral neuronal labeling included the premotor, lateral prefrontal, orbitofrontal, opercular, posterior parietal, lateral temporal, inferior temporal, parahippocampal, and insular regions. These areas contained neurons labeled with each of the two dyes but virtually no neurons labeled with both. In the thalamus, retrogradely labeled nuclei failed to display evidence of double labeling. The overlap between the two populations of retrogradely labeled neurons was far more extensive at the cortical than at the thalamic level. These observations show that cortical and thalamic projections to the frontal eye fields and posterior parietal cortex do not represent axonal collaterals of single neurons but originate from two distinct and partially overlapping populations of neurons.
For a sample of 89 students in Wales who completed the Oxford Happiness Inventory and the Francis Scale of Attitude Toward Christianity scores correlated .38.
This study examined whether positive events mitigated the relation between negative events and maladjustment in samples of children and adolescents experiencing family transitions. The study examined this relation in two samples, used multiple reporters of maladjustment, and employed "tailor-made" checklists to measure events. The first sample included 86 stepfamilies with adolescents 10 to 17 years of age. The second sample included 171 divorced families with children 8 to 15 years of age. Evidence that positive events are protective for children and adolescents experiencing high levels of negative events was found across the 2 samples and across mother and child report of adjustment. These findings have implications for theory and intervention development.
The aim of this study was to generate a deeper understanding of the factors and forces that may inhibit or advance the concepts of spirituality and spiritual care within both nursing and health care.
This manuscript presents a model that emerged from a qualitative study using grounded theory. Implementation and use of this model may assist all health care practitioners and organizations to advance the concepts of spirituality and spiritual care within their own sphere of practice. The model has been termed the principal components model because participants identified six components as being crucial to the advancement of spiritual health care.
Grounded theory was used meaning that there was concurrent data collection and analysis. Theoretical sampling was used to develop the emerging theory. These processes, along with data analysis, open, axial and theoretical coding led to the identification of a core category and the construction of the principal components model.
Fifty-three participants (24 men and 29 women) were recruited and all consented to be interviewed. The sample included nurses (n=24), chaplains (n=7), a social worker (n=1), an occupational therapist (n=1), physiotherapists (n=2), patients (n=14) and the public (n=4). The investigation was conducted in three phases to substantiate the emerging theory and the development of the model.
The principal components model contained six components: individuality, inclusivity, integrated, inter/intra-disciplinary, innate and institution.
A great deal has been written on the concepts of spirituality and spiritual care. However, rhetoric alone will not remove some of the intrinsic and extrinsic barriers that are inhibiting the advancement of the spiritual dimension in terms of theory and practice.
An awareness of and adherence to the principal components model may assist nurses and health care professionals to engage with and overcome some of the structural, organizational, political and social variables that are impacting upon spiritual care.