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Abstract
Body image development begins during the preschool years and perhaps even during infancy. Preschool girls (4- to 6-year-old) already demonstrate anti-fat bias, social comparison, and, perhaps, body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction and dieting are clearly evident among elementary school-age girls (6- to 12-year-old). Sociocultural, psychological, and biological variables have all been implicated as risk factors for body dissatisfaction. Girls who exhibit body dissatisfaction may also have lower self-esteem and engage in more dieting. Research needs are discussed as is the importance of universal prevention of body dissatisfaction.
... Además de la percepción del tamaño corporal, también se ha evaluado el cuerpo deseado y la insatisfacción corporal, comprobándose que desde edades tempranas algunos niños y niñas presentan descontento hacia su cuerpo, especialmente el sexo femenino, quienes suelen desear cuerpos más delgados conforme avanza la edad (Ambrosi-Randic y Tokuda, 2004; Damiano et al., 2015;Hayes y Tantleff-Dunn, 2010;Pallan et al., 2011;Ra et al., 2016;Tremblay et al., 2011). Estos niveles de descontento podrían deberse a que los niños y niñas de entre 3 y 6 años ya realizan algunas comparaciones sociales, aunque todavía rudimentarias, y han adoptado algunos ideales de belleza (Smolak, 2012). Por ello, se ha recurrido a los programas de intervención para mejorar o evitar posibles insatisfacciones con el cuerpo (León et al., 2018). ...
... Según señala Gardner (2012), los datos obtenidos en las investigaciones han sido sobre todo cuantitativos a través del uso de escalas visuales compuestas de 5, 7 ó 9 figuras corporales ordenadas de menor a mayor peso. Sin embargo, estos datos no permiten conocer los motivos que llevan a los niños y niñas a seleccionar una figura corporal como percibida o deseada, por lo que se recomienda la incorporación de datos cualitativos (Paxton y Damiano, 2017;Smolak, 2012). ...
... En oposición a lo esperado en la segunda hipótesis y a lo obtenido en estudios previos (Ambrosi-Randic y Tokuda, 2004;Birbeck y Drummond, 2005;Damiano et al., 2015;Hayes y Tantleff-Dunn, 2010;Tremblay et al., 2011), se comprobó que eran las niñas quienes deseaban figuras más grandes que las suyas, lo cual podría sugerir que en edades tan tempranas aún no están totalmente comprometidas con el ideal delgado de belleza femenino y que el deseo de figuras más grandes podría ser un reflejo de su deseo por crecer (Smolak, 2012). ...
La imagen corporal es un constructo de relevancia social dada su repercusión en la salud física y mental. La investigación de este constructo en edades tempranas ha recibido escasa atención a pesar de que algunos autores han demostrado que existe preocupación hacia el cuerpo en edad preescolar. Este estudio de diseño mixto tuvo como objetivo medir la percepción del tamaño corporal, el cuerpo deseado y la insatisfacción corporal en niños de edad temprana. Para ello, se utilizó la Escala Corporal para Preescolares, compuesta de cuatro figuras de niños con diferentes estados de peso, la cual fue administrada a 176 participantes de 4 y 5 años, de los cuales 96 fueron chicos y 80 fueron chicas. Los resultados mostraron que la percepción del tamaño corporal fue inexacta en ambos sexos y edades, tendiendo hacia una mayor sobreestimación en las niñas. También se observó que la mayoría de los participantes eligieron una figura deseada diferente a la percibida, especialmente el sexo femenino. Sin embargo, este hallazgo no necesariamente reflejaría la existencia de insatisfacción corporal, como sugieren los datos cualitativos. Las respuestas de los participantes parecen reflejar una ligera conciencia corporal. Se necesitan futuros estudios que ahonden más en el desarrollo de la imagen corporal en edades tempranas.
... Además de la percepción del tamaño corporal, también se ha evaluado el cuerpo deseado y la insatisfacción corporal, comprobándose que desde edades tempranas algunos niños y niñas presentan descontento hacia su cuerpo, especialmente el sexo femenino, quienes suelen desear cuerpos más delgados conforme avanza la edad (Ambrosi-Randic y Tokuda, 2004; Damiano et al., 2015;Hayes y Tantleff-Dunn, 2010;Pallan et al., 2011;Ra et al., 2016;Tremblay et al., 2011). Estos niveles de descontento podrían deberse a que los niños y niñas de entre 3 y 6 años ya realizan algunas comparaciones sociales, aunque todavía rudimentarias, y han adoptado algunos ideales de belleza (Smolak, 2012). Por ello, se ha recurrido a los programas de intervención para mejorar o evitar posibles insatisfacciones con el cuerpo (León et al., 2018). ...
... Según señala Gardner (2012), los datos obtenidos en las investigaciones han sido sobre todo cuantitativos a través del uso de escalas visuales compuestas de 5, 7 ó 9 figuras corporales ordenadas de menor a mayor peso. Sin embargo, estos datos no permiten conocer los motivos que llevan a los niños y niñas a seleccionar una figura corporal como percibida o deseada, por lo que se recomienda la incorporación de datos cualitativos (Paxton y Damiano, 2017;Smolak, 2012). ...
... En oposición a lo esperado en la segunda hipótesis y a lo obtenido en estudios previos (Ambrosi-Randic y Tokuda, 2004;Birbeck y Drummond, 2005;Damiano et al., 2015;Hayes y Tantleff-Dunn, 2010;Tremblay et al., 2011), se comprobó que eran las niñas quienes deseaban figuras más grandes que las suyas, lo cual podría sugerir que en edades tan tempranas aún no están totalmente comprometidas con el ideal delgado de belleza femenino y que el deseo de figuras más grandes podría ser un reflejo de su deseo por crecer (Smolak, 2012). ...
La imagen corporal es un constructo de relevancia social dada su repercusión en la salud física y mental. La investigación de este constructo en edades tempranas ha recibido escasa atención a pesar de que algunos autores han demostrado que existe preocupación hacia el cuerpo en edad preescolar. Este estudio de diseño mixto tuvo como objetivo medir la percepción del tamaño corporal, el cuerpo deseado y la insatisfacción corporal en niños de edad temprana. Para ello, se utilizó la Escala Corporal para Preescolares, compuesta de cuatro figuras de niños con diferentes estados de peso, la cual fue administrada a 176 participantes de 4 y 5 años, de los cuales 96 fueron chicos y 80 fueron chicas. Los resultados mostraron que la percepción del tamaño corporal fue inexacta en ambos sexos y edades, tendiendo hacia una mayor sobreestimación en las niñas. También se observó que la mayoría de los participantes eligieron una figura deseada diferente a la percibida, especialmente el sexo femenino. Sin embargo, este hallazgo no necesariamente reflejaría la existencia de insatisfacción corporal, como sugieren los datos cualitativos. Las respuestas de los participantes parecen reflejar una ligera conciencia corporal. Se necesitan futuros estudios que ahonden más en el desarrollo de la imagen corporal en edades tempranas.
... The cognitive-affective component of body image has also been measured among children. Literature illustrates that weight concerns and body dissatisfaction can emerge at very early ages [14]. However, the age at which such dissatisfaction becomes a cause of concern for the future development of physical and mental health problems remains unclear [15]. ...
... Some authors suggest that discontent may occur because preschoolers have already formed attitudes about the body and show discrimination towards obese bodies [3,19]. Alternatively, body dissatisfaction could be explained by the engagement in social comparison and the adoption of societal standards of appearance at a very early age [14]. In Western society, these standards of beauty are based on muscular and lean bodies for males and thin bodies for females [14]. ...
... Alternatively, body dissatisfaction could be explained by the engagement in social comparison and the adoption of societal standards of appearance at a very early age [14]. In Western society, these standards of beauty are based on muscular and lean bodies for males and thin bodies for females [14]. ...
Research into children's body perceptions and ideals is scarce despite evidence of body dissatisfaction in childhood. This study aimed to understand preschoolers' body image by employing a mixed design. Using a novel figural scale (Preschoolers' Body Scale) that comprises four child figures ranging in BMI, 395 children ages 4-6 (54% boys) selected their perceived and ideal body and explained why they picked these bodies. Children tended to underestimate their body size and many of them desired slimmer bodies, especially girls and older participants, although body-size perception improved with age. Most children showed body satisfaction, especially boys and younger children. Ideal body choices were not always explained by beauty ideals but by physical abilities, desire to grow up, mothers' comments, and nutrition. Many responses reflected limited body awareness, suggesting body image may not yet be fully formed in preschoolers due to their incipient cognitive development.
... Current research suggests that BI dissatisfaction and weight preoccupation are becoming more prevalent among children (aged 6-11 years) and adolescents (12-17 years). [2][3][4][5][6][7] Today's youth are bombarded with images that idealize ultrathin, ectomorphic models that are often incongruent with growing adolescent bodies. 8,9 Poor BI also appears to be more common in adolescent girls than boys. ...
... [8][9][21][22][23][24][25][26] The influence of these determinants on healthy development varies depending on characteristics such as gender, self-perceptions, and personality. 3 Overweight children have reported more body dissatisfaction than their normal weight peers, possibly due to these children being aware of the negative stereotypes portrayed by the media and societal attitudes and internalizing these messages. 8,11,13 Parental criticism about a child's weight appears to be related to the child's body dissatisfaction, 5 and in addition to direct comments, parental modeling of weight concerns, especially of the mother, may contribute to body esteem problems in children. ...
... Parental comments about weight and body size are one of the most consistent factors that contribute to a child's self-image. 3,[5][6][7] Suggested programs that foster family relationships not focused on weight and appearance are presented in Table 6 (community factors of the ecological model). ...
BACKGROUND:
Personal habits of children and adolescents related to healthy body image (BI) are influenced by various determinants in the micro- and macroenvironment. These include attitudes and behaviors about eating; exercise and physical appearance modeled by parents, teachers, and peers; as well as opportunities to learn new habits and social praise for healthy choices. The coordinated school health program (CSHP) is compatible with the 5 levels of an ecological approach to developing new health behaviors.
METHODS:
Authors systematically applied the ecological model to all 8 components of coordinated school health. Next, strategies for each of the components were developed using the professional literature as well as author expertise in the areas of health education, exercise science, and dietetics.
RESULTS:
For each strategy, applicable health and physical education standards, as well as goals for each strategy and additional Web resources, were provided to assist educators and administrators in supporting healthy BI among students.
CONCLUSIONS:
Educators may effectively use a coordinated approach to guide multiple intervention activities aimed at increasing healthy habits among adolescents and their families. The strength of the CSHP is its collaborative nature with active participation by students, faculty members, family caregivers, agency professionals, community residents, and health care providers.
... The significant relationship between body esteem and more global evaluations of self-worth has been established by research on individuals of all ages (Harter, 2012;Smolak, 2002). In her assessments of the relationships amongst various domains of selfesteem in children and adolescents, Susan Harter (2000) found that "at every developmental level, the evaluation of one's looks takes precedence over other domains as the Number 1 predictor of self-esteem" (p. ...
... 134). Children as young as five and six years old have been identified as having some level of body dissatisfaction, a notion of a slender body ideal that exists, and an awareness of the concept of dieting (Davison, Markey, & Birch, 2003;Lowes & Tiggeman, 2003;Smolak, 2002). Body image disturbance at young ages can predict the later development of eating disorders, and is a risk factor for low self-esteem and poor psychosocial functioning (Harter, 2012). ...
... - Susan Harter, 2012, p. 166 The societal pressures on women to achieve a specific ideal body type are so pervasive that children begin to hear, internalize, and express such messages at young ages, beginning at around age five or six (Davison et al., 2003;Dohnt & Tiggeman, 2005, 2006a, 2006bSmolak, 2002Smolak, , 2011Tremblay et al., 2011). Sociocultural influences -namely the media, certain types of toys, parents, and peers -have been identified as having a powerful impact on the child's internalization of cultural beauty ideals (Tiggeman, 2011). ...
This paper outlines the research that has been conducted on the development of body image in young children, particularly in girls. Beginning with a detailed understanding of the developmental progression of body image, and its relationship to self-concept in early life, this review continues to explore the various theoretical perspectives on how body image and body esteem develop at young ages. The research from attachment theory and other psychoanalytic theories, social learning theory, and sociocultural perspectives are reviewed in detail. The review of this literature explains the multiple influential factors on body image and body satisfaction throughout the lifespan. This paper also highlights the need for more empirical research regarding the influence of early parent-child relationships on the full spectrum of body image dissatisfaction, which has become so prevalent amongst women and girls in Western society.
... Also, they believe that obese children are less liked by others including their parents. [9,10] In another study, approximately 40% of children aged between 7 and 10 years believe being thin is important for both genders. [11] The preference for thinness is an important variable in the development of self-esteem and body satisfaction. ...
... Several studies argue that the foundation of one's body image and the ideal body is developed during childhood. [9] This body concern, at this age, could be due to increasing awareness about body, weight status, and desire for attractiveness. [9] These factors, in addition to external pressure from family, peer groups, or the media could induce BD. [21] The ideal female body is thin, while the ideal male body is muscular. ...
... [9] This body concern, at this age, could be due to increasing awareness about body, weight status, and desire for attractiveness. [9] These factors, in addition to external pressure from family, peer groups, or the media could induce BD. [21] The ideal female body is thin, while the ideal male body is muscular. The rate of childhood BD varies according to different studies. ...
There is increasing evidence that children are showing body image issues in recent years. Body image disturbances in childhood must be taken seriously. The thin ideal is becoming more prominent in Asian countries; however, there is little research examining how this issue affects Iranian children. This study explores body weight concerns and associated factors among children in Iranian elementary schools.
This study was conducted in 500 elementary schools. An assessment of body image and antifat attitudes was undertaken using the figure rating scale. In addition, body mass index (BMI) and demographic variables were assessed.
Nearly, 27.4% of children were underweight, and 13.3% were obese. There was a significant difference between the mean score of body dissatisfaction (BD) between boys and girls (P < 0.05). There were no differences between BD and education of parents, age, and academic grades. In girls, antifat attitudes were significantly related to BMI.
The results of this study demonstrate the paramount importance of undertaking further research in order to identify the predictive factors of body concerns and its consequences among Iranian children. In addition, researchers must plan prevention and educational program for these children.
... Consistent with body image research in other cultures, there is a significant strong relationship between self-esteem and body image among Turkish adolescents (Dorak, 2011). Smolak (2012) stated that girls' and boys' body-related concerns are similar to adults' concerns by the age of eight and body dissatisfaction might occur at very early ages of girls and boys (Grogan, 2016;León et al., 2021). ...
... As a learned behaviour, body image emerges in infancy, and as children grow and socialize, they begin to compare themselves with other children, especially in terms of appearance (Cash, 2012). Body shape is increasingly taken into account by the age of 6, and it has been found that 40%-50% of children between the ages of 6-12 showed dissatisfaction with their body shape and size (Smolak, 2012). Also, negative body image was found to be a prospective predictor of chronic eating problems in adolescence and young adulthood in the same study. ...
In recent years, appearance, and body image in particular, has become a very important concern not only for adults but also for children. Children's self‐evaluation of their bodies is critical in the occurrence of eating disorders. This study aims to conduct (1) a validity and reliability analysis of the Children's Body Image Scale ( CBIS ) adapted to the Turkish culture and (2) the relationship between body satisfaction, self‐worth and physical appearance. The psychometric properties of the CBIS were examined on a sample of 473 (211 girls and 262 boys) children aged 8–11 (mean 9.38). The data obtained from boys and girls were divided into two groups according to grade and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The reliability level of the scale was at an acceptable level, and a statistically significant relationship was found between the scale's Body Mass Index and the dimensions of Self‐Perception Profile. The results revealed that there is a significant relationship between body satisfaction and general self‐worth and physical appearance. In addition, the scores obtained on the CBIS after a 3‐week period showed significant internal consistency and test–retest reliability. The analyses revealed that the CBIS is a valid and reliable measurement tool for Turkish children. The results of the study can be a useful tool for education and health professionals that they need screening tools to help them detect body dissatisfaction. The study also showed some correlates of high body dissatisfaction in children that can be used before the rise in eating disorders in adolescence.
... Buna göre, kadınların erkeklere göre daha olumsuz bir beden imgesine sahip olduğu görülmektedir. Alanyazında ulaşılan çalışmaların neredeyse hepsi bu sonuç ile paralellik göstermektedir (Abbott ve Barber, 2010;Aktaran, 2018;Cohane ve Pope, 2001;Kalafat, 2006;Smolak, 2002). Kadınların erkeklerle kıyaslandığında bedenine yönelik daha olumsuz tutum benimsemesi, erkeklerin yalnızca nesnel olarak fazla kilolu olduklarında bedenlerine yönelik bir kaygı yaşarken, kadınların gerçek kilolarına bakmaksızın bedenlerine yönelik kaygı duymaları ile açıklanabilir (Field vd., 2001). ...
... Ancak mevcut çalışmada, aşırı koruyucu ebeveyn tutumları ile beden imgesi arasında anlamlı bir ilişki bulunamaması, bu kontrol ve denetleyiciliğin hakim olduğu tutumların, doğrudan çocuklarının bedenlerine yönelik bir tutumu içermemesi olabilir. Diğer bir deyişle, ebeveynlerin çocuklarına yönelik olarak; beden şekil ve ağırlıklarını kontrol etme (Helfert ve Warschburger, 2013), nasıl giysiler giyeceği ve nasıl görüneceği konusunda karar verme (Smolak, 2002) ve ideal bir görünüm için baskı uygulama (Jones, 2011) gibi kontrolcü ve denetleyici tutumlara sahip olabildiği görülmektedir. Genel bir aşırı koruyucu ebeveyn tutumundan ziyade, bu çalışmalarda olduğu gibi doğrudan bedene ilişkin koruyucu tutumların, beden imgesi ile ilişkili olma ihtimali daha yüksek olabilir. ...
Bu araştırma, üniversite öğrencilerinde beden imgesini; işlevsel olmayan tutumlar, algılanan ebeveyn tutumları, sosyal karşılaştırma yönelimi ve cinsiyetin nasıl yordadığını ortaya koymayı amaçlayan ilişkisel tarama türünde nicel bir araştırmadır. Araştırmanın çalışma grubu, bir devlet üniversitesinde 2018-2019 güz döneminde örgün öğrenim gören 442 (%63.3) kadın ve 256 (36.7) erkek olmak üzere toplam 698 üniversite öğrencisinden oluşmaktadır. Çalışmada veri toplama araçları olarak Çok Yönlü Beden-Self İlişkileri Ölçeği, Fonksiyonel Olmayan Tutumlar Ölçeği, Kısaltılmış Algılanan Ebeveyn Tutumları Ölçeği, Iowa-Netherlands Sosyal Karşılaştırma Yönelimi Ölçeği ve Kişisel Bilgi Formu kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde betimsel istatistikler, Pearson Korelasyon Analizi ve Aşamalı (Adımsal) Regresyon Analizi kullanılmış ve önem düzeyi p<0.05 olarak kabul edilmiştir. Ayrıca çalışmada, cinsiyet değişkeni dummy değişken (kadın=1) olarak kodlanmış ve bağımsız değişken olarak analizlere dahil edilmiştir. Araştırmada, anne duygusal sıcaklık tutumu, sosyal karşılaştırma yönelimi, cinsiyet (kadın) ve işlevsel olmayan tutum değişkenlerinin, üniversite öğrencilerinde beden imgesinin anlamlı yordayıcıları olduğu bulunmuştur. Bu çerçevede, bireylerin anne duygusal sıcaklık tutumu ve sosyal karşılaştırma yönelimlerinin artması, işlevsel olmayan tutumlarının ise azalması durumunda, beden imgelerinin daha olumlu bir hale geldiği ortaya çıkmıştır. Cinsiyet değişkeni ele alındığında ise kadın öğrencilerin beden imgelerinin, erkek öğrencilere göre anlamlı biçimde daha olumsuz olduğu belirlenmiştir. Bu doğrultuda anne tutumları, işlevsel olmayan tutum, sosyal karşılaştırma ve cinsiyet değişkenlerinin, üniversite öğrencilerinin beden imgesi üzerinde önemli bir rolü olduğu belirtilebilir.
... By contrast, boys' dissatisfaction seems to fall during adolescence; as they gain height and volume, they come closer to the male aesthetic body model. Linda Smolak (2012) notes that differences between males and females with respect to dissatisfaction with one's own body representation and weight concerns are already present in children in elementary education. ...
... Studies have shown that the comments of parents are related to their children's body dissatisfaction (Cash and Pruzinski 2004;Kim 2009). However, there are no clear data about the influence of parental modeling, although it seems that girls are more affected than boys, especially by maternal modeling (Smolak 2012). ...
Virtual Reality is currently used in the assessment and treatment of eating disorders in two different ways. First, VR cue exposure to critical stimuli (e.g., food or human bodies) allows both a reduction in the level of anxiety elicited by them and disruption of the reconsolidation of negative memories. Second, VR is used to facilitate the update of existing body representations. According to a recent theory, eating and weight disorders may be the outcome of a broader impairment in multisensory body integration that locks the individuals to an old memory of the body. In this view, even if the subject is able to lose weight after a diet, the multisensory impairment does not allow her/him to experience the new body and reduce the level of body dissatisfaction. VR allows a wrong representation of the body to be updated through two different strategies. In the first—“reference frame shifting” —the subject re-experiences in VR a negative situation related to the body (e.g., teasing) in both the first and third person (e.g., seeing and supporting her/his avatar in the VR world). In the second—“body swapping”—VR is used to induce the illusory feeling of ownership of a virtual body with a different shape and/or size.
... Primary school age (preadolescent) girls experience a significant drop in self-esteem and self-confidence at around 11 to 12 years of age, compared with boys of same age, and they may also withdraw from some forms of healthy exercise behaviors. 5,8,9,12,13 These changes are important because of their relationship with development of disordered eating, which can be a precursor to eating disorders. [14][15][16][17] Eating disorders are associated with chronic psychosocial impairment and, once established, are notoriously difficult to treat. ...
... It may also be that there is a longer-term effect here that would coincide with the age when body dissatisfaction becomes a bigger problem for girls. Previous research has found that body dissatisfaction begins slightly later than the age at which we observed our participants, around the age of 13 to 14. 5,47 Furthermore, our baseline data indicated that this was not yet a problem for our study participants. Reasons listed by referral person included limited friends, to engage in a group, to create a positive attitude, parent passed away, exposed to stealing and gangs, to increase confidence, to increase sense of belonging. ...
Purpose:
To test the effectiveness of an intervention delivered by health professionals outside the school environment to girls identified with issues such as poor body image, low self-esteem, low self-confidence, nonparticipation in sports, or being overweight or underweight.
Design:
The study's design was a stepped-wedge randomized controlled trial to test the efficacy of an intervention on self-esteem, impairment induced by eating disorders, self-efficacy, body satisfaction, and dieting behaviors.
Setting:
The study took place at the community health center located in a culturally diverse area of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Subjects:
Participants were 122 primary and secondary school girls between 10 and 16 years of age.
Intervention:
Girls on the Go! is a 10-week program designed to improve self-esteem, body image, and confidence, using an empowerment model that involved interactive and experiential learning approaches. Weekly themes included body image and self-esteem, safety and assertiveness, a healthy mind, physical activity, healthy eating, trust and confidence, and connections.
Measures:
Measurements were made using Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, clinical interview assessment, health self-efficacy (included mental health and physical health self-efficacy scales), body esteem scale, and the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire for Children.
Analysis:
A linear mixed model was used.
Results:
The intervention led to a significant increase (p < .05) in self-esteem and self-efficacy (mental and physical health self-efficacy subscales), for both primary and secondary school-aged participants and reduced dieting behaviors (secondary school participants). These gains were retained after 6 months of follow-up.
Conclusion:
This group-based, low-dose intervention, which, although targeting girls with a range of psychological issues and including both overweight and underweight participants, is a successful means of improving self-esteem among girls from diverse cultural backgrounds.
... Nevertheless, 'normative' body dissatisfaction of children and risk factors that lead to psychopathology should be distinguished. For this reason assessment tools with good psychometrics should be used by professionals in the identification process of the above situations, as negative body image of adolescents or adults and its consequences can be traced in childhood (Smolak, 2002). ...
... The results give evidence for the tendency of the researchers who study the physical self to specify to the assessment of the body image. They confirm the references of Smolak (2002) in the importance of body image assessment (especially in children with depression and eating disorders). While the initial intention was to detect questionnaires of physical self, the second aim of the current review was to specify and discuss the measurements for total physical self (n= 4). ...
... Such gender differences are considered to be attributed to the particular emphasis on thinness as an ideal of female beauty in society (Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, & Rodin, 1986). It has been suggested that the ideal body shape for women is thinner than that of men, and that a thinideal is mainly an issue for women (Cusumano & Thompson, 2001;Heinberg, 1996;Smolak, 2004). Empirical studies on adolescents have found gender differences in the magnitude and form of sociocultural pressure to be thinner (Chen, Gao, & Jackson, 2007;Rachael, Sahota, Atwal, & Turner, 2001). ...
... A number of authors argue that the desire for thinness and chronic dieting among women is the result of the thin-ideal for female body shape in Western culture (e.g., Heinberg, 1996;Smolak, 2004). A sociocultural thin-ideal has been reported in Japan as well (Moroi & Kokirima, 2008). ...
A growing number of adolescents in Japan, both boys and girls, express a desire to be thin. Drive for thinness is considered to be a core determinant of negative body image and eating disturbances among adolescents. Although it has been claimed that drive for thinness is the result of internalizing society's thin-ideal, few studies have examined thin-ideal internalization among adolescents in Japan. Under the assumption that mothers bring societal values to their children, this study explored gender differences in how mothers' thin-ideal internalization influences children's thin-ideal internalization. A survey was conducted with 113 public junior high school students (47 boys and 66 girls) and their mothers. Children completed questionnaires assessing the magnitude of interaction with and pressure from mothers concerning body shape, thin-ideal internalization, drive for thinness, and dieting experiences. The questionnaire for mothers measured the magnitude of thin-ideal internalization. Results of path analyses demonstrated significant gender differences in the relationship between mothers' and children's thin-ideal internalization. Among girls, it was found that thin-ideal internalization was determined by mothers' thin-ideal internalization through perceived interaction with and pressure from their mothers concerning body shape. Interestingly, thin-ideal internalization was related to drive for thinness in girls, but not boys. Our findings suggest that mothers facilitate thin-ideal internalization in their children, particularly daughters. Implications for psychoeducational intervention on dieting during adolescence are discussed.
... Researchers suggest that children as young as 6 years old express dissatisfaction with their bodies (Smolak, 2002). In fact, studies have shown that 30% to 65% of girls and 17% to 35% of boys ages 8 to 12 years have been dissatisfied with their bodies (Gustafson-Larson & Terry, 1992;Mellin, Irwin, & Scully, 1992;Wood, Becker, & Thompson, 1996). ...
... Rather, there was a relationship between gender and body-image. This is consistent with previous research (see Smolak, 2002 for a review). In the current sample, women were more dissatisfied with their appearance than men, which is also consistent with norms on this scale. ...
... Various studies suggest that body image, if present, is only rudimentary in children under 4 years (Smolak, 2012;Kerkez et al., 2013). If preschool girls (4-to-6 years old) demonstrate anti-fat bias and social comparison, body dissatisfaction and dieting are clearly evident only among elementary school-age girls (Smolak, 2012). ...
... Various studies suggest that body image, if present, is only rudimentary in children under 4 years (Smolak, 2012;Kerkez et al., 2013). If preschool girls (4-to-6 years old) demonstrate anti-fat bias and social comparison, body dissatisfaction and dieting are clearly evident only among elementary school-age girls (Smolak, 2012). Moreover, its development is strictly related to two different processes: the acquisition of advanced allocentric spatial memory abilities (Ribordy et al., 2013) and the emergence of autobiographical memory (Pathman et al., 2013). ...
Clinical psychology is starting to explain eating disorders (ED) as the outcome of the interaction among cognitive, socio-emotional and interpersonal elements. In particular two influential models-the revised cognitive-interpersonal maintenance model and the transdiagnostic cognitive behavioral theory-identified possible key predisposing and maintaining factors. These models, even if very influential and able to provide clear suggestions for therapy, still are not able to provide answers to several critical questions: why do not all the individuals with obsessive compulsive features, anxious avoidance or with a dysfunctional scheme for self-evaluation develop an ED? What is the role of the body experience in the etiology of these disorders? In this paper we suggest that the path to a meaningful answer requires the integration of these models with the recent outcomes of cognitive neuroscience. First, our bodily representations are not just a way to map an external space but the main tool we use to generate meaning, organize our experience, and shape our social identity. In particular, we will argue that our bodily experience evolves over time by integrating six different representations of the body characterized by specific pathologies-body schema (phantom limb), spatial body (unilateral hemi-neglect), active body (alien hand syndrome), personal body (autoscopic phenomena), objectified body (xenomelia) and body image (body dysmorphia). Second, these representations include either schematic (allocentric) or perceptual (egocentric) contents that interact within the working memory of the individual through the alignment between the retrieved contents from long-term memory and the ongoing egocentric contents from perception. In this view EDs may be the outcome of an impairment in the ability of updating a negative body representation stored in autobiographical memory (allocentric) with real-time sensorimotor and proprioceptive data (egocentric).
... imagem corporal e crianças: insatisfação com a imagem corporal e tipo físico ideal Existem evidências de que a imagem corporal positiva em crianças esteja associada a bons níveis de auto-estima, uma vez que a imagem corporal negativa está atrelada à depressão e às desordens alimentares 61,76,104,107,108,111,112,114,138 . ...
... Vários autores consideram, que alguns fatores contribuem para a ocorrência de problemas de imagem corporal na infância. São eles: o índice de massa corporal (IMC); a índole ou temperamento; as influências socioculturais; os pais; o grupo de relacionamento pessoal; os meios de comunicação e os brinquedos 4,23,47,107,116 . ...
... Parents may choose what clothes they believe to be more flattering for their child's body shape, they may interfere with the amount and types of food their child is allowed to have in an attempt for the child not to gain weight, and they may comment on their child's appearance. While parents of young children are generally pleased with their children's appearance (Smolak, 2002), they may become increasingly likely to criticize their children's appearance as they grow older (Striegel-Moore & Kearny-Cooke, 1994). ...
... Parents may also signal that weight and appearance is important by more indirect behaviors. Parents that voice critical judgments about their own appearance, diet, or exercise solely for appearance-purposes may teach children to focus on and be unhappy with their appearance (Smolak, 2002). In a study of obesity proneness in children, Costanzo and Woody (1985) showed that parents who reported higher levels of weight concerns and dieting had children who reported similar concerns. ...
... Body image is a multifaceted construct related to the feelings and emotions that a person experiences regarding how he/she perceives and feels with and within his/her own body (i.e., physical appearance, shape, and size) and the behaviors associated with such experiences. The development of the body image, which begins at birth, is correlated to the social, cognitive, and personal development of the person [1] and is largely influenced by the environment (e.g., family, peers, etc.) and beauty models proposed by society [2,3], among others. ...
Body dissatisfaction (BD) is an important public health issue as it negatively influences the physical and psychosocial wellbeing of children/early adolescents. Available measures of BD for this population are scarce, have a significant bias, or only evaluate weight-related dissatisfaction. This study, through the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), aims to develop and validate the Italian (Study 1) and Spanish (Study 2) versions of a new tool, the Body Image Bidimensional Assessment (BIBA), which is not subject to sex-age-race biases and is able to identify BD related to weight and height among children/early adolescents. Study 3 regards the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), testing the measurement of invariance across sex and country. The BIBA has a two-factor structure (i.e., weight and height dissatisfaction) according to studies 1 and 2. McDonald's ω ranged from 0.73 (weight) and 0.72 (height) with good reliability. CFA confirmed the two-factor model as a good fit for the Italian and Spanish samples. Finally, partial metric and scalar invariance of the BIBA dimensions across sexes and nations emerged. The BIBA has proven to be an easy-to-use tool that identifies two BD dimensions among children/early adolescents who could benefit from prompt educational interventions.
... However, body image is a multidimensional concept covering both negative and positive body image (Burychka et al., 2021). Positive body image was initially understood as the opposite concept of negative body image (Smolak, 2012;Tylka, 2012). However, a growing body of evidence points out that negative and positive body image are two distinct constructs (Tylka, 2018). ...
Emerging evidence highlights the intricate link between identity and one’s body, however, integrative longitudinal research on this identity-body interplay is lacking. The current study used three-wave longitudinal data (Time 1: N = 403; 52.1% female; Mage = 14.85, SD = 0.89, range = 13–19 years) spanning two years (2019–2021; T1 and T2 being pre-pandemic, T3 peri-pandemic) to identify identity trajectory classes and examine their co-development with negative and positive body image and various body-related variables (i.e., sociocultural pressures, internalization of appearance ideals, self-objectification, appearance comparison, and eating disorder symptoms). First, four identity classes emerged using latent class growth analysis (achievement, moratorium, carefree diffusion, and troubled diffusion). Second, using multigroup latent growth curve modeling, adolescents in less adaptive identity trajectory classes (i.e., engaging less in pro-active processes and more in ruminative processes) displayed higher levels of negative body image and body-related symptoms. The current study testified to the clinically meaningful associations linking identity formation to adolescents’ body image and other body-related symptoms.
... 11 Furthermore, socio-cultural factors that involve peers and media influence such as ethnicity, social status, culture, family, school conditions, norms and peer pressure will also shape the body image. 12 However, the most influential are family, peers and the media. 13 Social learning and first life experiences are very important, such as the role of the family, interactions between peers, the effects of the media and negative experiences such as bullying. ...
The physical appearance of an individual is important for teenagers. An assessment known as “body image,” is a feeling of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the state of the body and its appearance. The study aimed to analyze body image, energy adequacy, physical activity, and nutritional status. A total of 95 students of Sport Science at the State University of Surabaya were examined in this research using observational analytic and a cross sectional study design. Anthropometric measurements include evaluating body weight and height, examining the consumption pattern data using the 2x24 hour recall method and food frequency questionnaire. Furthermore, it analyzes the physical activity using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire method, and determines body image using questionnaires. Energy adequacy is calculated by comparing the average energy consumption with Recommended Dietary Allowances, while the nutritional status is measured using the Body Mass Index. Similarly, the relationships between variables were analyzed using the Spearman Rank Correlation Test. The results showed that there was a significant relationship between energy intake, adequacy, body image, and nutritional status.
... Several theoretical perspectives can help us understand the factors underlying individuals' body image development. The dominant theoretical models (e.g., Smolak, 2012;Thompson, Coovert, & Stormer, 1999), however, tend to focus on the risk factors undermining body image development and do not specifically reflect on those that may promote positive body image (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015b). For years, it was assumed that positive body image was simply the opposite of negative body image, and the factors assumed to promote positive body image were therefore simply seen as the opposites of those undermining body image (Striegel-Moore & Cachelin, 1999). ...
This study examined the developmental journeys of individuals who have overcome negative body image in early adolescence and developed positive body image on their way to emerging adulthood. Interviews were conducted with 15 women and 16 men (aged 26–27) recruited from a large longitudinal sample. Results demonstrated different patterns of positive body image development, but most participants had overcome their negative body image by age 18. Factors contributing to their negative body image in early adolescence included negative peer influence and discontent with life in general. Turning points included finding a new social context, experiencing agency and empowerment, and using cognitive strategies to improve body image. Characteristics of the participants’ current positive body image coincided with established features of positive body image; novel findings were that the women were more likely to think of positive body image as needing constant work to maintain and were also more likely to have a feminist identity, whereas the men were more likely to try to improve their body shape and perceive their body as resembling the ideal. In conclusion, body image interventions need to target not only matters related to physical appearance but also adolescents’ general sense of belonging, agency, and empowerment.
... La mayoría de las investigaciones sobre IC se han realizado en adolescentes y jóvenes, por su vínculo con la anorexia nerviosa y la bulimia nerviosa. Posteriormente se amplió el estudio a infantes, identificándose preocupación por el cuerpo en edades previas a la pubertad (Burgess y Broome, 2012), e incluso en niñas pequeñas de 6 años se reporta una inconformidad que con el paso del tiempo podría volverse insatisfacción corporal (Smolak, 2012). Además, algunas investigaciones han señalado que el malestar corporal en niños con sobrepeso es común, y en algunos casos podría estar asociado a angustia (Cohane y Pope, 2001;Collins, 1991;Lombardo, Battagliese, Pezzuiti y Lucidi, 2014). ...
The objective of this research was to determine the body perception (BP) of preschoolers and compare it with the one reported by their parents. A total of 48 preschoolers participated (Mage = 5 years, SD = 0.5), 21 boys, 27 girls, and their parents (47 fathers and 48 mothers). The children were weighed and measured, also they answered the instrument Seven Figures of Collins (SFC) and seven questions about food, beauty and health. The parents answered the Body Image Questionnaire (BSQ), the Stunkard Figures, as well as the SFCs to identify the real (RF) and ideal figure (IF) of their children. When children described themselves, they mostly referred the normal figure, coinciding with their parents. A very small proportion of preschoolers perceived themselves with obesity (around 29-30%); while any parent identified their children with obesity. The 50% of preschoolers chose thinner silhouettes than their body mass index (BMI), but not emaciated. For RF, most parents chose normal weight for boys and light overweight for girls; for IF parents chose, for both sexes, the one with light overweight. In conclusion, the preschool BP disagreed between reality and perception, regardless of their BMI and gender. The parents also did not have an adequate BP for their children.
... According to gender differences on body ideals, "results reported specific estimates for the number of preadolescent girls who desire a thinner body size to range between 28% and 55%" (Clark & Tiggemann, 2008:76). In developed countries, negative body image has been revealed as an essential contributor to the development of young and adult obesity as well as the appearance of eating disorders (Smolak, 2002). ...
TV advertisements play a key role in the portrayal of
models, values and roles. Children may interiorize and
use them in the construction of their own identities.
Previous studies on body image portrayed by media
focused on the characters’ weight appearance, and
concluded that media strongly emphasize the ‘ideal
slim’. However, no studies have focused on the TV
advertisements consumed by children under 9. The
objective of this research is to describe the portrayal
of the characters represented in the television
commercials most consumed by 5-8 year-old Spanish
children. The body, intellectual and social features of
427 characters from the 133 most consumed
commercials by children is content analyzed. Results
show that these characters tend to be children or
young adults, white skin, brown hair and slender.
These characters tend to be portrayed alone, active
and happy, and dressed casually. The main
characters can only be further characterized by
being shown in body or medium shots with a
prominent use of sound effects. These results confirm
the physical, intellectual and social ideals and add to
the theory in this field.
... From as young as 3 years old, children are able to verbally describe themselves. Over the following years, children begin to compare themselves to others, although this is initially only in relation to one person at a time (Smolak 2012). Also from the age of 3, children in Western cultures start to develop and display stereotypical beliefs that beauty (and thinness) is associated with positive characteristics (Harriger et al. 2010;Spiel et al. 2012). ...
In recent years, elements of the modern environment (such as television, Internet, toys and clothes) have been criticized for having an increasingly sexualized or appearance focus, which has been suggested to be detrimental to girls’ development. The current study examined the impact of an appearance-focused Internet game on young girls’ body image and career cognitions and aspirations. Eighty British girls aged 8–9 years were randomly assigned to play an appearance-focused or a non-appearance focused game for 10 minutes. Girls in the appearance-focused game condition displayed greater body dissatisfaction compared to the control condition. Type of game did not impact girls’ perceived capacity to do various jobs. However, girls who played the appearance-focused game reported a greater preference for feminine careers compared to the control group. This provides preliminary evidence that appearance-focused Internet games may be detrimental to young girls’ body image and aspirations. Internet games should be included in our consideration of influential messages for young girls.
... for evaluation of WC used in the studies, but it is assumed that due to the fact that WC identifies the abdominal concentration of body fat, 39,40 the condition of obesity was more evident in girls, which may have led to overestimation of their body size. According toSmolak,41 socially established body standards can influence how individuals view their bodies and from preschool years onwards, girls especially begin to make social comparisons and to develop the belief that beauty is a positive stereotype and that attractiveness is valued socially, while they also begin to recognize that being overweight is not the starting point for being beautiful. ...
Objectives:
To investigate the prevalence of inaccurate estimation of own body size among Brazilian schoolchildren of both sexes aged 7-10 years, and to test whether overweight/obesity; excess body fat and central obesity are associated with inaccuracy.
Methods:
Accuracy of body size estimation was assessed using the Figure Rating Scale for Brazilian Children. Multinomial logistic regression was used to analyze associations.
Results:
The overall prevalence of inaccurate body size estimation was 76%, with 34% of the children underestimating their body size and 42% overestimating their body size. Obesity measured by body mass index was associated with underestimation of body size in both sexes, while central obesity was only associated with overestimation of body size among girls.
Conclusions:
The results of this study suggest there is a high prevalence of inaccurate body size estimation and that inaccurate estimation is associated with obesity. Accurate estimation of own body size is important among obese schoolchildren because it may be the first step towards adopting healthy lifestyle behaviors.
... These differences between the sexes corroborate those described in other studies with children and preteens [3][4][5]23] and can be understood given the differences already noted in the literature between body dissatisfaction among boys and girls, that boys seem to attach greater importance to musculature, while girls focus more on being thin [28,29]. According to Smolak,[30] these gender differences are associated with socially established gender roles which are developed even before preschool. ...
... Primary school age (preadolescent) girls experience a significant drop in self-esteem and selfconfidence at around 11 to 12 years of age, compared with boys of same age, and they may also withdraw from some forms of healthy exercise behaviors. 5,8,9,12,13 These changes are important because of their relationship with development of disordered eating, which can be a precursor to eating disorders. [14][15][16][17] Eating disorders are associated with chronic psychosocial impairment and, once established, are notoriously difficult to treat. ...
Purpose . To test the effectiveness of an intervention delivered by health professionals outside the school environment to girls identified with issues such as poor body image, low self-esteem, low self-confidence, nonparticipation in sports, or being overweight or underweight. Design . The study's design was a stepped-wedge randomized controlled trial to test the efficacy of an intervention on self-esteem, impairment induced by eating disorders, self-efficacy, body satisfaction, and dieting behaviors. Setting . The study took place at the community health center located in a culturally diverse area of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Subjects . Participants were 122 primary and secondary school girls between 10 and 16 years of age. Intervention . Girls on the Go! is a 10-week program designed to improve self-esteem, body image, and confidence, using an empowerment model that involved interactive and experiential learning approaches. Weekly themes included body image and self-esteem, safety and assertiveness, a healthy mind, physical activity, healthy eating, trust and confidence, and connections. Measures . Measurements were made using Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, clinical interview assessment, health self-efficacy (included mental health and physical health self-efficacy scales), body esteem scale, and the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire for Children. Analysis . A linear mixed model was used. Results . The intervention led to a significant increase (p < .05) in self-esteem and self-efficacy (mental and physical health self-efficacy subscales), for both primary and secondary school-aged participants and reduced dieting behaviors (secondary school participants). These gains were retained after 6 months of follow-up. Conclusion . This group-based, low-dose intervention, which, although targeting girls with a range of psychological issues and including both overweight and underweight participants, is a successful means of improving self-esteem among girls from diverse cultural backgrounds.
... (1 st to 3 rd graders) report wanting to be thinner (Collins, 1991), 81% of 10-year-olds report a fear of being fat (McNutt et. al., 1997), 46% of 9-11 year-olds are going on diets (Gustafson-Larson & Terry, 1992), and children as young as 6 years old express body dissatisfaction and weight concerns (Smolak, 2002). In fact, many authors have used the term "normative discontent" to describe the ubiquitous state of body dissatisfaction being experienced by girls and women in Western societies (Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1985;Striegel-Moore & Franco, 2002). ...
Body dissatisfaction has become commonplace, however, it has been associated with several detrimental outcomes, including eating disorders, depression, and suicidality. Despite having larger Body Mass Indexes, African American women have reported more satisfaction with their bodies than Caucasian American women. Anxious attachment has been found to relate to body dissatisfaction; however, this study was the first to explore whether this relationship differs across ethnic groups. American societal beliefs about attractiveness and ethnic identity were also explored as potential moderators of the relationship between anxious attachment and body dissatisfaction. Purposive sampling was used to identify students from colleges with diverse ethnic representation for recruitment. Participants were 233 Caucasian American and 108 African American women recruited from ethnically diverse colleges in the Northeast and Southeast United States. Hypotheses were tested using hierarchical multiple regression and one-way analysis of covariance. Past findings regarding ethnic differences in body dissatisfaction were replicated as were findings regarding ethnic differences in attachment styles and the relationship between anxious attachment and body dissatisfaction, even after controlling for negative affect. Results of the primary analyses indicated no moderation by ethnicity of the relationship between anxious attachment and body dissatisfaction. Beliefs about attractiveness was found to moderate this relationship for Caucasian American but not African American women, and there was a trend for the moderation of the relationship between anxious attachment and body dissatisfaction by ethnic identity for the African American women in this sample. Implications for prevention and therapeutic interventions are discussed.
هدفت الدراسة الحالية الى معرفة العلاقة بين ممارسة السلوك التنمري واضطراب صورة الجسد وكذلك كشف الفروق بين الذكور والإناث في متغيرات الدراسة. واستخدمت الدراسة المنهج الوصفي المقارن، وقد تكونت عينة الدراسة من (120) طالبًا وطالبة من طلاب المنطقة الغربيةً بمكة المكرمة . وطبق الباحث مقياس "سلوك التنمر" ومقياس "اضطراب صورة الجسد". وأسفرت النتائج عن وجود ارتباط سالب دال إحصائيًا بين أبعاد السلوك التنمري والدرجة الكلية لاضطراب صورة الجسد، كما تبين وجود فروق دالة في متوسطات درجات التنمر بين الذكور والإناث، حيث كان متوسط درجات الذكور على التنمر الجسدي والتنمر الجنسي والتنمر الاجتماعي والدرجة الكلية للتنمر أعلى مقارنة بالإناث بينما ارتفعت درجات الإناث على التنمر اللفظي، كما اتضح عدم وجود فروق دالة في متوسطات درجات اضطراب صورة الجسد بين الذكور والإناث. واستنادا للنتائج تم تقديم جملة من التوصيات والمقترحات لمعالجة التنمر، وتخفيف الشعور باضطراب صورة الجسد.
Kutatásunk célja a családi kapcsolatok és evési szokások összefüggéseinek vizsgálata. A táplálkozás tudatos kontrollálásának számos pozitív és negatív velejáróját vizsgálták már. Az intuitív evés, a korábbi kutatásokhoz képest, más szemszögből közelíti meg a táplálkozást. Ez a táplálkozás adaptív formája, mely során a fizikai éhségérzetünkre és testünk (akár tudattalan) jelzéseire támaszkodunk különféle korlátozások nélkül. Az evéssel kapcsolatos zavarok bio-pszicho-szociális megközelítése a környezet, s így a család szerepét is meghatározónak véli az evés szempontjából. Vizsgálatunkban 146 egyetemi hallgató (126 nő, 15 férfi) vett részt. A minta átlagéletkora 20,82, mely 18 és 38 év között oszlik meg (szórás 2,76). Vizsgálatunk során a családi kapcsolatok mérésére a Family Relationship Questionnaire-t, az intuitív evés vizsgálatára pedig az Intuitív Evés Skálát alkalmaztuk, melyek papír-ceruza teszt formájában kerültek kitöltésre és jelenleg adaptálás alatt állnak. A kutatás során a szülői támogatás, általános érzelmi kötődés, önállóságra nevelés, bántalmazás, illetve a tekintélyelvű nevelés és az intuitív evés összefüggéseit vizsgáltuk Pearson-féle korrelációs mátrix, illetve Spearman-féle rangkorrelációs mátrix segítségével. Az eredményeket tekintve szignifikáns, pozitív irányú kapcsolat található az önállóságra nevelés és az intuitív evés egyes skálái között, a szülői dominancia, tekintélyelvű nevelés esetén pedig negatív irányú összefüggés fedezhető fel. Érdemes lenne nagyobb, a nemek arányosabb eloszlását tartalmazó mintát alkalmazni és többféle korcsoportot bevonni az intuitív evés későbbi kutatásai során, mely a táplálkozás kutatásában újfajta megközelítést jelenthet.
Eating disorders and obesity have many characteristics in common. In both, weight-related problems play a central role. There is growing interest in identifying their common risk factors, and research shows that unhealthy weight-control behaviors are common antecedents to both obesity and eating disorders. There are currently interventions available that have shown some efficacy, with variability depending on the disorder under consideration. The incorporation of technological resources such as virtual reality, information and communication technologies, and games with physical activity, allows for even higher levels of efficacy, as shown by the randomized controlled studies that have been conducted to date. The available evidence, therefore, permits to recommend this type of applications. Future research must be focused not only on the treatments that are offered once these problems have emerged but also on preventing them.
The chapter aims to understand the thematic coverage of nutrition topics in the Estonian scientific and mass media environment. Sources of inspiration for the analysis were gathered from modern understandings of audiences, media influences and individual responsibility in the health area. The most popular topic for mainstream media was related to healthy eating. The most popular scientific nutrition topic was related to the development of eating habits. The second most covered topic for both general and scientific media was related to physical activity and nutrition, although contexts were different. The third most popular topic was related to different diets in general media and illnesses and well-being in scientific media. The conclusion and limitations of the study are discussed in the final part of the article.
Objective:
Extensive evidence suggests that children and adolescents often inaccurately perceive their body size. However, the extent of this misperception is unclear. This paper describes the agreement between children's actual weight and the perception of body size (self-reported and maternally reported) and the association of actual weight with self-reported body satisfaction.
Methods:
In a population-based cohort study of 3,408 children aged 9 to 10 years, we assessed the children's self-perception and ideal perception of their body size with the Children's Body Image Scale. Maternal perception of offspring body size was assessed with the question "How would you describe your child at the moment?" Children's height and weight were measured.
Results:
Children tended to rate themselves toward average proportions; e.g., 83.0% of 499 children with overweight/obesity perceived themselves as less heavy then they were. Of those who underestimated their body size, most (79.2%) had a desire to be thinner; all of the children who correctly recognized their overweight/obesity had such a desire.
Conclusions:
Despite the misperception of body size, the majority of children with overweight/obesity indicated dissatisfaction with their body size, suggesting more self-awareness than would be assumed based on the self-perception assessment of body size alone.
Ende des letzten Jahrtausends wurde ein Jahrhundert der Frauen prognostiziert. Die gläserne Decke ist jedoch noch nicht überwunden: Es droht die große Gefahr eines Backlashs! Zu dicht sind die Netzwerke, die von Männern bespielt werden. Einengende Zuschreibungen von weiblichen Charakteristika auf Passivität, Ängstlichkeit, Unselbstständigkeit und geringe Kreativität prägten psychologische Konzepte und Modelle von psychischen und physiologischen Funktionen des weiblichen Geschlechtes. Traditionelle Rollenmuster und Stereotypien wirken sich nachhaltig hemmend auf das Selbstverständnis von Frauen aus. Belastungen im Zusammenhang mit Beruf und familiärer Rolle verstärken die Vulnerabilität von Frauen in bestimmten Lebensabschnitten. Dies macht Depressionen, Angststörungen, Panikattacken etc. zu überwiegend weiblichen Erkrankungen. Als Exit-Strategie aus diesem Kreislauf von sozialen Benachteiligungen und psychischer Krisenanfälligkeit bleibt: Männer müssen sich an gesellschaftlichen Gleichstellungsprozessen beteiligen, insbesondere bei geteilter Pflege und Gewaltprävention. Die klassischen Frauenrollen in Werbung, Spielzeug- und Filmindustrie müssen mit allen Mitteln endlich aufgebrochen werden. Für die Praxis heißt das, verinnerlichte Barrieren, erlebte Benachteiligungen und Gewalterfahrungen der Klientinnen auszuloten.
This study sought to explore parental perceptions of body image in preschoolers. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 30 primary caregivers of preschoolers to examine knowledge, beliefs, and strategies regarding early body image socialization in families. Thematic Analysis yielded three themes highlighting knowledge gaps, belief discrepancies, and limited awareness of strategies. Findings regarding knowledge: Most participants defined body image as objective attractiveness rather than subjective self-assessment (53%) and focused on negative body image. Beliefs: Although 97% of participants believed weight and shape impact children's self-esteem, 63% believed preschoolers too young to have a body image. Strategies: Most participants (53%) said family was a primary influence on body image, but identified few effective strategies and 63% said they did not do anything to influence children's body image. Findings suggested family body image socialization in preschoolers is occurring outside the awareness of parents and the concept of positive body image is underdeveloped.
Ätiologische Modelle zur Erklärung der Entstehung und Aufrechterhaltung von Essstörungen weisen eine Vielzahl an prädisponierenden, auslösenden und aufrechterhaltenden Faktoren auf. Als prädisponierend gelten beispielsweise biologische, soziokulturelle, familiäre und individuelle Faktoren. Auslösende Faktoren beinhalten zumeist kritische Lebensereignisse (z. B. Trennungen) und zu den aufrechterhaltende Faktoren zählen gezügeltes Essverhalten, erhöhtes Belastungsempfinden bei geringen Bewältigungsfähigkeiten und defizitärer Emotionsregulationsfertigkeit sowie dysfunktionale Informationsverarbeitungsprozesse. Daneben wird eine Konditionierung von Essanfällen diskutiert.
Objective:
The objective of this study was to examine the impact of sibling weight level perception and sibling weight on the accuracy of respondent weight level perception dependent on sibling-pair gender composition.
Design:
A cross-sectional study based on the survey data, which include the children of a nationally representative sample of Danes. Logit regression models were used.
Subjects:
Two thousand nine hundred and sixty-eight respondents comprising 397 female sibling pairs, 357 male sibling pairs and 730 opposite-sex sibling pairs. The inclusion of both same-sex siblings and opposite-sex siblings is novel for studies on weight perceptions.
Measurements:
Weight underestimation and weight overestimation were calculated on the basis of difference between actual weight level and self-perceived weight level. Respondent gender, sibling gender, sibling body mass index (BMI) and the siblings' self-perceived weight level were included as the main controls.
Results:
Women frequently overestimate their weight level, whereas men often underestimate theirs. Women are more likely to overestimate their weight if their sister does the same but less likely if their brother overestimates his weight. Likewise, women are more likely to underestimate their weight if their sister also underestimates her weight but less likely if their brother underestimates his weight. The higher the BMI of their brother and the lower the BMI of their sister, the more likely men are to underestimate their own weight level.
Conclusion:
RESULTS underline the importance of social context when looking at body formation and weight perceptions. The weight and weight perceptions of siblings influence own weight perception. Gender is central to studies on weight-related issues, not only respondent gender - equally so the gender of interaction.
This study investigated the prospective predictors of body image in 9- to 12-year-old girls. Participants were 150 girls in Grades 4-6 with a mean age of 10.3 years. Girls completed questionnaire measures of media and peer influences (television/magazine exposure, peer appearance conversations), individual psychological variables (appearance schemas, internalization of appearance ideals, autonomy), and body image (figure discrepancy and body esteem) at Time 1 and 1 year later at Time 2. Linear panel analyses showed that after controlling for Time 1 levels of body image, none of the Time 1 sociocultural variables predicted body image variables at Time 2. Body mass index (BMI; a biological variable) and psychological variables, however, did offer significant prospective prediction. Specifically, higher BMI, higher appearance schemas, higher internalization of appearance ideals, and lower autonomy predicted worsening body image 1 year later. Thus, higher weight and certain psychological characteristics were temporally antecedent to body image concerns. It was concluded that both biological and individual psychological variables play a role in the development of body image in children. Individual psychological variables, in particular, may provide useful targets in prevention and intervention programs addressing body image in 9- to 12-year-old girls.
In this chapter, a substantial amount of attention will be given to four areas—genetics, neurobiology, gender, and trauma—as they apply to children and adolescents. The chapter also focuses more pointedly on body image and eating disorders, especially in girls, largely because of the available psychological literature. Body image, eating disorders, and obesity could each have their own chapters on risk and protective factors. Yet, there are at least two compelling reasons to consider all three topics in the same chapter. First, body image, eating disorders, and obesity share some risk factors. Second, body image, disordered eating, eating disorders, and obesity are linked to each other. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study tested the direct effect of watching thin-ideal focused television aimed at (young) adults on body dissatisfaction in preadolescent girls (9-12 years old). A within-subject design was used in which the girls (N=60) were tested three times. They watched three movie clips in random order that were either focused explicitly (thin-ideal program) or indirectly (soap opera) on the thin ideal or were neutral in content. Afterwards, they filled out questionnaires concerning their body dissatisfaction. Only older preadolescent girls (11-12 years old) showed greater body dissatisfaction after watching the thin-ideal focused television clip than after watching the neutral television clip. After watching thin-ideal focused television, they desired a thinner body figure than after watching neutral television. The findings imply that watching (adult) thin-ideal television directly affects the ideal body figure in older preadolescent girls.
This study investigated body image issues and the usefulness of self-reported measurements among Hmong American children, 9-18 years using mixed methodology. Twelve focus groups were conducted (n=68) and a silhouette drawing instrument and six questions pertaining to body image were administered (n=335). About 50% of the children were either overweight or obese and 23% were short statured relative to US norms. About 70% of the girls and 53% of the boys selected smaller body ideals than their perceived body sizes. Further, 21% of the girls and 31% of the boys were satisfied with their bodies. Children underestimated their weights and overestimated their heights. During focus groups children reported that parents, peers, and media influenced their body image perceptions. Our results indicate that the majority of Hmong children are dissatisfied with their bodies and tend to endorse American ideals of beauty and attractiveness rather than the heavier, traditional Hmong body ideals supported by their parents.
The current study investigated the effects of brief exposure to appearance-related media on young girls' body image. One hundred and twenty-one girls aged 3-6 years old participated. Results indicated that exposure did not affect body dissatisfaction or engagement in appearance-related play behaviours. This is the first empirical study to provide support for previous findings that suggest media exposure does not affect body image in young girls. In contrast to older populations, it is possible that young children may adopt the persona of attractive characters with whom they identify rather than comparing themselves to the characters. Although nearly all girls liked the way they looked, self-report data indicated that nearly one-third of the participants would change something about their physical appearance and nearly half of the girls worried about being fat. Exposure to appearance-related media did not exacerbate concerns.
Previous research has shown important developmental shifts ingenetic and environmental influences for disordered eating. However, little research has examined age differences for weight/shape concerns, two key components of eating disorders. The goal of this study was to investigate these age differences in preadolescent, adolescent, young adult, and mid-adult twins.
Participants included 2,618 female twins (ages of 10-41 years) from three large twin registries. Shape and weight concerns were assessed with the Eating Disorders Examination Questionnaire.
Genetic influences were modest in preadolescent twins, but significant from early-adolescence through middle adulthood. Shared environmental factors showed the opposite pattern, with the largest shared environmental contributions occurring in the youngest age group. Nonshared environmental effects remained relatively constant across age.
Findings highlight the importance of age differences in genetic and environmental influences. Possible mechanisms include gene x environment interactions and biological changes associated with key developmental stages.
There is increasing evidence that children display high levels of weight and muscle concerns, which include body dissatisfaction and problem eating. In order to address these issues, researchers have designed and implemented prevention programs for this age group. Thirteen published studies were located and reviewed, with children aged 8-12 years from elementary schools, or equivalent. Overall, the programs were shown to be effective in improving children's knowledge at post-test and at follow-up assessments. However, there is limited evidence to show that the programs reduced or prevented body image concerns and/or problem eating. Too few studies have examined muscle concerns so no conclusions can yet be drawn about this domain. Limitations of the studies and suggestions for future prevention efforts are discussed.