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Why Asian American high school students have higher grade point averages and SAT scores than other high school students
... Some scholars have expressed, however, suspicion and concern for this image. In particular, they have explored the historical fluctuation of white Americans' perception of Asian Americans and attempted to construct historical and sociocultural explanations for the model minority image (Sue and Zane 1985;Osajima 1988;Suzuki 1989;Sue and Okazaki 1990;Reglin and Adams 1990;Ahn and Son 1991). In general, previous research about Asian Americans as a model minority have focused on the following issues: 1) testing the validity of the model minority image by examining the reality of Asian Americans' educational and occupational attainments; 2) accounting for the academic performance of Asian Americans with sociocultural factors; and 3) examining the social and psychological impact of those perceptions on Asian Americans. ...
... Many studies have used standard tests and school records, such as SAT, GPA, and other measures to compare the academic performance of Asian American students with non-Asian American students (Sue and Zane 1985;Hirschman and Wong 1986;Xu et al. 1993). Several studies have indicated that the outstanding academic performance of Asian American students might be attributed to their cultural and family values (Sue and Okazaki 1990;Fejgin 1995;Pang 1991;Reglin and Adams 1990). Sue and Okazaki (1990) questioned the validity of the two hypotheses that were often used to account for Asian American academic success -hereditary differences in intelligence and Asian cultural values. ...
... Pang concluded that Asian American students may "mask feelings of depression, frustration, and desperation" in order to attend to parental expectations (Pang 1991). Reglin and Adams (1990) used the concepts of helplessness and home influence as their analytical framework to examine the academic achievement of Asian-American high school students. The helplessness theory argues that "learned helplessness is a psychological state in which repeated failure to control the outcome of one situation induces a carryover of passivity and a depressed level of performance to a new situation." ...
Although an abundance of anecdotal and journalistic articles about Asian Americans as a model minority has appeared in the past two decades, a review of the literature revealed surprisingly few empirical studies on this subject. Specifically, no research has been done on whether Asian Americans perceive themselves as a model minority and how they are perceived by other racial groups. In this paper, the results of a sample survey of a large public land-grant university on Asian Americans' self-perceptions and other racial groups' perceptions of Asian Americans in terms of their preparedness for college, motivation, and expectations of future career success are reported. Using whites as a comparison group, it was found that Asian Americans perceived themselves as more prepared, motivated and more likely to have greater career success than whites. Also, the perceptions that Asian Americans were superior to whites in those three areas were shared by whites, African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans. In contrast, the other three minority groups each viewed itself as inferior to whites in each of the three areas measured, and were so viewed by the other racial groups as well. The implications of these findings are explored.
... Studies of individuals' tendencies to prioritize achievement motives across ethnic groups have indicated that families, community, and culture have an impact on individual motivation to achieve, through factors such as ethnic identity, SES, and familial support (Yu & Patterson, 2010). For example, Asian Americans hold motivational beliefs that depend greatly on the value of that skill in the larger social context (Stigler, Smith, & Mao, 1985), focusing less on their perceived capability to complete a task and more on the importance of excelling at the task (Reglin & Adams, 1990). This body of research has suggested that Asian Americans demonstrate a high need for success, and, accordingly, Asian American students set higher goals for themselves and evaluate their performance against more stringent criteria, motivating them to expend more effort to reach their goals (Eaton & Dembo, 1997). ...
... Factors such as economic conditions, SES, and family structure-which can vary greatly between ethnic groups-moderate the impact of self-efficacy, aspirations, and self-regulation on behaviors (see Bandura, 2002, for a review of studies investigating these claims). Asian Americans may rate significantly lower in self-efficacy beliefs but may set higher goals, demonstrate higher perfor-mance, and report more motivation to excel at a task than other U.S. ethnic groups (Reglin & Adams, 1990). Other researchers have found that different ethnic groups reported no significant differences in self-efficacy, self-regulatory strategies, or performance; instead, prior achievement was a more significant factor than ethnic identification (Bembenutty, 2007a). ...
Motivation and emotion share a common theme: Both occur as a function of or in the presence of a valued object or goal. Investing attention, effort, and time into a particular goal implies value; emotion-eliciting stimuli imply that the appraiser is not indifferent to that object. In this chapter, we review implications for motivation and emotion for ethnic groups in the United States. Considering motivation and emotion is a matter of elucidating differences in how members of each ethnic group may perceive different goals, priorities, and judgments in their environments. We provide a summary of the dominant theoretical frameworks in each domain that draws on research conducted in the United States and elsewhere, with the belief that these frameworks shed light on universal processes that have unique manifestations in each ethnic group. Although the intent is to focus on ethnic groups in the United States, because we draw from universal processes, much of the discussion here may apply to other countries, especially those with a Western majority.
... Data from surveys comparing Asians, Asian Americans and non-Asians' attribution of academic success (Holloway, 1988;Reglin & Adams, 1990;Stevenson et al., 1991;Weisz et al., 1984;Yao, 1985) show Asians and Asian Americans attribute their academic success and failure primarily to effort over ability, whereas non-Asians view ability as their reason for success. The higher achievement of Asian and Asian American students may occur in part because they believe all performance is linked to an internal and controllable source-effort (Skinner, Wellborn, & Cornell, 1990). ...
... Asian American students' fear of failure, combined with their belief in the importance of effort, translated into longer engagement in school; they spent twice as much time each week on their homework as did their non-Asian counterparts. Reglin and Adams (1990) suggested Asian American students are more influenced by their parents' desire for success than are their non-Asian counterparts. They concluded Asian American students' desire to meet their parents' academic expectations creates the need to spend more time on homework and to minimize traditional high school activities including dating, watching television, participating in athletics, and working. ...
This investigation explored differences in motivational beliefs of 154 Asian American and 372 non-Asian 9th graders. Students completed surveys indicating their academic beliefs and later responded to a novel task to assess their achievement behavior. The difference in type of beliefs between the two groups explained, in part, their achievement behavior. Asian American students' fear of the consequence of academic failure best explained their performance. However, this variable least explained the results for non-Asian students. Asian American students reported lower levels of self-efficacy beliefs, yet significantly outperformed their non-Asian counterparts on the task. The fear of academic failure better explained achievement motivation for Asian Americans than did self-efficacy beliefs. A major implication of this investigation is that motivational beliefs elicit different responses in different cultural–ethnic groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... American students differ in their views of ability in relation to academic success and failure. Compared to Whites, Asians and Asian-Americans have been found to attribute their academic performance more to effort and less to ability (Yao, 1985; Hess, Chih-Mei, & McDevitt, 1987; Mizokawa & Ryckman, 1990; Stevenson, Chen, & Uttal, 1990; Reglin & Adams, 1990; Steinberg et al., 1992; Yan & Gaier, 1994; Chen & Stevenson, 1995). Similar patterns have also been found in the attributions that Asian, Asian-American, and White parents make about their children's school success (Stevenson & Lee, 1990; Chuansheng & Uttal, 1988). ...
... ans as diligent students is not lost on their classmates and teachers. Schneider & Lee (1990) found that Asian-American students' high self-expectations were reinforced not only by their peer groups, but also by teachers, and by White students, who had even higher educational expectations for Asian-Americans than Asian-Americans had for themselves. Reglin & Adams (1990) cite a paper by Tom & Cooper (1984), who performed an experiment in which teachers were shown photographs of Asian and non-Asian students, then given sets of fictitious academic records and asked to match the records with the photographs. The teachers tended to assign higher grades to the Asian students. Steinberg et al. (1992) report t ...
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 2003. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 157-175).
... The consistency and parallel findings in the ASWB and current study reveal a concerning pattern, especially when licensing exams are considered within the broader context of formal, standardized exams. In contrast to most standardized exams such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) in which Asian-American candidates often outperform all other candidates (Reglin & Adams, 1990), in both our study and the ASWB study, white candidates had an 11-12% higher pass rate than Asian-Americans, indicating that a different testing dynamic may be at play with licensing exams compared with traditional high-stakes college exams. At this time, McWhorter's (2022) explanation that points to specific linguistic skills due to social class enabling white children to develop more "disembodied, information seeking" (McWhorter, 2022, para. ...
This article describes the findings of a study that explored potential factors that influence the pass rate for those taking marriage and family therapy (MFT) licensing exams, both the national and California exams. An online, national survey was conducted to determine factors associated with passing the MFT licensing exams. The survey included measures of test anxiety, coping strategies, perceived stress, and experience of discrimination. The demographic results included patterns of racial and age disparities similar to those reported by the Association of Social Work Boards (2022), especially for Black respondents. Specific and readily implemented recommendations for making the current exams more equitable include (a) changing the phrasing of questions, (b) clarifying and reducing the scope of the content, (c) reducing the number of questions during the 4-hour period, and (d) ensuring adequate accommodations for disabilities.
... In contrast to other standardized exams such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) in which Asian-American candidates often outperform all other candidates (Reglin & Adams, 1990), in both our study and the ASWB study, white candidates had an 11-12% higher pass rate than Asian-Americans, indicating that a different testing dynamic may be at play with licensing exams compared with traditional highstakes college exams. Interpreting these racial disparities can be challenging. ...
This article describes the findings of a study that explored potential factors that influence the pass rate for those taking marriage and family therapy (MFT) licensing exams, both the national and California exams. An online, national survey was conducted to determine factors associated with passing the MFT licensing exams. The survey included measures of test anxiety, coping strategies, perceived stress, and experience of discrimination. The demographic results included patterns of racial and age disparities similar to those reported by the Association of Social Work Boards (2022), especially for Black respondents. Specific and readily implemented recommendations for making the current exams more equitable include (a) changing the phrasing of questions, (b) clarifying and reducing the scope of the content, (c) reducing the number of questions during the 4-hour period, and (d) ensuring adequate accommodations for disabilities.
... As an example from Table 4, for a one-unit increase in the percentage of Asian students, the odds of being classified into the constant SDE group was 79% (100*(1-0.21)) lower than the odds of being in the increasing SDE group, which replicates previous studies on the positive effects of percentage of Asian student on school district effectiveness (Kao, 1995;Reglin & Adams, 1990). ...
... However, these results are not replicated in all cultures, and there are frequent inconsistencies [39] in the sense that the authoritative style is not always related to the better psychosocial adjustment of children. For example, studies conducted with Asian minorities in the United States have observed that the use of an authoritarian style is associated with better academic outcomes-which are a measure of adjustment-than with other styles [40][41][42][43]. The authoritarian style has also been positively related to the mental health of adolescents in Arab societies [44]. ...
Parents exert a strong influence on several adjustment outcomes. However, little is known about their influence on adolescents' connectedness with the environment. This study examined the relationships between parenting styles, empathy and connectedness with the environment. The two-dimensional socialization model was used with four resulting styles: Indulgent, authoritative, neglectful and authoritarian. The sample comprised 797 adolescents (52.7% girls) from six public secondary schools who were aged between 12 and 16 years (M = 13.94, SD = 1.28). The results showed significant relationships between parental socialization styles, empathy and connectedness with nature. It was also observed that adolescents from indulgent and authoritative families showed higher levels of empathy and connectedness with the environment than adolescents raised by authoritarian and neglectful parents, with males from such families consistently presenting the lowest levels of empathy and connectedness, which was not the case among women. Additionally, women, regardless of the parental style in which they had been educated, showed greater cognitive and emotional empathy with the natural environment, while adolescents raised in indulgent and authoritative families displayed higher levels of empathy and connectedness than those with authoritarian and neglectful parents. These results suggest that indulgent and authoritative styles are stronger enablers of empathy and connectedness with nature.
... However, studies recently carried out in other cultural contexts have found that it is not always the authoritative style that is related to the best outcomes in child adjustment. For example, a number of studies carried out in the United States with Asian minorities show that the use of an authoritarian style by parents is associated with positive adjustment in children, especially in academic results (Chao 1994(Chao , 1996(Chao , 2001Reglin & Adams 1990). In this same way, the authoritarian style was not found to be damaging to adolescent mental health in Arabic societies (Dwairy, Achoui, Abouserie & Farah 2006). ...
The present chapter outlines a number of studies on parental socialization carried out in Brazil. Different conceptualizations of the socialization process are analyzed, pointing out the role that the social and cultural contexts play in the socialization process. Next, some differential characteristics of Brazil are highlighted. The role of the family in the socialization process is considered, along with the conceptualization of parental socialization styles and practices, focusing on specific studies that analyze these questions in Brazil. The differences in the employment of socialization practices by mothers and fathers are evaluated, such as the different ways that parents behave with girls and boys. Finally, a number of studies are discussed that analyze the relationship between the socialization style that parents use and the adjustment of their children. Special attention is paid to the role of reasoning in the socialization process and the beneficial outcomes that it seems to have in Brazilian society compared to the employment of other socialization techniques.
... This belief influences Asian parents to place higher academic expectations on their children [38]. Reglin and Adams [39] found that even among Asian students brought up in the American culture, these children are more influenced by their parents' desire for success than are their non-Asian counterparts. Thus, Asian students' desire to meet their parents' academic expectations, coupled with their belief in learning through effort rather than being a fixed ability, may translate into higher level of self-control effort striving for academic success. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine how culture influences the use of self-leadership strategies among Hong Kong and Australian students. Results revealed that significant cultural differences were found for some dimensions of self-leadership strategies. Chinese students reported greater use of self-reward, relation-based natural reward, individual-oriented and social-oriented evaluation of beliefs and assumption, whereas Australian students reported greater use of self-goal setting, and self-cueing. However, no cultural differences were found for the use of self-punishment, positive self-talk, visualizing successful performance as well as task-based natural rewards. Implications and future research are also discussed.
... Adherence to Asian values may explain behavioral differences that exist between Asian-Americans and their peers of different race/ethnicities. For example, Asian-American adolescents engage in dating behaviors at lower rates and spend less time dating as compared to peers of other races/ ethnicities (Chen & Stevenson, 1995; Reglin & Adams, 1990 ). Asian- American adolescents' sexual attitudes generally become less conservative with increasing acculturation, as measured by country of origin or acculturation scale (Brotto et al., 2005; Chen & Yang, 1986; Huang & Uba, 1992; Yu, 2007). ...
Dating behaviors and sexual attitudes of Asian-American youth were examined in a cross-sectional, mixed-methods study in the context of adherence to Asian values, measured by the Asian Values Scale (AVS). In all, 31 Asian-American adolescents (age 14-18 years old) from a Houston community center were interviewed regarding dating behaviors and sexual attitudes. Almost three-fourth of adolescents dated without parental knowledge. Compared with adolescents with the lowestAVS scores, those with the highestAVS scores were significantly more likely to date without parental knowledge and date longer before sex. Many adolescents proceeded directly to single, steady, relationships. Parents permitted dating, as long as grades were maintained. Asian-American adolescents should be questioned about secret dating, sexual activity, and participation in other high-risk activities.
... Adherence to Asian values may explain behavioral differences that exist between Asian-Americans and their peers of different race/ethnicities. For example, Asian-American adolescents engage in dating behaviors at lower rates and spend less time dating as compared to peers of other races/ ethnicities (Chen & Stevenson, 1995;Reglin & Adams, 1990). Asian- American adolescents' sexual attitudes generally become less conservative with increasing acculturation, as measured by country of origin or accul- turation scale ( Brotto et al., 2005;Chen & Yang, 1986;Huang & Uba, 1992;Yu, 2007). ...
Typescript. Thesis (M.P.H.)--University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, School of Public Health, 2004. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 36-39).
This chapter presents a series of studies on parental socialization conducted in Brazil. Different concepts of the socialization process are analyzed, pointing out the role played by social and cultural contexts in the socialization process. Then, some particular characteristics of Brazil are highlighted. The role of the family in the socialization process is considered, along with the conceptualization of parental socialization styles and practices, focusing on specific studies analyzing these issues in Brazil. Specifically, differences in the use of socialization practices by mothers and fathers are evaluated, as well as the differentiated use that fathers/mothers make of socialization practices with girls and boys. Finally, several studies that analyze the relationship between the socialization style used by parents and their children’s adjustment are discussed. Special attention is given to the role of parental involvement in the socialization process and the beneficial results it seems to have in Brazilian society compared to the use of other socialization techniques, as well as the harmful effects of neglect and authoritarianism on academic performance, mental health, risky sexual behavior and the use of licit or illicit drugs.KeywordsParentingBrazilSocialization practicesCultureBrazilian society
Apesar do grande número de pesquisas na área de ensino sobre a motivação de alunos para a vida escolar, pouca atenção tem sido dada aos estudantes do nível superior, seja ela qual for a área do conhecimento. O estudo da temática “motivação no ensino superior” pode explicar a evasão, os altos índices de reprovação, o êxito nos cursos, além de outros fatos de relevante entendimento. Este trabalho tem como fim analisar teoricamente os fatores que influenciam a motivação dos alunos, focando a reflexão teórica em estudantes de graduação. Este estudo justifica-se para o embasamento de pesquisas que tratem da temática em questão, podendo ser um aporte teórico para futuras pesquisas. Utilizou-se aqui como metodologia a pesquisa bibliográfica, caracterizando este estudo como exploratório. Destaca-se, para a motivação dos alunos é necessário que haja um planejamento para que as metas sejam atingidas. Uma vez que o professor é o proponente e também o mediador das intervenções propostas é necessário que ele se prepare para a nova fase que ele e turma viverão. A pesquisa aqui apresentada apresenta-se como aporte teórico para futuras pesquisas, utilizando-se os conceitos aqui desenvolvidos para traçar estratégias para análises diagnósticas e de intervenção pedagógica.
The prevailing view that Asian Americans are a “model minority” and a homogeneous group often obscures the reality of complex cultural variations in cognitive profiles of Asian Americans. In general, the research conducted on abilities primarily focuses on only a few Asian American subgroups (e.g., Japanese and Chinese) to the exclusion of other subgroups. While studies indicate that Asian Americans as a group tend to score higher on quantitative measures in comparison to verbal measures on aptitude tests, there is also evidence that significant subgroup differences in performance exist (e.g., Hsia & Peng, 1998). Issues of standardization, test validity and reliability also impact the interpretation of test performance of Asian Americans given diversity in language, level of acculturation, and other culturally relevant variables.
The aim of this research study was to analyse the optimum parental socialisation style in Spain as measured by the children's psychosocial adjustment. A sample of 948 children and teenagers from 10 to 14 years of age, of whom 52% were females, reported on their parents' child-rearing practices Families were classified into one of four classic typologies (authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, or neglectful) based on children's answers to the Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire (Rohner, 1990). Socialisation outcome was assessed using five self-esteem indicators of the AF5 Multidimensional Self-Concept Scale (Garcia & Musitu, 1999), six psychological adjustment indicators of the Personality Assessment Questionnaire (Rohner, 1990), three indicators of personal competence, and three of behaviour problems (Lamborn et al., 1991). The results showed that indulgent and authoritative parenting styles were associated with better outcomes than either authoritarian or neglectful parenting. Overall, our results indicated that an indulgent style is the optimum parental style in Spain, as the test scorer of children and teenagers from indulgent families were always equal to or even higher than those of children from authoritative families.
East-Asian students are renowned to be high achievers and highly motivated. This literature study approaches the success phenomenon of the East-Asian students from a cultural and motivational perspective. The main research question is: “What is the influence of cultural values and beliefs on the motivation of East-Asian students?”. According to the literature East-Asian students are mainly motivated by their adherence to the value of filial piety, by the value they attach to education as an instrument of social mobility and as a means to achieve self-perfection, and by the belief that effort is far more important in academic success than ability. It appears that the usual theory on motivation, in which a Western individualist perspective is predominant, does not seem to describe adequately this phenomenon in an East-Asian context. Whereas in the usual theory on motivation, individual choice and autonomy is regarded as paramount in the development of intrinsic motivation, motivation in an East-Asian context appears to have an important social dimension to it. If the West intends to learn from the East to improve the motivation of Western students, it should be cautious of the fact that some East-Asian values underlying their practices to increase students’ motivation are incompatible with Western values. It is argued that the motivation of Western students could be increased by appreciating family values and stimulating in the students a belief that effort in their studies will eventually pay off. More research is needed on the possible drawbacks of the East-Asian students’ success.
This chapter analyzes current evidence between parenting styles and parenting practices for the Spanish context. As opposed to traditional results obtained in Anglo-Saxon contexts with European-American samples, evidence from emergent research from Spain (a South European country) shows that adolescents from indulgent families (characterized by warmth but not strictness) are strongly related to the psychological autonomy granting parenting practice. Interestingly, psychological autonomy granting is positively related to warmth, but negatively related to strictness, just in the opposite end of the rejection and psychological control, that are both strong related to the authoritarian parenting style (characterized by strictness but not warmth). However, in line with traditional results obtained in samples from Anglo-Saxon contexts, behavioral control parenting practices are positively related with the authoritative parenting style (warmth and strictness) and negatively related with the neglectful parenting style (characterized by neither warmth nor strictness). In Spain, psychological autonomy granting is unrelated (i.e, orthogonal) to the behavioral control parenting practice, and in the opposite end of psychological control and rejection parental practices. Psychological control and psychological autonomy granting are distinct constructs, they are not the opposite ends of a continuum construct.
O objetivo do presente trabalho é apresentar uma revisão da literatura sobre variáveis que influenciam a motivação para aprender de estudantes universitários, utilizando o modelo de Pintrich, que incorpora quatro componentes principais: contexto sociocultural, fatores relacionados ao ambiente de sala de aula, fatores internos e comportamento motivado. Conclui pela necessidade de maior ênfase na utilização de estratégias metacognitivas de aprendizagem e maior número de estudos sobre o tema no Brasil.
Used teacher ratings, self-ratings, sociometric ratings, direct observations, and semistructured interview to assess the social skills of 30 Asian, 42 African, and 50 European American 5th-grade students (aged 10.0–12..8 yrs). Inter- and intragroup differences were found on several of the measures. The sample of 7 teachers tended to attribute characteristic internalizing and externalizing behaviors to Asian- and African-American students, respectively. Teacher perceptions were only partially supported through direct observations and self-reports. European- and Asian-American students differed significantly on the sociometric ratings received from fellow students, and Asian American students engaged in proportionately more outergroup social communications. Racial differences in the perception of children and their interpretation of social situations have implications for socialization in school settings and children acting on their environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The aim of this research study was to analyse the optimum parental socialisation style in Spain as measured by the children's psychosocial adjustment. A sample of 948 children and teenagers from 10 to 14 years of age, of whom 52% were females, reported on their parents' child-rearing practices. Families were classified into one of four classic typologies (authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, or neglectful) based on children's answers to the Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire (Rohner, 1990). Socialisation outcome was assessed using five self-esteem indicators of the AF5 Multidimensional Self-Concept Scale (García & Musitu, 1999), six psychological adjustment indicators of the Personality Assessment Questionnaire (Rohner, 1990), three indicators of personal competence, and three of behaviour problems (Lamborn et al., 1991). The results showed that indulgent and authoritative parenting styles were associated with better outcomes than either authoritarian or neglectful parenting. Overall, our results indicated that an indulgent style is the optimum parental style in Spain, as the test scores of children and teenagers from indulgent families were always equal to or even higher than those of children from authoritative families.
Past research on perfectionism has suggested that the development of perfectionism is related to harsh parenting styles. The present study extends past research by examining the relationship between perceived parental characteristics and perfectionism in both men and women from two ethnic groups. This study also included an examination of the relationship between perfectionism and academic achievement. One-hundred and Forty-five Asian-American and 192 Caucasian-American college students participated in the present study. In general, harsh and authoritarian parenting styles were related to maladaptive, but not adaptive, components of perfectionism in Caucasian-American men and women and Asian-American women. The adaptive component of perfectionism was related to higher grade-point averages for women in both ethnic groups but not for the men.
The aim of this paper is to establish which parenting style is associated with optimum youth outcomes among adolescents of Spanish families. A sample of 1,416 teenagers from 12 to 17 years of age, of whom 57.2% were females, reported on their parents' child-rearing practices. The teenagers' parents were classified into one of four groups (authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, or neglectful). The adolescents were then contrasted on four different outcomes: (1) self-esteem (academic, social, emotional, family and physical); (2) psychosocial maladjustment (hostility/aggression, negative self-esteem, negative self-adequacy, emotional irresponsiveness, emotional instability, and negative worldview); (3) personal competence (social competence, grade point average, and number of failing grades); and (4) problem behaviors (school misconduct, delinquency, and drug use). Results showed that both the indulgent and authoritative parenting styles were associated with better outcomes than authoritarian and neglectful parenting. Overall, our results supported the idea that in Spain the optimum style of parenting is the indulgent one, as adolescents' scores in the four sets of youth outcomes were equal or better than the authoritative style of parenting.
This study examined goals and agency as the 2 core aspects of self in learning among Chinese adolescents. A sample of 259 adolescents aged 12-19 responded to open-ended probes about themselves. Counter to the common view that Chinese selves are predominantly social, adolescents expressed many more individual than social goals and agency. Moreover, older adolescents showed overall more goals and agency than younger adolescents. However, their specific goals did not differ by age. Regarding agency, older adolescents articulated more of the so-called "learning virtues." Yet their social agency did not differ by age. We interpret these findings as in reference to the Confucian learning tradition, the existing research on goals and agency, and self in culture from a domain-specific perspective.
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