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EVS27 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium
1
EVS27
Barcelona, Spain, November 17-20, 2013
How expensive are electric vehicles?
A total cost of ownership analysis.
Kenneth Lebeau1, Philippe Lebeau1, Cathy Macharis1, Joeri Van Mierlo1
1Vrije Universiteit Brussel, MOBI Research Group, Pleinlaan 2, 1050, Brussels, Belgium
Mail: Kenneth.Lebeau@vub.ac.be
Abstract
This paper presents a total cost of ownership (TCO) model for three different car segments. The goal is to
investigate the cost efficiency of electric vehicles compared to conventional vehicles. All costs that occur
during the expected vehicle’s lifespan are included: purchase cost, registration tax, vehicle road tax,
maintenance, tires and technical control cost, insurance cost, battery leasing cost, battery replacement cost
and fuel or electricity cost. Results are shown per vehicle segment and illustrate the share of all cost
components. We find that current electric vehicles are only cost attractive within the premium car segment.
Keywords: Total cost of ownership, electric vehicles
1 Introduction
Due to their higher energy efficiency rate,
electric vehicles (EVs) can play a substantial role
in the energy reduction and greenhouse gas
emission goals of the European 20-20-20
objective. However, current EVs sell at higher
prices compared to the conventional petrol and
diesel vehicles. This price surplus can burden
their market introduction.
Within the decision process of a new car,
financial factors are regarded as very important
[1]. For fleet managers, price is even the most
important factor [2]. However, consumers should
not only look at the initial purchase cost of the
vehicle as many other costs occur during the
ownership of a car. Electric vehicles have the
advantage that the price of driving the vehicle is
lower due to cheaper electricity cost and the
higher rate of efficiency of the motor. However,
consumers tend not to consider the present value
of these fuel savings [3]. Therefore, this paper
presents a total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis
in order to investigate the cost effectiveness of
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric
vehicles (BEVs), compared to conventional
internal combustion engine vehicles (petrol and
diesel). Only when the TCO of an electric vehicle
becomes cost efficient, consumers will take these
cars into consideration. However, other factors
(styling, looks, driving sensation, relationship with
the car dealer, influence from friends and
family…) that cannot be included in this economic
analysis also influence the final purchase decision
of the consumer [1], [4].
In this article, a state of the art of other TCO
studies on electric vehicles is given and the
innovative character of our approach is elaborated.
Next, the methodology behind TCO analyses is
explained, including the assumptions and
limitations of the model. This section also includes
the scope of the research and all the input
parameters. Next, the results of the TCO analyses
EVS27 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium
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are shown and sensitivity analyses are
performed. Finally, conclusions are drawn.
2 State of the art of TCO
analyses and improvements by
our model
Comparing different TCO studies should be done
with care as analyses have different assumptions,
input parameters and research scope [5], [6].
Literature reveals many TCO studies on electric
vehicles, especially since 2008, when several car
manufacturers launched their plans of mass
production of electric vehicles. TCO analyses
can be divided into two main categories:
consumer oriented studies and society oriented
studies. In the first group, the consumer point of
view is considered. The costs that are perceived
by the consumers are incorporated and different
vehicle technologies are compared. Society
oriented TCO studies have a broader scope: next
to the consumer costs, externalities (emissions,
noise…) and the associated external costs of EVs
are included.
TCO literature reveals that BEVs are still a very
expensive alternative, even though they have the
most positive impact on the environment out of
the studied vehicles. Due to their limited range,
BEVs are only viable for commuting and other
short distance trips. This could change if battery
prices would drop or when fuel prices for
conventional vehicles would increase
(significantly). HEVs have a TCO that differs
little from conventional vehicles, while having
the same driving distance and offering a lower
impact on the environment. In a few studies, fuel
cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) were included, but
these vehicles indicate a very high TCO, and
prospects are uncertain as a large price drop for
fuel cells is not expected for the upcoming years.
The TCO model developed in this article is
consumer oriented and distinguishes from
revealed literature because of the following
aspects:
Detailed TCO, including all costs
consumers face when purchasing a
vehicle (often ignored cost parameters in
literature are battery replacements,
residual value and depreciation
difference between vehicle
technologies);
Input parameters are based on up-to-date
vehicles that are available for today’s
customers (instead of out-of-production
[7] or fictitious vehicle models [8], [9]);
Results are given per vehicle segment, in
which different models are included per
vehicle technology;
Sensitivity analyses are conducted per
vehicle segment.
3 Methodology, scope and
assumptions
The costs associated with owning a vehicle occur
at different moments in time. Hence, it is necessary
to calculate the present value of all occurred costs.
The present value methodology makes use of a
discount rate, which can be defined as the interest
rate reflecting the investor’s time value of money
[10]. It can be either a real discount rate (excluding
inflation) or a nominal discount rate (including
inflation). It is recommended to use the real
discount rate for TCO calculations as it eliminates
complex accounting for inflation within the present
value equation. To calculate the present value of
future one-time costs, the following equation is
used [10]:
(1)
To calculate the present value of future
recurring costs, we use [10]:
(2)
Where:
PV = Present value
At = Amount of one-time cost at a time t
A0 = Amount of recurring cost
r = Real discount rate
T = Time (expressed as number of years)
In general, the total cost of ownership is calculated
in three steps:
1) Analysis of every stream of
(periodic) costs;
2) Calculation of the present value of
the one-time and the recurring costs;
3) Division of the present value by the
number of kilometres during the
vehicle lifetime in order to produce a
cost per kilometre.
EVS27 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium
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The TCO is a function of different parameters,
some of which are related to the vehicle
technology: purchase cost, registration tax,
vehicle road tax, maintenance, tires and technical
control cost, insurance cost, battery leasing cost,
battery replacement cost and fuel or electricity
cost. All these parameters are elaborated further
in section. For the calculation of the TCO, a
dynamic computer simulation model was
developed, which allows to immediately
calculate the impact of a change in input
parameters.
The scope of this research is Flanders, the
Flemish speaking part of Belgium. All the input
parameters are based on the existing values for
Flanders as from January 2013. Three vehicle
segments are analysed: small city, medium and
premium cars. In every vehicle segment, a
selection of cars is made including different
vehicle technologies: petrol, diesel, hybrid, plug-
in hybrid and battery electric. This selection is
based on the vehicle’s size, boot space and
engine power. Also, the bestselling vehicles in
each segment are included.
In Belgium, the average lifetime of a vehicle is
14.1 years [11]. However, the average Belgian
consumer owns his vehicle for 7 years before
selling it [11]. The average annual mileage is
15,000 kilometres per year, resulting in 105,000
kilometres during these 7 years. A real discount
rate of 1.18 per cent [12] is used. This is the 7
year annual nominal Euro area interest rate for
governmental bonds for which all issuers have a
triple-A rating, dating from January 2, 2013.
This analysis does not take into account technical
improvements on the conventional cars and EVs
(some studies [13] claim that the current
efficiency is already close to what is achievable),
improvements in fuel efficiency, nor the
inflation.
The input parameters can be divided into three
main groups: the purchase costs (initial purchase
price and vehicle registration tax), the fuel
operating costs (petrol, diesel or electricity) and
the non fuel operating costs (yearly road tax,
insurance cost, maintenance and tires costs, costs
for the technical control, and possible battery
costs).
The initial purchase price of a vehicle in this
TCO analysis includes the VAT (value added
tax, 21 per cent in Belgium), but excludes
possible reductions or promotions by the car
dealer. All prices are retrieved online [14] and are
of January 2013.
Current sales prices of EVs are still higher than
similar conventional vehicles. This is mainly due
to the expensive battery pack, but also to the
absence of economies of scale [8], [13], [15]. The
production costs of a vehicle can halve when
production figures increase from 10,000 a year to
500,000 a year [16]. Moreover, current PHEVs
have even higher initial purchase costs, because of
the presence of a battery pack, a conventional
internal combustion engine and an electric engine
[6]. On the other hand, PHEVs benefit from cost
savings because of downsizing of the installed
conventional engine [17].
Vehicles depreciate over time. The loss of value
due to depreciation is the highest in the first years
of the vehicle’s lifespan. Depreciation rates not
only vary according to the fuel or drive train, they
also vary according to brand image, mileage,
vehicle class… Calculating the residual value of
EVs is currently still very controversial [5]. Table
1 depicts the annual depreciation rates used in this
analysis per vehicle technology, which are
calculated through exponential regression based on
available data from the past 7 years [18]. Residual
value data for BEVs and PHEVs is only available
for the last 2-3 years, entailing a higher uncertainty
for these vehicle technologies.
Vehicle technology
Annual depreciation rate
Petrol
0.845
Diesel
0.827
HEV
0.834
BEV
0.720
PHEV
0.773
Table 1: Depreciation rates per vehicle technology
The vehicle registration tax (VRT) has to be paid
once, when purchasing the vehicle. In an attempt
to green the vehicle fleet, as from April 2012, the
amount due for citizens living in Flanders is
calculated on the basis of the CO2 emission, the
EURO norm, the age of the vehicle and the
presence of a diesel particulate filter [19]. Before
that date, the calculation was done based on
cylinder capacity and kW. The amount of the VRT
cannot be lower than €40 or higher than €10,000.
When the EURO norm of the vehicle is unknown,
it will be defined according to the date of the first
registration of the vehicle. PHEVs and BEVs are
exempted from the vehicle registration tax in
Flanders. An online simulator provided by the
Flemish government enables calculating the VRT
figures that are used in this TCO analysis [20].
EVS27 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium
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The fuel or electricity costs are based on the
average prices in 2012 for petrol (€1.7076 / litre),
diesel (€1.5318 / litre) and electricity (€0.21 /
kWh). The figures origin from the Belgian
Federation for Petroleum [21] and the Flemish
Regulator of the Electricity and Gas market [22]
and include VAT. The fuel and electricity
consumption is based on the New European
Driving Cycle (NEDC). Studies show that these
consumption figures tend to underestimate the
real consumption of the vehicles by 15-20 per
cent [23], [24]. In this analysis, since all
consumption values are NEDC values, vehicles
can still be compared and conclusions can be
drawn.
The yearly road tax in Belgium depends on the
fiscal horsepower (fiscal hp) of the vehicle,
which is in relationship with the displacement
(cylinder capacity) of the engine of the vehicle.
In Belgium, insuring your vehicle is obligatory.
Drivers must pay the civil liability premium,
which insures all damage done to another vehicle
in collision. For new cars, consumers prefer to
take a complementary omnium insurance, which
also insures the vehicle of the person driving the
car. The omnium premium is based on different
parameters: driver’s age, domicile, bonus-
malus… and depends on the actual value of the
car of the driver. In the TCO model, the omnium
insurance is taken during the first three years,
after which the civil liability premium is taken.
The battery pack of BEVs has a limited
lifespan. In this study, the battery pack is
replaced according to the expected lifetime of
the lithium-ion battery pack. Quantitative studies
[25] show that the expected number of cycles for
lithium-ion batteries before their capacity drops
below 80 per cent is around 1,000 cycles. If
consumers fully charge their batteries 3 times per
week, this totals to 156 charges per year, or a
battery lifetime of approximately 6 years.
Linking this with our assumption of a yearly
mileage of 15,000 kilometres per year, this
amounts to a battery lifetime of 90,000 kms.
These values are in between those used in other
TCO studies, in which a battery lifetime of
75,000 kms [26] or 8 to 10 years [27] is
considered. Next, we look at the warranty given
by the manufacturer. This warranty is linked to a
certain mileage or to a certain amount of years. If
the battery change is covered within the warranty
period, no costs are added. When replacing the
battery pack, we consider a price of €400 per kWh,
which is the expected cost for lithium ion batteries
in 6 years [28]. Today, the average cost is between
€600 per kW [17], [26], [27] and €900 per kWh
[9]. The battery for HEVs and PHEVs is not
expected to be replaced. If the battery pack of the
BEV is changed during the TCO analysis, the
residual value of the vehicle increases. The
residual value of the battery pack is linearly
calculated based on its replacement value.
Some car manufacturers sell their electric vehicles
without the battery. Customers are obliged to sign
a contract for battery leasing. Here, the
manufacturer guarantees a battery change if the
battery capacity would drop under 80 per cent of
its original capacity. In the TCO calculation, the
monthly battery leasing costs is regarded as a
recurring cost.
The maintenance costs depend on the vehicle type
and annual mileage. Maintenance costs include the
costs for all the small and large maintenances
throughout the vehicle’s lifespan. These costs are
necessary to keep the vehicle operational. They
include oil replacements, brake replacements, etc.
Reports [29] claim that small maintenances should
take place after 10,000 kms and large
maintenances after 30,000 kms. However, after
consulting several car dealerships, in this TCO,
these figures are respectively 20,000 kms and
40,000 kms. The maintenance prices are retrieved
online [14] and are specific for every model. In
general, the maintenance costs for BEVs are lower
compared to ICE vehicles. Since BEVs have less
moving components, they face less temperature
stress and do not need oil and filter replacements
[30], [31]. Also, due to the possibility to recuperate
energy whilst braking, the braking pads will last
longer [17]. We assume a maintenance cost for
BEVs of 65 per cent of a similar conventional
vehicle [32]. Other studies are more prudent and
use a reduction of 20 per cent in maintenance costs
BEVs [5]. As for the maintenance costs of hybrid
cars, they are considered to be the same as those
for ICE cars [33].
Tires are expected to be changed every 40,000
kms [34]. The type and prices of the tires was
found online [35], [36]. Also included are the costs
for replacing the 4 tires at the car dealership. Here,
we include €32 to replace the tires and €24 for
balancing.
EVS27 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium
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Every vehicle in Belgium has to be inspected on
the technical control. During the first 4 years, no
costs are expected. After that period, the car has
to be inspected on an annual basis. The cost for
this inspection amounts to €32.80 (€29.10 for the
normal inspection and €3.70 for the
environmental inspection) [37]. All prices
include VAT.
4 Results
In this section, the results of the TCO analysis for
the reference or business as usual scenario in the
three vehicle segments are elaborated.
Figure 1 illustrates the TCO results for the small
city cars. The left y-axis shows the total cost of
ownership (in €), while the right y-axis shows the
cost per kilometre (in €/km). The difference
between conventional ICEVs and BEVs is clear:
small petrol cars range from 0.18 – 0.23 €/km,
small diesel cars range from 0.19 – 0.21 €/km,
BEVs range from 0.30 – 0.36 €/km. As expected,
the share of the depreciation cost for BEVs
within their TCO is significantly higher
compared to petrol and diesel cars: this share
equals on average 59% (BEVs), 34% (petrol) and
44% (diesel). However, fuel and electricity costs
shares are lower for the selected BEVs: 8%
(BEVs), 38% (petrol) and 25% (diesel).
The results for the medium car segment are
depicted in Figure 2. Here, results are more
promising for the analyzed EVs: the difference in
TCO with conventional and EVs is lower
compared to the small city car segment. Ranges
go from 0.27 – 0.33 €/km for petrol cars, 0.28 –
0.31 €/km for diesel cars, 0.27 – 0.38 €/km for
hybrids, 0.39 – 0.42 €/km for BEVs and 0.45 –
0.50 €/km for PHEVs. For this segment, buying a
BEV with a battery leasing contract is more cost
efficient than buying the car with the battery.
Also, the share of depreciation between all
vehicle technologies is more uniform: 43% for
petrol vehicles, 51% for diesel vehicles, 53% for
hybrids, 55% for BEVs and 70% for PHEVs.
Results illustrate that the investigated BEVs are
closing in on conventional vehicles. However, if
consumers wish to combine the eco-efficiency of
BEVs with the driving range of conventional
vehicles, PHEVs are still a costly option.
For the premium car segment, the results are
depicted in Figure 3. For this segment, other
factors like brand perception, image and looks play
a more important role than in the other two vehicle
segments. Comparable cars from the three best
selling manufacturers are investigated, each with
three different vehicle technologies: petrol, diesel
and hybrid. The BEV is represented by the Tesla
Model S, which is available in 3 settings,
depending of the capacity of the battery pack: 40
kWh, 60 kWh or 85 kWh. Results show that the
investigated BEVs for this segment are cost
efficient compared to the conventional
technologies. Costs per kilometre range from 0.53
– 0.67 €/km for petrol cars, 0.52 – 0.66 €/km for
diesel cars, 0.59 – 0.72 €/km for hybrids and 0.58
– 0.79 €/km for BEVs. Even the BEV model with
the largest battery pack (85 kWh, expected driving
range of 480 km) is cost comparable with the
HEVs. It must be noted that battery replacement
costs for the 3 BEVs after 6 years are covered by
the warranty given by Tesla (7 years,
160,000kms). If the vehicles are used for a longer
period, consumers should be aware that expensive
replacement costs could occur.
EVS27 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium
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Figure 1: TCO results for small city cars
Figure 2: TCO results for medium cars
EVS27 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium
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Figure 3: TCO results for premium cars
EVS27 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium
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5 Sensitivity analyses and
scenarios
In the TCO model, several input parameters
contain a degree of uncertainty: the discount rate,
the maintenance costs for electric vehicles, the
annual mileage and the ownership duration.
The general TCO model takes into account a
discount rate of 1.18 per cent on an annual basis.
Sensitivity analyses are conducted for discount
rates of -40% to +40% from the BAU discount
rate. The TCO (in €/km) decreases as the
discount rate increases, because all future costs
have a lower present value. Results show that for
all three vehicle segments, BEVs and PHEVS
induce a lower impact from the change in
discount rate compared to ICEVs, as these
vehicles have higher initial sales prices that do
not need to be discounted. BEVs without a
battery leasing contract show the largest
difference, as these are the most expensive cars
in the study.
General maintenance costs for BEVs are
assumed to be 65 per cent of the costs of
conventional vehicles within the same segment.
However, as BEVs have only recently entered
the market, no figures are available in current
literature. In this sensitivity analysis, the
maintenance costs for BEVs range from 45% (-
30% to BAU) to 85% (+30% to BAU). Off
course, this sensitivity analysis only impacts the
TCO of BEVs (with or without battery leasing
contract). Results show small impacts on the
TCO when the maintenance costs increase of
decrease, ranging from -0.52% to +0.52%. This
entails that the lower maintenance costs should
not be regarded as a major advantage for BEVs.
The annual mileage is presumed to be 15,000 km
a year. A change in mileage ranging with 33% of
the BAU scenario is investigated (10,000 km –
20,000 km). As expected, the higher the annual
mileage, the lower the TCO (in €/km). For
BEVs, the effect is bigger (in both sides) as these
vehicles have lower running costs.
Identical results are shown for the sensitivity
analysis for the ownership duration. While the
parameter used in the TCO BAU model was 7
years, results are calculated for 3, 5, 9 and 11
years. The annual mileage is kept on 15,000 km a
year. Again, BEVs induce larger impacts from
changes in ownership duration, which is linked
with the total mileage of the vehicle’s lifetime.
Next, several scenarios are investigated: an
increase in fuel prices, a decrease in battery
prices and an up-front subsidy for BEVs. These
scenarios are realistic changes in economic
parameters that could occur in the near future.
If fuel prices would increase with 4 per cent
(above inflation), the TCO for petrol, diesel,
hybrid and plug-in hybrid vehicles would increase.
The effect is the largest for petrol cars, as these
vehicles consume the most fuel and as petrol prices
are higher than diesel prices. The TCO for PHEVs
increases only marginally, as part of the driving
distance is covered by electricity, which in this
scenario remains at the same cost level. However,
the result of this sensitivity analysis indicate only
marginal increases in cost efficiency for EVs
compared to conventional vehicles, in each of the
three segments.
Contrarily, a decrease in battery prices from €600
to €400 per kWh (today) and from €400 to €200
per kWh (in 6 years) does have a significant
impact on the cost efficiency for BEVs. This
decrease impacts both the initial sales price (BEVs,
PHEVs) as well as the battery replacement costs
(BEVs). It does not impact BEVs with a leasing
contract, since the customer does not acquire the
battery pack and battery replacements are included
in the leasing contract. Results for the small city
car segment show that surcosts for BEVs without
leasing contract compared to petrol and diesel cars
decreases from 67% to 53%. Hence, these vehicles
become more cost efficient than BEVs with a
leasing contract. However, BEVs are still not cost
competitive to conventional cars, but the cost
difference between technologies has lowered.
Results for the medium car segment illustrate that
the TCO difference between BEVs without leasing
contract and ICEVs decreases from 43% to 28%,
while the difference with HEVs decreases from
29% to 15%. Because of the large battery packs in
the electric models for the premium car segment, a
decrease in battery prices has a large impact on the
final TCO. BEVs become as cost efficient as the
popular diesel vehicles in this segment.
Many countries stimulate the purchase of electric
vehicles by offering governmental financial
subsidies. In Belgium, from January 2009 until
December 2012, customers of BEVs were eligible
to receive a grant of 30% on the sales price of the
vehicle (with a yearly indexed maximum of €
9,190) [38]. Results for governmental subsidies
show an even greater drop in surcosts for BEVs
(this time including BEVs with leasing contract) in
the small city and medium car segment compared
to the sensitivity analysis where battery prices
drop. Results for the premium car segment are
inverse: the effect of the governmental financial
EVS27 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium
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subsidy is lower than the decrease in battery
prices, because of the very large battery packs. In
general, these findings are similar to what can be
found in literature [13], [26]: governmental
subsidies can make BEVs cost efficient
compared to conventional vehicles.
6 Results and discussion
In this study, a total cost of ownership model is
created for three different car segments: small
city cars, medium cars and premium cars. All
costs that occur during the expected vehicle’s
lifespan are included: purchase cost, registration
tax, vehicle road tax, maintenance, tires and
technical control cost, insurance cost, battery
leasing cost, battery replacement cost and fuel or
electricity cost.
Results for the small city car segment indicate
that, taken into account the assessed vehicles in
the model, BEVs without a battery leasing
contract are not cost attractive compared to
conventional petrol and diesel vehicles. For the
medium car segment, the price difference
between technologies is more subtle. However
BEVs without a leasing contract and PHEVs are
still cost inefficient. If the consumer opts for a
BEV with battery leasing, TCO values are within
the range of current HEVs. The results for the
premium car segment depend largely on the size
of the battery pack for the BEVs. When equipped
with a 40 kWh battery pack, BEVs are
competitive with modern petrol and diesel cars.
However, if the consumer opts for an electric
driving range of approximately 450 kms, the
TCO of the BEV is slightly higher than modern
HEVs within the segment. In general, electric
vehicles suffer from high depreciation costs (due
to the elevated sales price), but benefit from low
driving costs. For the medium car segment,
BEVs with a leasing contract are more cost
efficient.
Since several input parameters of the TCO model
contain a degree of uncertainty, different
sensitivity analyses were conducted. These
include a change in the discount rate, the
maintenance costs for electric vehicles, the
annual mileage and the ownership duration.
Results show that the discount rate has a
relatively low impact on TCO values. In general,
the higher the share of the initial sales price
within the TCO, the lower the effect of a change
in discount rate. Lower maintenance costs should
not be regarded as a major advantage for BEVs,
as sensitivity analyses show relatively small
impacts on TCO results (-0.52% to +0.52%) when
the maintenance costs change. A change in annual
mileage ranging with 33% of the BAU scenario is
investigated. As expected, the higher the annual
mileage, the lower the TCO (in €/km). For BEVs,
the effect is bigger (in both directions) as these
vehicles have lower costs for fuel/electricity.
Identical results are shown for the sensitivity
analysis for the ownership duration. BEVs induce
larger impacts from changes in ownership
duration, which is linked with the total mileage of
the vehicle’s lifetime.
Next, several plausible future sensitivity scenarios
were elaborated: an increase of fuel prices, a
decrease in battery prices and a governmental
support for BEVs. Results are shown per vehicle
segment. In order to have the largest impact on the
TCO for small city and medium cars,
governmental subsidies would have to be
implemented, followed by a decrease in battery
prices. However, BEVs in this segment still remain
cost inefficient compared to the conventional
models. In the premium car segment, a decrease in
battery prices has the largest impact, as the battery
packs of the investigated BEVs are relatively large,
followed by governmental subsidies. In general,
increased fuel prices do not render BEVs cost
competitive.
EVS27 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium
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Authors
Kenneth Lebeau obtained his PhD in
Economics at the Solvay Business
School (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) on
the economic potential of electric
vehicles. His research interests include
electric vehicles, environmental
friendly transport, vehicle purchase
behaviour, taxation systems and
evaluation methods.
Joeri Van Mierlo received M.S. and
PhD degree in electromechanical
engineering from Vrije Universiteit
Brussel. From 2004 he has been
appointed as a fulltime professor at the
Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Currently
his research is devoted to the
development of hybrid propulsion
(converters, supercaps, energy
management...) systems as well as to
the environmental comparison of
vehicles with different kind of drive
trains and fuels. He is head of the
MOBI research team.
Philippe Lebeau graduated in 2011 as
Master in Management Sciences at the
Louvain School of Management. After
his final thesis concerning consumer
acceptance for electric vehicles, he
joined the MOSI-Transport and
Logistics research department of the
Vrije Universiteit Brussel as a research
associate. His expertise fields are
electric vehicles, conjoint methods and
new product development.
Cathy Macharis is professor at the
Vrije Universiteit Brussel and leads
the MOSI Transport and Logistics
research team. This group is
specialized in the socio-economic
evaluation of transport projects,
transport policy measures,
environmentally friendly vehicles,
sustainable logistics and travel
behaviour.
