Content uploaded by Norlena Salamuddin
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Norlena Salamuddin on Feb 25, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
Asian Social Science; Vol. 10, No. 5; 2014
ISSN 1911-2017 E-ISSN 1911-2025
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education
71
Promoting Social Skills through Outdoor Education and Assessing Its’
Effects
Mohd Taib Harun1 & Norlena Salamuddin1
1 Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
Correspondence: Mohd Taib Harun, Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi,
Selangor, Malaysia. E-mail: mtaibharun@gmail.com
Received: January 16, 2014 Accepted: February 20, 2014 Online Published: February 28, 2014
doi:10.5539/ass.v10n5p71 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v10n5p71
Abstract
Outdoor education is a holistic form of education which aids in overall wellbeing of adolescence, including
academic, physical, emotional, social and psychology well being. The aim of this study was to see whether
outdoor education promotes social skills and assess its effects on participants. Research sample comprised of 671
adolescence attending a five-day residential outdoor education program. Kolb’s Cycle of Learning through
Experience is used as the theoretical framework while the research framework is adapted from Carver’s Outdoor
Education Framework. Social skills measured are cooperative teamwork, leadership ability, and ability to cope
with changes. Descriptive and inferential statistics used were t-test, Cohen’s D, multiple analysis of variance, and
post hoc test. The result showed that the outdoor programme had a significant influence for all the constructs
involved in this study. Cohen’s D showed that the treatment contributes greatly to leadership ability (60%), and
ability to cope with changes (61%). Wilks’ Lambda in multiple analysis of variance showed that the outdoor
education module contributes significantly high F=30.78, p<0.05; ή²= 0.57 to changes in social skills. Analysis
of variance showed that there is a retention period whereby the changes in social skills examined remain in the
participants for a certain period of time. This retention of changes in social skills is significant for all factors
studied which are cooperative teamwork, leadership ability, and ability to cope with changes.
Keywords: social skills, outdoor education, teamwork, leadership
1. Introduction
Outdoor education is a holistic form of education which aids in overall wellbeing of adolescence, including
academic, physical, emotional, social and psychology well being (Gray & Perusco, 1993; Marsh & Richards,
1988; Davidson, 2001; Hattie, 1997). It provides opportunities for students to apply knowledge and skills to
master, especially in real-life situations and increase the level of understanding of the relationship between
humans and the environment (Lugg, 1999). Outdoor education program implemented in the school curriculum
claims to be very valuable to help the teaching and learning process of formal education in the classroom
(Henderson & Barnett, 2001).
The core of the National Education Policy (NEP) of Malaysia aims to produce a balanced and virtuous
generation in terms of physical, emotional, spiritual, intellectual and social well being. The NEP is also geared to
meet and realize one of the nine branches of Vision 2020 of creating a caring society and culture. This
philosophy also aims to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable, competent, honorable , responsible
and capable of achieving total well-being. Therefore the implementation of a balanced education curriculum
should be integrated with the integration of skills, knowledge, values and practices.
Physical Education and Health conducted in secondary schools in Malaysia currently have emphasized the
outdoor education program as part of the learning unit to be mastered by all students. However, the
implementation of this program is slow and not given priority in the school curriculum. Vasudevan (1989) states
that outdoor education is a method that emphasizes learning experience to develop knowledge and provide a
medium for socialization process. Outdoor education can enrich the lives of individuals in terms of exposure and
experience. Outdoor education uses the natural environment to promote learning and emphasizes real experience
to develop and enhance experience in the classroom.
Gass (1995) states that outdoor education helps students learn skills that lead to awareness of thoughts and
www.ccsenet.org/ass Asian Social Science Vol. 10, No. 5; 2014
72
emotions. Group training activities as part of outdoor education is important. In this activity students have time
to experience the emotional changes that occurs during the activities. Outdoor education involves cooperative
learning that emphasizes the interaction between teachers, students and learning experience. In this learning
experience students learn from the behavior or action. Learning involves a process of value change, moods, skills
and knowledge acquired by the student through the activities (Boss, 1999).
The scope of outdoor education consists of a program of activities planned and prepared with care by personnel
and teachers who use the environment, nature and direct experience in the teaching and learning process. It
involves the process of learning by doing. All disciplines, knowledge and experience will be obtained directly
with the concept of 'hands on' or 'first hand experience'. All curriculum content can be enriched and developed
through experience gained through these activities. Because the learning process centered on the direct
experience, learning gained by participants are faster and more effective. Accordingly, the influence of
knowledge and experience can be preserved longer. Dewey (1938) stated that experience is very important in
order to develop the knowledge and to enrich the process of socialization. Understanding and appreciation of a
concept is more effective when learned through direct experience and behavior.
Based on the NEP, the school as an institution is able to produce a balanced and comprehensive individual
physically, emotionally, spiritually and intellectually. But what is available today over the education system
focuses mainly on academic aspects. Ability and intelligence of an individual is only measured by academic
excellence. The education system is now more focused on academic achievement and marginalize the activities
of co-curricular and non- examination subjects. This action resulted in a stressful learning environment, or
school environment which is somewhat isolated from the community, hence giving rise to group polarization and
comprehensive development of the character and personality of the students to be less than satisfactory. However,
the academic community is now beginning to realize that participation in extra-curricular activities and outdoor
education do help students to improve thinking skills.
Outdoor education is a medium that can be used in assisting student discipline. To avoid the problem of student
discipline, the Emotional Quotient (EQ) must be nourished as part of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) (Goleman,
1995). Emotional Quotient (EQ) cannot be fully developed through extracurricular activities, but it can be
developed through co-curricular and outdoor education activities such as camping ,involvement in associations,
sports and games. These activities cover various fields of knowledge and experience. This method directly or
indirectly conforms students personality, not only are they willing to face the challenges of schooling but are
more ready to deal with the twists and turns of life afterwards.
Outdoor education that is rich in components of IQ and EQ are in line with the NEP aims of developing a
wholesome individuals. Outdoor education comes complete with a variety of disciplines and field studies which
are central to the development of knowledge through real life experience (McRae, 1990). Besides it is also a
process of socialization that occurs among members during outdoor education activities sessions. Educational
psychologist, Gardner (1991) stated that the increase in knowledge depends heavily on environmental education.
Compared with in -class learning, outdoor education students use the entire environment as a source of
knowledge. This knowledge is obtained directly from the environment.
Outdoor education learning through experience is based on the belief that the process of self- development is a
result of direct experience (Dewey, 1938; Rogers, 1985; Burnard, 1991; Gass, 1993). Direct experience is an
active process (King, 1988) and involve students / participants who are in a foreign environment and
uncertainties, as well as outside of their 'safe' zone (Gass, 1993). This uncertainty requires problem solving skills,
research and reflection (Kraft & Sakofs, 1991). Krafts and Sakofs (1991) asserts that learning through experience
must be realistic, meaningful and assisted by an enabling environment. Individual experience is very important
in the learning process and the acquisition of knowledge through outdoor education.
Kolb (1984) also stated that emphasis should be given to adapt and learn about an issue and not just focus on the
contents and products. Learning through experience is a mix between experience, perception, cognition, and
behavior (Kolb, 1984) and seeks to generate the emotional, physical and mental imagination (Hopkins & Putnam,
1993). This holistic approach is supported by Andersen (1995). They believe that the involvement of a person as
a whole (physical, intellectual and emotional development involves feelings), past experience and reflection on
experience can be applied in outdoor education. They also noted that the structure of an experience, process
facilitation, and evaluation of its products are key factors in learning through outdoor education activities.
Wagner and Roland (1992) also states that appropriate facilitation is a key factor in the success of a program that
is based on experience, but so not many empirical studies has been conducted on this assumption.
This research seeks to answer the issue of whether the outdoor education program and the sequence of activities
www.ccsenet.org/ass Asian Social Science Vol. 10, No. 5; 2014
73
in an outdoor education program promotes social skills of its partipants. If it does, this research also seeks to
answer whether the changes remains for certain a period of time.
2. Methodology
This descriptive study using a quasi-experimental design to answer the research question of the effects outdoor
education has on social skills. Data for this study was collected through a questionnaire. In this study, the change in
social skills is the dependent variable and the sequence of activity is the independent variables. The study sample
consisted of 671 adolescents. Sampling method used was cluster sampling where the researcher has identified a
target group to be studied. The samples have been exposed to the outdoor education program through the different
modules to see the effectiveness of programs. The difference between these modules is the sequence in terms of
activities conducted for the program.
3. Results
The sample consists of 671 adolescents in Malaysia which is divided into four treatment groups and one control
group. Summary of demographic factors in this study are shown in Table 1. A total of 590 participants (87.9%)
received exposure to outdoor education programs and is in the experimental group. While 81 participants (12.1%)
who did not receive exposure to outdoor education program is the control group. Experimental subjects were
divided into 4 groups randomly. They received treatment in the form of different sequence of outdoor education
activities. Group 1 were exposed to low risk outdoor education activities with a sample of 175 (29.7%). Group 2
were exposed to low- to high risk outdoor education activities totals to 148 participants (25.0%). Group 3 were
exposed to a mixture of outdoor education activities which do not have an orderly arrangement total to 135
participants (22.9%), and Group 4 were exposed to outdoor education activities ranging from high-risk and
followed by low risk activities with a total of 132 participants (22.4%).
Table 1. Demography of respondents
Demographical Factors N %
Exposure Experimental 590 87.9
Control 81 12.1
Types of Activities All low risk activities 175 26.1
Low- to high-risk activities 148 22.1
Mixed risks activities 135 20.1
High- to low-risk activities 132 19.7
No activities 81 12.1
The t test analysis was conducted to see the comparison between the control and treatment groups. Table 2 shows
the results of analysis where there is a significant difference,[t (669) = 72.84, p <0.05], between the treatment
groups and the control group. This show that there is a change in the social skills constructs studied after
participants were exposed to the outdoor education program. This means that outdoor education programs have a
significant impact on individual social skills.
Table 2. Comparison between treatment and control group
Group n Pre-test Post-test df t
Treatment
Control
590
81
121.40
(19.53)
129.64
(8.77)
280.65
(22.91)
122.38
(9.58)
669
72.84*
p < 0.05
Since there is a significant effect on the individual's social skills after experiencing the outdoor education
program, researchers did further analysis to see which constructs of the social skills that change and the
www.ccsenet.org/ass Asian Social Science Vol. 10, No. 5; 2014
74
contribution of the constructs on the change in social skills. Table 3 shows the t-test analysis for each component
in social skills constructs studied.
Table 3. T-test analysis for the changes in constructs as a result of exposure to outdoor activities program
Constructs Group Pre-test Post-test df t Cohen’s d
Cooperative teamwork Treatment
Control
10.38
(5.23)
12.01
(3.04)
20.42
(2.36)
10.52
(1.96)
669
24.71*
0.34
Leadership ability Treatment
Control
6.93
(2.37)
7.80
(1.58)
19.24
(7.33)
7.33
(1.69)
669
42.79*
0.60
Coping with changes Treatment
Control
7.08
(2.28)
7.35
(1.61)
19.56
(2.26)
7.30
(1.84)
669
43.67*
0.61
* p<0.05
The t test conducted between the experimental group and the control group showed a significant effect on all
components of social skills constructs studied. The results showed a significant difference for cooperative
teamwork [t (669) = 24.71, p <0.05], leadership ability [t (669) = 42.79, p <0.05] , as well as the ability to cope
with changes [t (669) = 43.67, p <0.05].
Current research developments also discussed the influence of the effect sizes which indicates the contribution of
variables to changes in the study. Given the changes in individual social skills as a result of exposure to outdoor
education programs , researchers analyses the effect size to see how outdoor education contributed to the
changes. Cohen 's d analysis specifies that a value of 0 indicates that there is no difference in the mean , while
the value of 0.1 - 0.2 is considered to be small, the value of 0.3 - 0.5 is considered as moderate and above the
value of 0.6 indicates a large effect size. Referring to Table 3, the outdoor education program contributes
moderately (34 %) to cooperative teamwork. While exposure to outdoor education programs contribute
significantly to leadership ability (60 %), and ability to cope with changes (61 %).
The next inferential analysis was conducted to see whether the sequence of activities in outdoor education
program modules may affect the individual's social skills . To test this hypothesis, researchers uses mean gain
score and analysed it using MANOVA. For this analysis , the four variables are the outdoor education program
modules. Refer to Table 1 for a description of the sequence of activities forthe outdoor education program.
MANOVA tests were performed to assess the relationship between changes in social skills according to
constructs studied. If the MANOVA test and Levene homogeneity test found a significant difference between the
treatment groups studied, the researchers perform the Bonferroni post hoc test. Researchers also interpret the
contribution of outdoor education program modules based on the sequence of activities for variance in attitudes
using eta square (ή²). An ή² value of 0.01 indicates a small effect size or a small contribution, an ή² value of 0.06
shows a moderate effect size or contribution and an ή² value of 0.14 shows a large effect size or contribution.
Table 4 shows the results of MANOVA analyses. Wilks' Lambda shows the sequence of outdoor education
activities has a significant effect [F (4,666) = 363.57, p <0.05] in changes to the social skills of participants. ή²
value for Wilks Lambda was 0.69 shows the sequence of outdoor education activities contribute significantly to
the changes.
www.ccsenet.org/ass Asian Social Science Vol. 10, No. 5; 2014
75
Table 4. MANOVA for the effects of the outdoor education modules on cahnges in social skills
Group n Pre-test Post-test Mean gain F df ή2 Levene
1 175 126.79
(18.50)
283.43
(22.43)
156.63
(22.17)
1340.25* 4,
666
0.89 5.93*
2 148 120.24
(18.75)
278.14
(22.90)
157.90
(17.63)
3 135 121.35
(18.58)
282.21
(24.48)
160.87
(21.85)
4 132 115.62
(20.93)
278.20
(21.55)
162.58
(16.76)
5 81 129.64
(8.77)
122.38
(9.58)
-7.26
(13.10)
Wilks’ Λ= 363.57, p<0.05, ή2=0.69
Since the analysis conducted showed a significant effect, researchers have extended the analysis to see which
modules has the most effect on the changes in social skills. Table 5 shows the Bonferroni post hoc analysis
conducted. Bonferroni post hoc analysis found that the overall attitude change is significant for participants who
pursue outdoor education modules compared to students who do not participate in outdoor education programs.
Table 5. Bonferroni post hoc analysis for the effect of the modules on changes in social skills
Module 1 2 3 4 5
1 - NS NS NS 163.89*
2 - NS NS 165.17*
3 - NS 168.13*
4 - 169.84*
5 -
Researchers also conducted MANOVA analysis for each construct to see its effect on the changes in social skills.
Table 6 shows the MANOVA analysis for each constructs studied.
www.ccsenet.org/ass Asian Social Science Vol. 10, No. 5; 2014
76
Table 6. MANOVA to see effect of construct based on sequence of activities on changes in social skills
Construct Module Pre-test Post-test Mean gain
score
df F ή2 Levene’s
test
Cooperative teamwork 1
2
3
4
5
15.39
(6.56)
8.07
(2.53)
8.76
(2.23)
7.95
(2.30)
12.01
(3.04)
20.50
(2.39)
19.96
(2.48)
20.81
(2.17)
20.41
(2.30)
10.52
(1.96)
5.12
(6.90)
11.88
(2.51)
12.05
(2.38)
12.45
(1.87)
-1.49
(3.72)
4
666
224.46* 0.57 32.45*
Leadership ability
1
2
3
4
5
7.07
(2.21)
7.28
(2.46)
6.85
(2.31)
6.42
(2.46)
7.80
(1.58)
19.43
(2.22)
19.16
(2.56)
19.47
(2.44)
18.86
(2.22)
7.33
(1.68)
12.35
(2.81)
11.88
(2.75)
12.61
(2.79)
12.45
(2.68)
-0.47
(2.49)
4
666
391.68* 0.70 0.08
Ability to cope with
changes
1
2
3
4
5
7.05
(2.21)
7.45
(2.37)
7.01
(2.14)
6.78
(2.38)
7.35
(1.61)
19.86
(2.21)
19.38
(2.28)
19.54
(2.37)
19.39
(2.16)
7.29
(1.84)
12.82
(2.70)
11.93
(2.46)
12.53
(2.57)
12.61
(2.39)
-0.05
(2.40)
4
666
440.84* 0.73 0.96
Wilks’ Λ= 30.78, ή2=0.57, p<0.05
Data analysis showed a significant effect for the sequence of activities in outdoor education program for all
constructs studied. Analysis found that the sequence of activities that has a significantly affect are cooperative
teamwork [F (4,666) = 224.46, p <0.05; ή2 = 57%], leadership ability [F (4, 666) = 391.68, p <0.05; ή2 = 70%],
and the ability to cope with changes [F (4, 666) = 440.84, p <0.05; ή2 = 73%].
Further inferential analysis is performed to answer the question of whether changes in social skills as a result of
exposure to outdoor education program remains in the individual. MANOVA analysis results performed are
shown in Table 7. Analysis showed that there was retention of a significant change in social skills for all
constructs. The constructs that showed a retention of 98% is cooperative teamwork [F (1, 123) = 5963.49, p
<0.05], while constructs that showed retention of 97% change in the attitude is leadership ability [F (1, 123) =
3622.77, p <0.05], and the ability to cope changes [F (1, 123) = 3787.39, p <0.05].
www.ccsenet.org/ass Asian Social Science Vol. 10, No. 5; 2014
77
Table 7. Retention of changes
Construct Post test Post-post test df F ή2
Cooperative teamwork 6.90
(0.79)
6.51
(0.94)
1, 123 5963.49* 0.98
Leadership ability 6.41
(0.79)
5.65
(1.04)
1, 123 3622.77* .097
Ability to cope with changes 6.55
(0.83)
5.79
(1.05)
1, 123 3787.39* 0.97
4. Conclusion
The findings of this study indicate that exposure to outdoor education activities have a significant impact on
subjects’ social skills. This is in line with research done by Stenger (2001 ) which found that there was a
significant change in personality after participants underwent an outdoor education program. This finding is also
strengthened with Cohen 's d analysis showing that all the constructs studied contributed to changes in social
skills. Constructs that contribute significantly to change is leadership ability, and ability to cope with change.
This finding supports the findings of previous studies by Hattie , et al (1997) which states that outdoor education
programs have a positive impact on the aspects of leadership, academic, personality and interpersonal
relationships. They also found that these changes are more permanent than other methods of education.
Summary of findings for the effect of the outdoor education programs modules to changes social skills
participants found that the sequence of activities in the modules have a significant impact on cooperative
teamwork. This strengthened the opinion of Schoel et al (1988) and Rohnke (1989) which states that in outdoor
education, the organization of activities for the outdoor education program modules should be designed to take
into account the needs and desires of the participants. Generally there is no right or wrong order and each group
of participants requires a series of special order based on the goals and the ability of the participants
The study by Kimball and Bacon (1993), stated that the challenges inherent in the activities have a strong
influence towards the setting and achievement of goals. He proposed outdoor education must be challenged so
that participants is always in a state of readiness in the face of any imminent risk. The level of difficulty of the
activities are to be upgraded over time. Bisson (1998), supports the opinion and states that the increase in the
level of challenge or obstacle in an activity has a close relationship with the effectiveness of the programs.
In connection with this study, several conclusions can be made. The first is that participation in outdoor
education programs provide benefits in terms of changes in student social skills . This study also showed that
there are positive changes in all constructs studied. This finding is consistent with the findings of studies
conducted by other researchers such as Neill (2003). Summary findings coincide with the findings made by
Bisson (1997) and Priest (2004) which showed that training a group with low risk activities should be done
before a more challenging and risky activity as abseiling and kayaking.
References
Andersen, L. (1995). Creating positive change through an integrated outdoor adventure program.
Therapeutic-Recreation-Journal, 31(4), 214-229.
Arasoo,V. T. (1989). Asas Pendidikan Jasmani (4th ed.). Petaling Jaya: Fajar Bakti.
Bisson, C. (1997). The effects of varying the sequence of categories of adventure activities on the development of
group cohesion. Disertasi PhD. University of Northern Colorado.
Bisson, C. (1998). The effect of sequencing activities on development of group cohesion. Association for
Experiential educations international Conference, Lake Tahoe, NV.
Boss, J. A. (1999). Outdoor education and the development of civic responsibility. Charleston, WV: ERIC
Clearinghouse ED425051.
Burnard, P. (1991). Experiential learning in action. Aldershot, Hants., UK: Gower.
Davidson, L. (2001). Qualitative research and making meaning from adventure: A case study of boys’
experiences of outdoor education at school. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 1(2),
11-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14729670185200041
www.ccsenet.org/ass Asian Social Science Vol. 10, No. 5; 2014
78
Dewey, J. (1983). Report and recommendations upon Turkish education. In J. A. Boydston (Ed.), The Middle
Works: Essays on Politics and Society, 1923-1924. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Press.
Gass, M. (Ed.). (1993). Adventure therapy: Therapeutic application of adventure programming. Dubuque, IA.:
Kendall Hunt.
Gass, M. A. (1995). Adventure family therapy: An innovative approach answering the question of lasting change
with adjudicated youth. Monograph on Youth in the 1990s. Jld. 4 ms103-117.
Gray, T. L., & Perusco, D. (1993). Footprints in the sand: The value of outdoor education in the school
curriculum. The ACHPER National Journal, Autumn, 17-20.
Hattie, J. A. (1997). Meta-analysis of outdoor education programs. Perth: University of Western Australia.
Hattie, J. A., Marsh, H. W., Neil, J. T., & Richard, G. E. (1997). Adventure Education and Outward Bound:
Out-of-class experience that has a lasting effect. Review of Educational Research, 67, 43-87.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001043
Hopkins, D., & Putnam, R. (1993). Personal growth through adventure. London, England: David Fulton
Publishers.
Kimball, R. O., & Bacon, S. B. (1993). The wilderness challenge model. In M. A. Gass (Ed.), Adventure therapy:
Therapeutic applications of adventure programming. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
King, K. (1988). The role of adventure in the experiential learning process. Journal of Experiential Education,
11(2), 4-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/105382598801100201
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of development. New Jersey, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Kraft, R. & Sakofs, M. (Eds.). 1991. The theory of experiential education. Boulder, CO: Association of
Experiential Education.
Lugg, A. (1999). Directions in outdoor education curriculum. Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 4(1),
25-32.
Marsh, H. W., & Richards, G. E. (1988). The Outward Bound Bridging Course for low achieving males: Effects
on academic achievement and multidimensional self-concepts. Australian Journal of Psychology, 40,
281-298. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00049538808260049
McRae, K. (Ed.). (1990). Outdoor and environmental education: Diverse purposes and practices. Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia: Macmillan.
Neill, J. (2003). Reviewing & benchmarking adventure therapy outcomes: Applications of meta-analysis.
Retrieved from http://www.wilderdom.com/adventuretherapy
Priest, S. (2004). Definition of terms. Retrieved March 17, 2007, from http://www.tarrak.com/EXP/exp.htm
Rogers, C. R. (1985). Towards a more human science of the person. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 25, 7-24.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022167885254002
Rohnke, K. (1989). Cowstail and cobras II. A guide to games, initiative problems, ropes courses & adventure
curriculum. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
Schoel, J., Prouty, D., & Radcliffe, P. (1988). Islands of healing: A guide to adventure based counseling.
Hamilton, MA.: Project Adventure, Inc.
Stenger, T. L. (2001). Sequence of adventure-based resident outdoor education programs and middle school
students’ perceptions of life effectiveness. Disertasi PhD. Oklahoma State University.
Wagner, R. J., & Roland, C. C. (1992). Facilitators: One key factor in implementing successful experience-based
training and development programs. kertas pembentangan di Coalition for Education in the Outdoors
Research Symposium. Bradford Woods, IN.
Copyrights
Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
