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Sugar-lowering effects of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) in experimental broiler finisher chickens
Abstract
The anti-diabetic efficacy of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) leaf meal (VALM) was evaluated using broiler finishers'. Using 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% VALM representing diets A,B,C,D respectively to replace groundnut cake (GNC) in broiler finishers' feed, a total of 144 Marshal brooded broilers weighing 500-610g were used in a study that lasted for 28 days. The birds were divided into 4 groups of 36 birds each. Each treatment group was further infdivided into 3 replicates of 12 birds in a Completely Randomised Design (CRD). At the expiration of the experiment, 3 birds per treatment were randomly selected and bled for blood samples. The biochemical indices determined includes Glucose, Urea, Creatinine, Total protein and Globulin. The results indicated that the use of V. amygdalina did not significantly (P>0.05) affect the serum urea and creatinine of broiler birds. However, there was a significant (P<0.05) decrease in blood glucose of the chicken as the level of inclusion of VALM increases. Also significant (P<0.05) differences were observed in total protein and globulin of the birds. The percentage reduction of glucose were 14.30%, 22.90% and 28.60% for treatments B, C and D respectively. These results clearly indicate that the administration of V. amygdalina at varying levels produced hypoglycaemic effects. V. amaygdalina also did not seem to have adverse effect on the liver and kidney, since the serum urea and creatinine levels were not significantly altered. It could be inferred that V. amaygdalina besides exhibiting hypoglycaemic activity is also safe for consumption as food or medicine, since there were no indication of toxicity judging from the values of the biomolecules evaluated.
... Source: (Yeap et al., 2010) Source: (Igile et al., 1994;Iwalokun et al., 2006;Njan et al., 2008;Nwaoguikpe, 2010;Akpaso et al., 2011;Farombi and Owoeye, 2011;Owen, 2011;Oduah, 2012;Toyang and Verpoorte, 2013;Egharevba et al., 2014) ...
... The toxicology of V. amygdalina leaves extracts had been studied on mice and the results showed no clinical signs of toxicity or toxicological effects in the treated groups, except for a significant decrease in red blood cell count and a dose-dependent increase in serum bilirubin (Njan et al., 2008). Owen et al. 2011 had also reported that there was no indication of toxicity in the V. amygdalina leaves extracts upon biomolecules evaluations when administered to broiler finisher chickens. Likewise, there was no appreciable difference in the glucose level, haematological profile, liver, and kidney function of the tested rats when the extracts were administered to rats (Imaga and Bamigbetan, 2013). ...
Vernonia amygdalina has been a known food and medicinal plants used in Asia and Africa (West Africa) due to its pharmacological effects (antioxidant, anti-diabetes, antiinflammatory, anticancer, anti-malaria, and among others). The phytochemical studies revealed that this plant is enriched with proteins, fats, fibres, amino acids, minerals, vitamins, and carbohydrates. Many bioactive compounds had been isolated from its extracts. Therefore, this review summarized the overview of the bioactive compounds, phytochemical and pharmacological properties of V. amygdalina as well as its mechanism of action and toxicology.
... In this regard, the reduction or positive activity of LB on VLDL can be a useful factor in regulating the degree of fatness in birds since lowered VLDL causes a decreased abdominal fat pad in chickens (Tohala, 2010) and also in determining the egg laying status of birds (Peebles et al., 2004). Many plant species have been used to alter levels of some markers of disease conditions in order to improve the health status of animals (Ojiako and Nwanjo, 2009;Owen et al., 2011). Lagenaria breviflora R. (LB) contains phytochemicals notably phenols, carotenoids and flavonoids which have been reported to have a wide orbit of biological activities. ...
... These phytochemicals have been established to work synergistically in tissues of animal to establish a vital antioxidant defense mechanism against reactive oxygen species (ROS) mediated lipidperoxidation of Lipoproteins (Adaramoye et al., 2005;Celik et al., 2011). HyperCholesterolemia has been linked with oxidative stress caused by an increase in lipid peroxidation resulting in increased LDL (a prerequisite for most forms of atherosclerosis) (Adaramoye et al., 2005;Owen et al., 2011). ...
The continuous demand of the ever-growing Nigerian populace to meet their daily protein requirement has resulted in a positive shift in the consumption of table eggs but with many opting for alternatives because of the perceived Cholesterol content in eggs. This study was therefore carried out to investigate the potential effect of Lagenaria breviflora R.on the blood and egg Lipoproteins of laying birds under two management systems. A total of 126 yaffa brown layers aged 36 weeks were administered extracts of Lagenaria breviflora R. at 3 levels (control (0), 200 and 300 g fresh weight per 4 litres of water) under two management systems (Deep litter ‘DL’ and Deep litter with a run ‘DLR’). Blood and egg samples were collected at 0, 5th and 10th weeks. Data obtained on blood and egg lipid profiles (initial, mid, final, difference and percent change) were arranged in a 2 x 3 factorial layout in a completely randomized design. The percentage reduction (P<0.0.5) in the blood total Cholesterol (TC) was higher in the 300 g dosed group. The blood high density Lipoprotein (HDL), differential and percentage change (reduction) values of blood low density Lipoprotein (LDL) were highest (P<0.05) in the 200 g dosed group. The TC difference and percent change (reduction) were significantly higher (P<0.05) in DL raised birds. Birds raised on the DLR management system had an improved HDL. The yolk TC differential and percent change (decrease) were lowest (P<0.05) in the 200 g dosed group. The yolk LDL difference and percent change (reduction) were highest in the 200 g dosed treatment group. Management systems had influence (P<0.05) on most yolk Lipoprotein parameters measured except TC, LDL and VLDL. The mid, final, differential and percent change (increase) in HDL were higher (P<0.05) in eggs sampled from birds raised on the DLR management system. The interactive effect of both factors on LDL revealed positive (P<0.05) differences and percent change in values in all treatment groups with the highest reduction observed in the DL (Control) group. The reduction in TC was highest in DL (200 g) compared to other treatment groups. The yolk HDL-Cholesterol percent change was highest (P<0.05) while the LDL was lower in eggs sampled from birds raised on DL and administered 200 g LB. Therefore, commercial layers can be raised on the DLR system and administered LB up to 200 g as an alternative medication in Cholesterol reduction in poultry products with no adverse health effects.
Corresponding
... The tannins have been reported to be antidiabetic. Other compounds reported include cyanidin-3-glucoside, ellagic-acid, gallic-acid, brevifolin-carboxylic-acid, euginic acid, asiatic acid and squalene(Mininel et al., 2014Nagappa et al., 2003 The hypoglycemic activity of the crude plant has been reported by several authors(Owen et al.,2011;. Several stigmastane-type saponins (vernonioside A1, A2, A3, A4, B1, B2, B3, C, D and E), sesquiterpene lactones (vernolide and vernodalol, vernolepin, vernodalin, vernomygdin, hydroxyvernolide), steroids, flavonoids (quercetin, luteolin, luteolin-7-O-β-glucuronoside, luteolin-7-O-βglucoside), coumarin (caffeoylquinic acids) have been isolated and characterized(Momoh et al., 2010;Johnson et al., 2011; Engwa et al., 2015). ...
... The plant has xanthones, alkaloids and tannins and the leaf essential oil was rich in alpha-muurolol,1,8cineole and β-pinene. The saponins and flavonoids present in Vernonia amygdalina may be responsible for its hypoglycemic activity(Asawalam and Hassanali, 2006;Owen et al., 2011). V. amygdalina also have been reported to contain large quantity of Thiamine, Pyridoxine, Ascorbic acid, Glycine, Cysteine and Casein hydrolysate significantly more than other botanicals such as Bryophyllum pinnatum, Eucalyptus globules and Ocimum gratissimum(Mwanauta et al., 2014) ...
... Source: (Yeap et al., 2010) Source: (Igile et al., 1994;Iwalokun et al., 2006;Njan et al., 2008;Nwaoguikpe, 2010;Akpaso et al., 2011;Farombi and Owoeye, 2011;Owen, 2011;Oduah, 2012;Toyang and Verpoorte, 2013;Egharevba et al., 2014) ...
... The toxicology of V. amygdalina leaves extracts had been studied on mice and the results showed no clinical signs of toxicity or toxicological effects in the treated groups, except for a significant decrease in red blood cell count and a dose-dependent increase in serum bilirubin (Njan et al., 2008). Owen et al. 2011 had also reported that there was no indication of toxicity in the V. amygdalina leaves extracts upon biomolecules evaluations when administered to broiler finisher chickens. Likewise, there was no appreciable difference in the glucose level, haematological profile, liver, and kidney function of the tested rats when the extracts were administered to rats (Imaga and Bamigbetan, 2013). ...
Vernonia amygdalina has been a known food and medicinal plants used in Asia and
Africa (West Africa) due to its pharmacological effects (antioxidant, anti-diabetes, anti-inflammatory,
anticancer, anti-malaria, and among others). The phytochemical studies
revealed that this plant is enriched with proteins, fats, fibres, amino acids, minerals,
vitamins, and carbohydrates. Many bioactive compounds had been isolated from its
extracts. Therefore, this review summarized the overview of the bioactive compounds,
phytochemical and pharmacological properties of V. amygdalina as well as its
mechanism of action and toxicology.
... A reduction of 5.5-8.23% of glucose level between the control and the treated group was observed. The finding affirms the work of Osinubi (2006) and Owen et al. (2011b) which suggested that Vernonia amygdalina has hypoglycemic effect. Akah and Okafor (1992) reported that bitter leaf possess both hypoglycemic properties. ...
... Similar trend was observed in the albumin. This finding concurs with earlier report by Owen et al. (2011b). ...
ABSTRACT
The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of graded levels of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) aqueous extract supplementation on the performance, and blood parameters of broiler chickens. 60 day-old marshal broiler chicks were allotted in a completely randomized design (CRD) to four treatment groups identified as T1, T2, T3 and T4 consisting of three replicates with five birds per replicate. 50g of bitter leaf was infused overnight in 1 liter of hot boiled water and given to the birds at T2 (25ml), T3 (50ml) and T4 (75ml) per litre of drinking water, T1 (0ml) served as the control. Feed and water were supplied ad libitum. Data were collected on daily feed intake, daily body weight gain, final body weight and feed conversion ratio. Feed intake was not significantly ((p>0.05) affected by the treatments. However, final body weight, daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio were significantly (p<0.05) increased by supplementation of aqueous extract of bitter leaf. Except for packed cell volume and white blood cell, the results showed no significant (p>0.05) variations on the values of the haematological parameters measured. Cholesterol and glucose concentration in the serum were significantly (p<0.05) reduced in the treated groups compared to the control. Similar trend was observed in the low density lipoprotein. Supplementation of bitter leaf aqueous extract revealed a non-significant (p>0.05) increase in the values of total protein with values ranging between 40.33-43.66g/l. T3 had the highest (p<0.05) value for albumin. Supplementation of bitter leaf aqueous extract can improve the growth performance, haematological and serum biochemical indices of broiler chickens.
... A reduction of 5.5-8.23% of glucose level between the control and the treated group was observed. The finding affirms the work of Osinubi (2006) and Owen et al. (2011b) which suggested that Vernonia amygdalina has hypoglycemic effect. Akah and Okafor (1992) reported that bitter leaf possess both hypoglycemic properties. ...
... Similar trend was observed in the albumin. This finding concurs with earlier report by Owen et al. (2011b). ...
Growing concern about antibiotic growth promoters in animal nutrition and its health
implication to consumers of poultry products has initiated efforts towards use of alternative growth
promoting agents especially medicinal plants. This study aimed at investigating the response of
broiler chicks administered bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) infusion. Sixty day-old Marshal
broiler chicks were allotted in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) to four treatment groups
identified as T1, T2, T3 and T4 consisting of three replicate with five birds per replicate. 50 g of
dried bitter leaf was infused for 12 h in 1 L of hot boiled water and given to the birds at T1 (0, 25
(T2), 50 (T3) and 75 mL LG1 (T4) of drinking water ad-libitum. Data collected on growth
performance traits revealed that feed intake was not influenced due to treatment, but final body
weight, weight gain and feed conversion ratio were increased. Carcass, drumstick, thigh and breast
weights and dressing percentage improved in treated groups. There was a reduction of
14.58-23.44% in abdominal fat in the treated group compared to T1. Although birds on T4 gave the
highest revenue, the best cost-benefit ratio was obtained from birds on T3. Except for packed cell
volume and white blood cell, the results showed no variations in other haematological parameters
measured. Cholesterol, low density lipoprotein and glucose concentration in the serum was reduced
in the treated group compared to the control. There was no influence on total protein and albumin:
globulin ratio in all treatment groups. T3 had the highest value for albumin. Administration of
bitter leaf infusion improved the growth performance, haematological and serum biochemical
indices of broiler chickens and can be applied in broiler nutrition.
Key words: Bitter leaf infusion, body weight, carcass weight, cost-benefit ratio, feed conversion
ratio, serum biochemical indices
... With such beneficial properties, V. amygdalina could be a relevant alternative to growth-promoting antibiotics. The findings of Owen et al. (2011); Osho et al. (2014); Oleforuh-Okoleh et al. (2015) and Tokofai et al. (2020) demonstrated the effects of V. amygdalina leaves on chicken productivity. However, studies on plant-based feed additives usually revolve around growth performance, without clearly elucidating the effects on digestive physiology, particularly the roles of enzymes involved in digestion, and immunity. ...
Gut health is multifaceted and is largely influenced by the rearing environment and the diet. The use of phytochemicals rich in phenolics and flavonoids can improve the digestive health of chickens and lead to better growth performance. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of dietary Vernonia amygdalina leaf meal (VALM) on growth performance, digestive enzyme activities, absorption function, organ weights and immunity of broilers. Two hundred and forty, one-day-old male Cobb 500 broiler chicks were randomly divided into four groups: an unsupplemented control and VA-1, VA-3 and VA-5 receiving VALM incorporation at concentrations of 1, 3 and 5 g/kg, respectively. Each treatment had six replicates of 10 chickens. On d 42, six chickens per replicate were isolated and euthanised. Digesta from the jejunal segments (10 cm) was collected for analysis of the digestive enzymes. The remaining digesta was then washed out with ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline before the jejunal segments (10 cm) were opened longitudinally to collect the mucosa by scraping. For the preparation of the homogenate, intestinal mucosa samples were homogenised with 154 mmol/l of ice-cold sodium chloride solution and centrifuged at 4 °C for 900 s. To determine immunoglobulins, glutathione and D-xylose, the supernatant was extracted and stored at -20 °C. Supplementation with VALM did not significantly influence the relative weights of organs in the different treatments. However, VALM at 3 g/kg caused a significant increase in amylase and trypsin concentration (P<0.05). Immunoglobulin A and intestinal secretory immunoglobulin G concentrations were significantly improved (P<0.05)
in the birds fed 3 g/kg VALM. This supported the premise that 3 g/kg VALM in feed can improve gastric immunity status and digestive enzyme secretion.
... It has also been reported that V. amygdalina simultaneously suppresses gluconeogenesis and potentiates glucose oxidation via the pentose phosphate pathway in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [22]. Hypoglycemic effects of bitter leaves of V. amygdalina have also been reported in experimental finishing chickens [23]. The antidiabetic efficacy of this plant in experimental finishing chickens found he percent reduction in blood glucose level was 14.30%, 22.90% and 28.60% for treatments with V. amygdalina inclusion rates of 5%, 10% and 15%, respectively. ...
ntroduction: the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina (V. amygdalina) are consumed as food in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In traditional medicine, this plant is widely used in the treatment of cancer and diabetes mellitus. In the present study, we evaluated the antihyperglycemic and the antiproliferative activities of the hydroalcoholic extract of V. amygdalina leaves (HAEVa).
Methods: we conducted an experimental descriptive and analytical study with a prospective data collection from May 2019 to July 2020. For the in vivo study, the experiments were carried out on albino male rats of Wistar strain (Rattus norvegicus). Antihyperglycemic activity was performed in vivo in dexamethasone-induced insulin-resistant rats using the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The biocompatibility and the antiproliferative activity of extract were performed in vitro respectively on rabbit primary dermal fibroblasts (RPDF) and human osteosarcoma MG-63 cells using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The data were analyzed with the GraphPad Prism software version 5.0.3. The statistical analyses were obtained by the analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Bonferroni´s post-test. P<0.05 was considered as the minimal level of statistical significance.
Results: regarding to the antiproliferative investigation, extract at 125, 250 μg/mL exhibited a significant cytotoxic effect on human osteosarcoma MG-63 compared to the vehicle (p<0.001) in a dose-response manner after 24h, 48h of exposure to HAEVa. Interestingly, HAEVa in concentrations of 125 and 250 μg/ml showed no cytotoxicity (p>0.05) on RPDF after the different times of exposure. However, HAEVa in a high concentration of 500 μg/mL wasn´t biocompatible with RPDF. HAEVa also prevented postprandial blood glucose level in dexamethasone-induced insulin-resistant rats at both doses tested (p>0.05 and p<0.01 at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg respectively).
Conclusion: the results of this study suggest that HAEVa has antiproliferative properties on MG-63 osteosarcoma in vitro and also inhibits in vivo the postprandial blood glucose level in dexamethasone-induced insulin-resistant rats.
... It has also been reported that V. amygdalina simultaneously suppresses gluconeogenesis and potentiates glucose oxidation via the pentose phosphate pathway in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [22]. Hypoglycemic effects of bitter leaves of V. amygdalina have also been reported in experimental finishing chickens [23]. The antidiabetic efficacy of this plant in experimental finishing chickens found he percent reduction in blood glucose level was 14.30%, 22.90% and 28.60% for treatments with V. amygdalina inclusion rates of 5%, 10% and 15%, respectively. ...
Introduction:
the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina (V. amygdalina) are consumed as food in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In traditional medicine, this plant is widely used in the treatment of cancer and diabetes mellitus. In the present study, we evaluated the antihyperglycemic and the antiproliferative activities of the hydroalcoholic extract of V. amygdalina leaves (HAEVa).
Methods:
we conducted an experimental descriptive and analytical study with a prospective data collection from May 2019 to July 2020. For the in vivo study, the experiments were carried out on albino male rats of Wistar strain (Rattus norvegicus). Antihyperglycemic activity was performed in vivo in dexamethasone-induced insulin-resistant rats using the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The biocompatibility and the antiproliferative activity of extract were performed in vitro respectively on rabbit primary dermal fibroblasts (RPDF) and human osteosarcoma MG-63 cells using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The data were analyzed with the GraphPad Prism software version 5.0.3. The statistical analyses were obtained by the analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Bonferroni´s post-test. P<0.05 was considered as the minimal level of statistical significance.
Results:
regarding to the antiproliferative investigation, extract at 125, 250 μg/mL exhibited a significant cytotoxic effect on human osteosarcoma MG-63 compared to the vehicle (p<0.001) in a dose-response manner after 24h, 48h of exposure to HAEVa. Interestingly, HAEVa in concentrations of 125 and 250μg/ml showed no cytotoxicity (p>0.05) on RPDF after the different times of exposure. However, HAEVa in a high concentration of 500 μg/mL wasn´t biocompatible with RPDF. HAEVa also prevented postprandial blood glucose level in dexamethasone-induced insulin-resistant rats at both doses tested (p>0.05 and p<0.01 at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg respectively).
Conclusion:
the results of this study suggest that HAEVa has antiproliferative properties on MG-63 osteosarcoma in vitro and also inhibits in vivo the postprandial blood glucose level in dexamethasone-induced insulin-resistant rats.
... Bioactive compounds in neem leaf azadirachtins, nimocinol, isomeldenin, azadirachtol, gedunin, nimbin, nimolicinol, odoratone, azadironolide, isoazadironolide, naheedin and mahmoodin as well as in bitter leaf compounds like vernodalinol, vernolepin, vernomygdin, hydroxyvernolide, vernolide and vernodalol are used as immunity booster (Oluwaseun et al., 2017;Shakib, 2020). So, inclusion neem and bitter leaves to immune suppressed birds can activates cell mediate immune responses for increased humoral effect (Owen et al., 2011;Vivian et al., 2015). The leaves of neem and bitter contained varying concentrations of chemical, elemental and macronutrient components. ...
A study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of neem and bitter leaf extracts in drinking water as a natural feed additive for broiler chicken on feed intake, body weight gain, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and carcass cut parameters. Unsexed one hundred ninety-two days-old Cobb 500 broiler chicks with an initial weight of 42.16±0.65 gm (mean± SD) were randomly distributed to the four treatments each with three replications in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). The treatments were inclusion of neem and bitter (powder a mixture of 1:1 ratio) extracts at 0 ml, 2 ml, 4ml and 6 ml per litter of water for T 1 , T 2 , T 3 and T 4 , respectively. Commercial broilers diet that contained 22 and 18% CP and 3050 and 3250 kcal/kg ME for starter and finisher phases. Feed and water were offered ad libitum throughout the experimental period. Feed offered and refused were recorded every day and feed intake (FI) was calculated as the difference between the two. At the end of the trial, four broiler chickens were randomly picked up (2 male and 2 female) from each replication and slaughtered for carcass evaluation. Average daily feed intake during the entire period was 104.49, 116.07, 118.65 and 122.32 g/bird (SEM=2.03) for T 1 , T 2 , T 3 and T 4 , respectively, and it was significantly higher (P<0.05) for T 4 compared to other treatment groups. Body weight (BW) gain during the entire experimental period was 45.95, 56.72, 57.92 and 61.95 g/bird/day (SEM = 1.88) for T 1 , T 2 , T 3 and T 4 , respectively and significantly higher for birds that treat under T 4. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) during the entire period was 2.28, 2.04, 2.04 and 1.97 (SEM = 0.04) for T 1 , T 2 , T 3 and T 4 , respectively and also best for T 4. Dressed weight was 1663.84, 1983.60, 2092.90 and 2267.60 g (SEM = 65.58) for T 1 , T 2 , T 3 and T 4 , respectively, and it was higher in T 4 than other treatments. Giblets (heart, liver, and gizzard) and crop were significantly higher (P˂0.05) for T 4. It was concluded that inclusion of neem and bitter leaf extracts in 6 ml/1 L of drinking water has a good natural feed additive for broiler production.
... The herb is an indigenous African plant; which grows in most parts of the African continent (6). Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) has been reported to have hypoglycemic, anti-diabetic and anticholesterol properties (7,8). Besides, the extract ameliorates haematotoxicity in rats exposed to petroleum hydrocarbon feeds (9). ...
Renal diseases have been documented as one of the massive health challenges, ranked as the 12th most common cause of death globally. This study was carried out to assess the chemopreventive effects of Vernonia amydalina on nitrobenzene mediated renal damage in rats. Rats were exposed to 100 mg/kg body weight of nitrobenzene via oral administration and treated with 200 mg/kg body weight (BW) and 400 mg/kg BW of methanol leaf extract of Vernonia amydalina (MLVA) and Vitamin E for 14 consecutive days. Nitrobenzene significantly induced a renal injury with a significant increase in the serum levels of urea and creatinine with the concomitant altered serum electrolyte profile. Also, nitrobenzene mediated the oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation with a significant increase in the renal level of malondialdehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), with a concomitant decrease in the level of reduced glutathione (GSH), Catalase (CAT) and Superoxide dismutase (SOD). Furthermore, an inflammation was observed in the nitrobenzene-treated rats with the elevated level of nitric oxide (NO) and myeloperoxidase (MPO). However, the treatment with methanol leaf extract of Vernonia amydalina reversed all the nitrobenzene-associated renal damage, electrolyte imbalance, oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, inflammation and altered antioxidant defence system. Taken together, methanol leaf extract of Vernonia amydalina offers protection which may be beneficial for the treatment and management of kidney diseases or other related disorders via enhancing the serum electrolyte homeostasis, protecting the structural integrity of the kidney, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory mechanisms.
... This species is endowed with fats, proteins, fibres, minerals, amino acids, carbohydrate, and vitamins [8,9]. Studies from several parts of the world had observed that V. amygdalina leaf extracts are a promising glucose inhibitor [10][11][12][13]. However, a report had shown that geographical location can affect the yields and bioactivity of plant extracts [14]. ...
... This species is endowed with fats, proteins, fibres, minerals, amino acids, carbohydrate, and vitamins [8,9]. Studies from several parts of the world had observed that V. amygdalina leaf extracts are a promising glucose inhibitor [10][11][12][13]. However, a report had shown that geographical location can affect the yields and bioactivity of plant extracts [14]. ...
... Total protein and albumin are markers of liver biosynthetic ability [57]. Proteins are synthesized in response to environmental insults from exogenous or endogenous substances, thereby, adapting the cells to fight back. ...
The protective potentials of Vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf) leaf extracts on cadmium-induced hepatic damage were investigated. Thirty five (35) female Wistar rats were completely randomized into 7 groups (A-G) of 5 rats each. Group A received 0.5 ml distilled water only; group B received 10 mg/kg body weight CdCl 2 ; group C received the standard drug, silymarin; groups D and E received 50 and 100 mg/kg body weight of leaf extract of V. amygdalina (LEVA) respectively; while groups F and G received 50 and 100 mg/kg body weight of squeezed leaf extract V. amygdalina (SLEVA) respectively. The animals in groups C-G were orally administered 10 mg/kg body weight CdCl 2 3 hours after the oral administration of silymarin or the extract for 10 days. There was a significant reduction (p<0.05) in the serum total protein and albumin concentrations in the animals intoxicated with cadmium when compared to the normal control group with the pre-administration of silymarin or Vernonia amygdalina leaf extracts. There were also significant reduction (p<0.05) in the superoxide dismutase activity and reduced glutathione concentrations in the liver of intoxicated rats. The catalase activity and malondialdehyde concentrations in the liver of the intoxicated untreated rats were however, significantly increased (p<0.05) compared to the normal control group and the extract-treated groups. The results suggest that the processed Vernonia amygdalina leaf extract exhibited protective potentials against liver damage with the SLEVA having the highest potentials. This might be due to the antioxidant properties contained in the extract. It can therefore be concluded from the above results that processed Vernonia amygdalina leaf extract have protective effect against cadmium-induced hepatic damage in female albino rats.
... This could be attributed to the fact that both diseases are sugar-related. In addition, the hypoglycemic and antidiabetic effects of Vernonia amygdalina has been previously reported by Okolie et al. [24] , Akah et al. [25] , Iwuji et al. [26] , Fashola et al. [27] , Owen et al. [28] , Modu et al. [29] among many other authors. In the same vein, the hypoglycemic properties of Ocimum gratissimum was reported by Mohammed et al. [30] , Arfa and Rasheed [31] and Oguanobi et al. [32] among others; Eidi et al.. [33] , Thomson et al. [34] , Ojo et al.. [35] and Eyo et al. [36] and many others reported the hypoglycemic effects of Allium sativum. ...
A comprehensive survey with the aim of documenting traditional medicinal practices was carried out between
November 2008 and January 2012 in 16 different locations across Oyo State. This article focuses on the treatment of
piles and diabetes mellitus. Semi-structured questionnaires and open-ended informal interviews were administered
during series of repeated visits to a total of 31 respondents. Seventeen herbal recipes were described for the
treatment of diabetes mellitus, while 30 herbal recipes were described treating piles in this study. Fifty plants, 1
animal and 9 other ingredients were described as being used in the preparations of the described traditional
remedies. The 50 plants spread across 33 plant families. Herbal products were administered orally for diabetes
mellitus and by oral administration and topical application for piles. Furthermore, Vernonia amygdalina and
Ocimum gratissimum were the most frequently used plant species mentioned for the treatment of diabetes mellitus
and piles in Oyo State
... Bitter leaf, scientifically known as Vernonia amygdalina is a widely used aromatic and medicinal plant in Africa and Asia (Egharevba et al., 2014;Farombi and Owoeye, 2011;Iwalokun et al., 2006;Owen et al., 2011). The dried or fresh leaves, stems and roots of this plant are being used in food and pharmaceutical industries. ...
In this study, the oven drying behaviour, as well as changes in the morphological appearance of Vernonia
amygdalina leaves before and after drying were investigated. The drying experiments were conducted
using a universal oven. Vernonia amygdalina leaves were dried at 40, 50 and 60 �C air temperatures.
During the drying processes, the air flow rate was held at 1 m/s2 and the samples spread on the drying
trays were placed parallel to the direction of air flow. The obtained data were fitted to eleven different
mathematical drying models. Four statistical tools, viz, correlation coefficient, mean bias error, sum of
the square error, and reduced chi-square were used to analyse the fittings. Amongst the considered drying
models, Midilli-Kucuk drying model showed the best fitting in describing the drying behaviour of
Vernonia amygdalina leaves. In addition, the effective diffusivities for the three air temperatures ranged
from 4.55 � 10�12 to 5.48 � 10�12 m2/s with the activation energy of 8.048 kJ/mol. Moreover, to evaluate
the effect of drying conditions on the morphological changes of Vernonia amygdalina leaves, fresh and
dried leaves under different conditions were compared. Thus, drying conditions had effects on
microstructure of Vernonia amygdalina leaves.
... [65] It is a shrub of 2 -5m tall with abundant bitter principle in every part of the plant. [66] It is a widely used local plant in Nigeria for both therapeutic and nutritional purpose, ...
S Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorder associated with the endocrine system that resulted in hyperglycaemic condition. Themetabolic defectsmay leads to many complications such as neuropathy, retinopathy, microangiopathy, nephropathy, ischaemic heart disease and stroke. Over 800 plants are indicated by ethnobotanical information as traditional remedies for the treatment of diabetes all over the world. This review attempts to compile the antidiabetic properties of thirteen (13) local phytochemical plants in Nigeria for easy reference. The phytochemical plants evaluated in this review include; Persea americana (Avocado pear), Sida acuta (Broom-weed), Tithonia diversifolia (Wild Sunflower), Aframomum melegueta (Alligator Pepper), Azadirachta indica (Neem), Carica Papaya (Paw-paw), Ocimum gratissimum (scent or mint leaf), Parkia biglobosa (African locust Bean), Vernonia amygdalina (Bitter Leaf), Moringa oleifera (drumstick or horseradish tree), Momordica charantia (Bitter melon), Picralima nitida (Akuama) and Syzygium aromaticum (Cloves). Various parts of these plants were evaluated and appreciated for hypoglycemic activity.Medicinal plants have been proved to be more effective, less side effects or zero side effect and relative low cost than the conventional pharmaceutical synthetic drugs. This review may be of help toresearchers,diabetic patient and decision makersin field of ethanobotanical sciences.
... 1,2 High level of serum lipids is related to increased oxidative damage, which affects antioxidant status and lipoprotein levels. 3,4 While orthodox medicine is generally accepted and preferred globally, the use of herbs and traditional medicine is often considered an equally acceptable alternative in many regions of the world. The traditional medicine is commonly used in the developing countries where the cost of orthodox medicine and access to medical care is unavailable to part of the populace. ...
Background:
Extracts of Vernonia amygdalina (V. amygdalina) have been shown to affect the serum lipid profile of some laboratory animals in previous studies. Its impact on serum lipid profile and the histological changes in atherosclerosis has not been studied. Our aim was to determine the effects of V. amygdalina on atherosclerotic lesions induced in rabbits on high-cholesterol diet.
Methods:
18 male rabbits were randomly divided into three groups of control, atherogenic diet, and atherogenic diet + 200 mg/kg of V. amygdalina. The rabbits were fed a normal diet (control group) or a diet supplemented by 0.5% cholesterol and 1% methionine (second and third groups, respectively) for 12 weeks. The fasting sera of all animals were collected at baseline and at the end of the 12 weeks, to determine the levels of lipid profile and the aortas underwent pathomorphological examination.
Results:
The two groups on the atherogenic diet had significantly increased serum total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) compared to the control group. The serum triglyceride (TG) was not statistically different in all three groups. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) was significantly increased in the V. amygdalina group, compared to the control group but there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups on atherogenic diet. The two groups of rabbits that were on high-cholesterol diet (atherogenic diet group, as well as the atherogenic diet + 200 mg/kg of V. amygdalina) developed histological evidence of atherosclerosis. However, there was no histological difference between the lesions observed in these two groups.
Conclusion:
The use of 200 mg/kg of aqueous extract of V. amygdalina in rabbits did not appear to exert a significant effect on the serum lipid profile. It also did not appear to have any beneficial effect on the development of atherosclerotic lesions.
... Ojiako and Nwanjo (2006) documented that administration of bitter leaf significantly attenuated the LDL cholesterol level of streptozotocin diabetic rats. Owen et al. (2011a) also reported serum cholesterol and LDL lowering potentials of bitter leaf meal. Increased activity of the enzyme catalase involved in esterification of cholesterol in the plasma could have influenced the decrease in serum cholesterol in the bitter leaf extract administered birds. ...
Growing concern about antibiotic growth promoters in animal nutrition and its health implication to consumers of poultry products has initiated efforts towards use of alternative growth promoting agents especially medicinal plants. This study aimed at investigating the response of broiler chicks administered bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) infusion. Sixty day-old Marshal broiler chicks were allotted in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) to four treatment groups identified as T1, T2, T3 and T4 consisting of three replicate with five birds per replicate. 50 g of dried bitter leaf was infused for 12 h in 1 L of hot boiled water and given to the birds at T1 (0, 25 (T2), 50 (T3) and 75 mL L-1 (T4) of drinking water ad-libitum. Data collected on growth performance traits revealed that feed intake was not influenced due to treatment, but final body weight, weight gain and feed conversion ratio were increased. Carcass, drumstick, thigh and breast weights and dressing percentage improved in treated groups. There was a reduction of 14.58-23.44% in abdominal fat in the treated group compared to T1. Although birds on T4 gave the highest revenue, the best cost-benefit ratio was obtained from birds on T3. Except for packed cell volume and white blood cell, the results showed no variations in other haematological parameters measured. Cholesterol, low density lipoprotein and glucose concentration in the serum was reduced in the treated group compared to the control. There was no influence on total protein and albumin: globulin ratio in all treatment groups. T3 had the highest value for albumin. Administration of bitter leaf infusion improved the growth performance, haematological and serum biochemical indices of broiler chickens and can be applied in broiler nutrition.
... Low triacylglycerol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels or high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels are desirable health outcomes known to have resulted from the use of some plant materials. 2 Cinnamon is a plant that has a variety of uses among many different cultures, from spicing up foods to deterring germs from growing. There are actually two main forms of cinnamon that are commonly found in foods. ...
Background: Dyslipidemia is one of the important causes of cardiovascular disease related mortality and morbidity. Recently it has become a significant issue in public health problem of developing countries. The purpose of the study was to find a suitable solution for reducing blood lipid in dyslipidemic patients by conducting a research on the effect of cinnamon in hypercholesterolemic rats.Objective: To study the lipid lowering effect of Cinnamomum cassia on experimentally induced hypercholesterolemic rats.Materials and Methods: This study was done on 30 male Long Evans rats weighing about 200--210 gram. For convenience, the study was divided into two experiments --- Experiment I and Experiment II. In experiment I, 12 animals were divided into two groups. One was Group A (n = 6, control group) fed on laboratory diet and the other was Group B (n = 6) fed on laboratory diet and cinnamon for 35 days. In experiment II, the remaining 18 rats were fed fatty mixture diet containing 1% cholesterol and 0.25% cholic acid. The hypercholesterolemic rats were then divided into 3 groups, Group C, D, and E (n=6 in each group). Group D and Group E were additionally fed on cinnamon powder and tablet atorvastatin for 35 days respectively. Serum TC, TG, LDL-C and HDL-C were measured after 35 days.Results: Fatty mixture diet increased TG, TC and LDL-C significantly. Cinnamon treated fatty mixture diet group showed that Cinnamomum cassia decreased plasma TC, TG and LDL-C. Atorvastatin therapy decreased TC, TG and LDL-C levels significantly compared with the lowering effect of cinnamon.Conclusion: The results of this experimental study indicate that Cinnamomum cassia can act as a hypocholesterolemic agent and thereby can improve cardiovascular functions.
... However, a contradictory finding was reported by Igboasoiyi et al. [66] where the seed (250 mg/kg bw/day), but not fruit pulp, extract showed no hypoglycemic effect. The folkloric use of Vernonia amygdalina Del. (Compositae) (bitter leaf) in the management of DM is widely documented and this corroborates with the propensity of antidiabetic studies conducted in both type 1 and type 2 animal models of diabetes [67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74] and human subjects [75]. In all studies reported, V. amygdalina was found to significantly reduce the hyperglycemia in T1D models of rats. ...
Diabetes mellitus is one of the major health problems in Africa. The conventional oral synthetic antidiabetic drugs available to manage the disease are costly and not readily affordable to the majority of the affected population. Interestingly, the continent is endowed with a tremendous number of medicinal plants that have been explored for their folkloric treatment of diabetes mellitus. Scientific investigations have validated the antidiabetic potentials of a number of these medicinal plants but there is no repository with information on these scientifically investigated plants as a guide for future research. In this review article, all of the in vivo antidiabetic studies conducted between January 2000 and July 2013 on African plants are systematically compiled with a closer look at some relevant plants from the continent's subregions. Plants of the Asteraceae and Lamiaceae families are the most investigated, and West Africa has the highest number of investigated plants. Although promising results were reported in many cases, unfortunately, only a few studies reported the partial characterization of bioactive principles and/or mechanisms of action. It is hoped that government agencies, pharmaceutical industries, and the scientific community will have a look at some of these plants for future research and, if possible, subsequent commercialization.
The study was conducted to evaluate the effects of scent leaf aqueous extracts (SLE) on growth performance and some blood constituents of broiler chicks. Ninety 1-week old broiler chicks (Niger chicks) were randomly assigned to three treatment groups: T1, T2, and T3, with three replicateseach and 10 chicks per replicate. Aqueous extract of scent leaf obtained by infusing 50g of dried scent leaf in 1L of hot water for 12 hours, was mixed at the rate of 0, 50 and 100ml/L of drinking water and offered to groups T1, T2 and T3, respectively. The study was carried out in two phases: starter phase (7-28 days) and finisher phase (29-49 days). Data were collected on feed intake and weekly body weight for determination of weekly weight gain and FCR. Blood constituents were evaluated using blood samples collected from three birds per replicate on the 21 st and 42 nd days of the study. Average weekly body weight gain, final body weight and FCR were significantly (p<0.05) higher in T3 than in T2 and T1 in the starter phase. Such variations did not exist in the finisher phase. All haematological and serum biochemical indices (PCV, Hb, RBC, LDL, FBS, Total protein, albumin, globulin, AST, ALP) evaluated, except WBC, HDL, and ALT, had similar values (p>0.05) in the starter phase. Significant differences (p<0.05) were observed in WBC and ALT in T3 and T2, respectively. The finisher phase showed significant (p<0.05) differences in PCV, Hb, RBC, cholesterol and LDLonly. It was concluded that scent leaf aqueous extracts could be safely administered to broiler chicks at 100ml/L of drinking water to improve their performance during the starter phase.
Vernoniaamygdalina is a perennial shrub. It is a vegetable, commonly used in foods and traditional medicine in tropical Africa. Traditional users report that this plant possesses observable health benefits. It contains many nutrients and phytochemicals such as iodine, alkaloids, anthraquinones, edotides, sesquiterpene lactones and steroid glycosides. These bioactive compounds are associated with the plant's health benefits. This review is a comprehensive update on the composition of V. amygdalina, linked to its food and medicinal uses. Traditional medicinal uses not yet supported by scientific evidence have been indicated. Clinical studies to substantiate the health-promoting effects of this plant product are lacking. More animal models experiments are required to prove the potency of this plant product. Grey areas where research is required to promote effective use of this plant product are indicated. Metadata for the health benefits of this plant product is based on inferences from compositional analysis and animal bioassays. There is a need to establish these claims in humans. Sources of information for this review were obtained from online search engines. The searches were restricted to information available as primary or secondary sources and effort was made to keep to only recent literature. Very important literature before that was not recent was also included. There is only very little information on the food uses of V. amygdalina which has been related to potential health benefits. There are a lot of claims on this plant-based on ethnomedicine and traditional uses. Vernoniaamydgalina is rich in nutrients and phytochemicals and this invariable account for its positive influence on health. Compounds associated with its anticancer effects, antioxidant properties, antimalarial properties, anti-inflammatory properties, antimicrobial properties and hypolipidaemic effects have been identified but most mechanisms of action have not been elucidated in humans.
A study was conducted to evaluate the phytochemicals present in bitter leaf meal and to determine the effect of
graded levels of bitter leaf meal (BLM) on performance, carcass quality, internal organs and serum metabolites
of broiler chickens. A total of 72 one-day-old broiler chicks of Abor-acre breed were used for the trial and fed
with diets supplemented with graded levels of bitter leaf meal (0%, 0.1%, 0.2% and 0.3%). The diets were
isonitrogenous and iso-caloric. The chicks were grouped into 4 treatments (18 chicks per treatment) and teach
treatment was replicated 3 times using a complete randomized design. The experiment lasted for 42 days. Results
showed a relatively high proximate and mineral content while phytochemical screening revealed that BLM
contains bioactive substances beneficial to broiler chickens with anti-nutrient concentrations below the critical
levels. The final liveweight, carcass weight and dressing percentage at 1362.27g, 1138.85g and 75.22%,
respectively improved in treated groups especially among birds fed diet containing 0.3% BLM. The improvement
in the feed conversion ratio (FCR) at 2.56 resulted in improved muscle development. The inclusion of BLM at
0.3% reduced the level of cholesterol, triglyceride, glucose, low density lipoprotein, creatinine at 70.67mg/dl,
34.67mg/dl, 10.33mmol/l , 7.67mg/dl and 0.12mg/dl, respectively, and increased the high density lipoprotein
values at 90.33mg/dl. It was concluded that BLM is not deleterious to the growth and health status of broiler
chicken rather it can be a good growth booster.
Conventional drug therapy though effective in the management of diabetes mellitus is expensive and has toxic side effects. Herbal medicine would thus provide alternative therapy if effective and less toxic. This paper reviews the use of various antidiabetic plants in management of diabetes mellitus. Their documented modes of actions along with in vivo are also discussed.
Ethnopharmacological relevance:
The Vernonia genus has about one thousand species and members of the genus are widely used as food and medicine. The aim of this review is to analyze published data on the ethnomedicinal, ethnoveterinary and zoopharmacognostic uses of plants of the Vernonia genus. This will help to identify the state of ethnopharmacological knowledge in regard to this genus and to propose future research priorities.
Materials and methods:
The major scientific databases including SciFinder, Sciencedirect, Medline and Google Scholar were queried for information on Vernonia genus using various keyword combinations. The International Plant Name Index was also used to verify the names of species and authors.
Results:
A total of 109 Vernonia species were reported in the literature to have medicinal properties. One hundred and five (105) plants were linked to the treatment or management of 44 human diseases or health conditions. Plants of the genus also feature in ethnoveterinary and zoopharmacognostic practices. A total of 12 vernonia species were identified to be used in ethnoveterinary medicine while 2 species are used in self medication practices by chimpanzees and gorillas. In vitro and in vivo research studies reporting the validation of the medicinal properties of some species were also reviewed. One hundred and three bioactive compounds isolated from various Vernonia species were also identified. Vernonia amygdalina was identified as the most frequently used member of the Vernonia genus. The Vernolides, a class of sesquiterpene lactone were identified as the most studied compounds from the genus and show interesting bioactivity in antiplasmodial, antileishmanial, antischistosomial, cytotoxicity, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory assays.
Conclusion:
On the basis of results from a combination of in vitro and in vivo efficacy and toxicity studies reported, Vernonia amygdalina holds the most promise for development into a nutraceutical against diabetes and malaria while Vernonia cinerea has potential against cancer and inflammatory conditions. Vernolide A is so far the most promising single agent from a Vernonia species that has potential for development into an anticancer agent. The other Vernonia species and isolated compounds require further studies to ascertain their medicinal potentials.
This work was designed to study the blood glucose response of streptozotocin-induced hyperglycaemic rats to a chronic regimen of the ethanolic leaf extract of Vernonia amygdalina. Besides, hepatic morphology and the activity of glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase were assessed. Twenty adult Wistar rats of both sexes (8 weeks old; body weight of 151 g on average) were randomly assigned into one of the following groups of four animals each: control, diabetic, diabetic+Vernonia amygdalina, diabetic+chlorpropamide, and Vernonia amygdalina alone. Vernonia amygdalina and chlorpropamide were administered orally at 400 mg/kg bw/d and 14.3 mg/kg bw/d respectively for 42 days. By the end of the 3rd week, normoglycemia was established in hyperglycaemic rats treated with Vernonia amygdalina, while hepatic levels of glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase were significantly elevated in these animals at 42 days (P<0.05). Besides, plasma lactate dehydrogenase levels were significantly reduced in all the treatment groups compared to control (P<0.05). In addition, hepatic microanatomy was comparable to control in all the treatment groups except untreated diabetic rats. In the latter, hepatic sinusoids were occluded with congestion of the central veins, while hepatocytes appeared swollen. Our findings show that chronic treatment with ethanolic leaf extract of Vernonia amygdalina produces normoglycemia in hyperglycaemic rats; and this effect is not associated with liver injury.
Effect of crude aqueous extract of leaves of Vernonia amygdalina on blood glucose, serum albumin and cholesterol levels on alloxan induced diabetic albino rats was investigated. Blood glucose, serum albumin and cholesterol levels were significantly reduced. From 296.75 ± 9.0mg/dl to 179.0 ± 7.3mg/dl for blood glucose; 4.08 ± 0.4mg/dl to 0.93 ± 0.23mg/dl for serum albumin, while cholesterol level decreased from 280.33 ± 4.65mg/dl to 170.45 ± 4.52mg/dl.
The effect was dose dependent, as the reduction followed increase in dose given to the animals. The biochemical implication of our findings are discussed.KEY WORDS: Blood glucose, serum albumin, Cholesterol, hypoglycemic, antilipolytic and lipogenic effects.Global Jnl Pure & Applied Science Vol.10(1) 2004: 189-194
Vernonia amygdalina leaf 60% methanol extract was found to be active at 25 mg/ml against six out of eight bacterial isolates.
The effects of various concentrations of aqueous extract of Vernonia amygdalina leaves on some biochemical indices of liver function were investigated in albino Wistar rats. Acute toxicity tests of the extract gave an LD 50 of 500 mg/kg. Phytochemical analysis of the plant material showed that anthracene glycosides, steroids, flavonoids, proteins, carbohydrates, reducing sugars, saponins and tannins were present. Liver function tests revealed that the activity of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) increased significantly (p<0.05) for all the concentrations administered. There was no significant (p>0.05) increase in both alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase activities for all the concentrations administered. Also the increase in mean values of conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin for all the concentrations administered were not statistically significant (p>0.05). The results, therefore, strongly suggest that V. amygdalina leaf extract is not hepatotoxic in rats. The findings are of nutritional, clinical and veterinary relevance considering the diverse applications of the plant in almost all African populations.
Objective: To investigate the anti-diabetic activity of Azadirachta Indica using IDDM and NIDDM animal models. Methods: Streptozotocin induced models of IDDM (65 mg/kg, iv) as well as NIDDM model (90 mg/kg, i.p in neonates) were given neem leaf extract (NLE, 1 g/kg, po) for 6 weeks and their anti-diabetic activity was assessed. Result: The treatment with insulin, aqueous NLE, aqueous NLE with insulin and insulin with aminoguanidine showed a fall in blood glucose levels of 80, 45.4, 38.02 and 77-65% whereas in NIDDM model, a fall of 53.95 and 60.50% were observed with glibenclamide and NLE. Conclusion: Aqueous extract of NLE has a good therapeutic potential as anti-hyperglycaemic agent in IDDM and NIDDM.
From Vernonia amygdalina, a possible medicinal plant used by wild chimpanzees, three bitter steroid glucosides, vernoniosides A1,A2 and A3 and a nonbitter vernonioside B1, were isoluted. The oxygenation patterns of the aglycone parts were new, especially the pattern of the carboxyl group at C21. The oxygen functionalities at C16 were important for the bitter taste.
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The elemental analyses of the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina and the laboratory experiments with mice, fed diets containing V. amygdalina leaves, their alcohol extracts, or purified saponins, were performed. Feeding 2-week-old growing mice of both sexes with the standard diets amended with 25% dry V. amygdalina leaves of equivalent amounts of alcohol extracts or crude or purified saponins for 14 days did not alter their feeding performance. However, these treatments caused significant reduction in body weight gain and increased urinary and fecal output, compared with the control group. At necropsy, the liver weights were reduced. The stomachs and small intestines were enlarged, compared to the control groups. It was concluded that care has to be taken when using the leaves for cooking soups and that saponins should be thoroughly washed out during the debittering process. Consumption of tonics containing V. amygdalina saponins may create some health hazard.
