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Fertilising techniques and nutrient balances in the agriculture industrialization transition: The case of sugarcane in the Cauca river valley (Colombia), 1943–2010
Abstract
Population size and per capita food consumption are assumed to be the two greatest drivers of global environmental change. The intensification of agriculture for food and fiber production, and specially, for energy crops, affects ecosystems due to the use of limited soil resources (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other macronutrients and micronutrients) which are necessary for their functioning, the release of pesticides, and the conversion of natural ecosystems. However, the location and extent of intensive agriculture and its associated ecological impacts within tropical countries is often well unknown. The purpose of this study is to provide an understanding of the fertilisation practices associated to the phase of sugarcane industrialization in an inter-Andean valley in Colombia. Changes in the nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) fluxes were calculated over time (1943, 1984, 1998 and 2010) by using the concept of social metabolism. We applied a nutrient balance model, which was especially created for past agroecosystems (historical studies). The N balances were positive and oscillated between 108 and 98 kg N ha−1 year−1, with a relatively low N use efficiency (about 63% and 42% for 1943 and 2010, respectively). The main inputs were chemical fertilisation and irrigation, and the main outputs of N included harvested N and leaching due to low N use efficiency and high irrigation flows. By 2010, values of atmospheric deposition rose up to 35.6 kg N ha−1 year−1, mainly because the nitrate concentrations in rain water were very high in comparison to previous decades. The K and P balances were positive and near zero, which represents an adequate management according to local conditions.
... The Cauca river valley, one of the most populated and economically important regions in Colombia, has suffered massive land-cover changes and an increase in land-use intensity driven mainly by the establishment of sugarcane plantations (Delgadillo-Vargas et al. 2016). We investigated the land-use change in the period 1943-2010 and researched how different levels of human disturbance in agroecosystems are associated with landscape processes. ...
... Farmland was redesigned for this purpose, sugarcane expanded, and agroecological processes and work relations were reconfigured. Agrarian industrialization and associated urban sprawl along the Cauca valley (Delgadillo-Vargas et al. 2016) modified the landscape ecology parameters. ...
... Consulted documentary sources included: deeds, agricultural censuses, general statistics collated by both state and private organizations regarding sugarcane cultivation and processing. Private archives of sugar mills and haciendas in the region were also taken into consideration (Delgadillo-Vargas et al. 2016). ...
Agroecosystems are facing a global challenge amidst a socioecological transition that places them in a dilemma between increasing land-use intensity to meet the growing demand of food, feed, fibres and fuels, while avoiding the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. We applied an intermediate disturbance-complexity approach to the land-use changes of a Latin American biocultural landscape (Cauca river valley, Colombia, 1943–2010), which accounts for the joint behaviour of human appropriation of photosynthetic capacity used as a measure of disturbance, and a selection of land metrics that account for landscape ecological functionality. We also delved deeper into local land-use changes in order to identify the main socioeconomic drivers and ruling agencies at stake. The results show that traditional organic mixed-farming tended to disappear as a result of sugarcane intensification. The analysis confirms the intermediate disturbance-complexity hypothesis by showing a nonlinear relationship, where the highest level of landscape complexity (heterogeneity–connectivity) is attained when disturbance peaks at 50–60%. The study proves the usefulness of transferring the concept of intermediate disturbance to biocultural landscapes and suggests that conservation of heterogeneous and well-connected mixed-farming, with a positive interplay between intermediate level of disturbances and land-use complexity endowed with a rich intercultural heritage, will preserve a wildlife-friendly agro-ecological matrix likely to house high biodiversity and ecosystem services.
... Fluorescent and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) are two common optical sensors using biological macromolecules/ reduced metaloxide which helps in identification of metal ions in river water or soil bodies. Among the pesiticides, organo-phosphates, neonicotinoids, carbamatesand atrazines are considered as dominant classes and their residues were found at lower concentration for a longer time in soil due to low homogeneity [71] . The presences of pesticides using nanosensor that employ with the help of antigenantibody interaction. ...
... As a part of biosafety, nanobiosensors are developed and have great demand due to its rapid, sensitive and cost-effective systems with a wide application in different human activity such as health care, agriculture, genome analysis, food and drink, the process industries, environmental monitoring, defense, and security. The editors of Nature estimated that any technology takes some 20 years to emerge from the laboratory and be commercialized [71] . Nanotechnology in agriculture might take a few decades to move from laboratory to land. ...
In recent years, Nanotechnology gained a lot of attention due to its wide applications in various fields. As the surface area increases, the applicative efficiency of the nanostructure also increases. Now a days, the potential application of nanotechnology in the field of agriculture leads to an intensive researches. The combination of nanotechnology and agriculture acts a novel tool and result in the production of nano-fertilizers, nano-herbicides, nano-fungicides, nano-pesticides, and nano-insecticides, commonly termed as Nanoagrochemicals. These nano-agrochemicals have attained great interest in the research field due to the economically viable and eco-friendly nature. Beside, the enormous benefits of agrochemicals in agriculture , it helps to replace the synthetic fertilizers and pesticides which lead to the increase in the output. However, there is a vast research is going in this field, some difficulties are facing to reach among farmer, greater production cost, lack of awareness, impact on the environment, humans etc. In future we may expect nano-agrochemicals to upgrade the efficiency of inputs and providing a permanent solutions to problems faced for improving productivity and biosafety. In this chapter the authors will discuss about the economic importance and future trends of the nano-agrochemicals. enhancing the efficiency of agricultural inputs and providing solutions to agricultural problems for improving food productivity and security. This review covers the current influences of nanotechnology in agriculture, nanoagrochemicals, characterization of nanoparticles, and sustainable development.
... Fluorescent and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) are two common optical sensors using biological macromolecules/ reduced metaloxide which helps in identification of metal ions in river water or soil bodies. Among the pesiticides, organo-phosphates, neonicotinoids, carbamatesand atrazines are considered as dominant classes and their residues were found at lower concentration for a longer time in soil due to low homogeneity [71] . The presences of pesticides using nanosensor that employ with the help of antigenantibody interaction. ...
... As a part of biosafety, nanobiosensors are developed and have great demand due to its rapid, sensitive and cost-effective systems with a wide application in different human activity such as health care, agriculture, genome analysis, food and drink, the process industries, environmental monitoring, defense, and security. The editors of Nature estimated that any technology takes some 20 years to emerge from the laboratory and be commercialized [71] . Nanotechnology in agriculture might take a few decades to move from laboratory to land. ...
Nanogels in biomedical field are promising and innovative materials as dispersions of hydrogel nanoparticles based on crosslinked polymeric networks that have been called as next generation drug delivery systems due to their relatively high drug encapsulation capacity, uniformity, tunable size, ease of preparation, minimal toxicity, stability in the presence of serum, and stimuli responsiveness. Nanogels show a great potential in chemotherapy, diagnosis, organ targeting and delivery of bioactive substances. The main subjects reviewed in this article concentrates on: (i) Nanogel assimilation in the nanomedicine domain; (ii) Features and advantages of nanogels, the main characteristics, such as: swelling capacity, stimuli sensitivity, the great surface area, functionalization, bioconjugation and encapsulation of bioactive substances, which are taken into account in designing the structures according to the application; some data on the advantages and limitations of the preparation techniques; (iii) Recent progress in nanogels as a carrier of genetic material, protein and vaccine. Recent tremendous developments in their synthesis open access to systems with complex architectures and compositions allowing for tailoring microgels with specific properties. At the same time state-of-the-art theoretical and simulation approaches offer deeper understanding of the behavior and structure of nano- and microgels under external influences and confinement at interfaces or at high volume fractions. Developments in the experimental analysis of nano- and microgels have become particularly important for structural investigations covering a broad range of length scales relevant to the internal structure, the overall size and shape, and interparticle interactions in concentrated samples. Here we summarize emerging research of nanogewls for biomedical applications and provide an overview of the state-of-the-art, recent developments as well as emerging trends in the field of nano- and microgels.
... The precipitation, minimum, maximum and mean temperatures during the experiment (January to April 2017) are shown in Fig. S-1. The soils of Cauca Valley have been developed by pedogenesis of fluvial, eolic and lacustrine sediments, mostly from Holocene period (Delgadillo-Vargas et al., 2016). The soil was characterized as a Cumulic Haplustoll (Soil Taxonomy, USDA 2014) with a silty clay texture (50 % clay in the upper 20 cm soil layer). ...
... This area was originally covered with tropical dry forest. Nevertheless, since the middle of the twentieth century, the most common agricultural use in the area has been irrigated sugar cane monoculture (Delgadillo-Vargas et al., 2016). ...
The diversification of tropical pastures with legumes (trees) for increased forage and animal productivity has been advocated. Nevertheless, effects on soil quality and belowground biodiversity, and the implications for sustainable intensification remain poorly documented, particularly when cattle grazing is included in the study. We evaluated the impact of forage system diversification with herbaceous and woody legumes on soil properties and soil macrofauna communities and their spatial heterogeneity in a three-year-old field trial in Cauca Valley, Colombia. Three forage-based systems were compared: (i) a conventional monoculture-species grass pasture system of Brachiaria hybrid cv. Cayman (CP); (ii) a mixed pasture system consisting of Brachiaria grass with the leguminous herb Canavalia brasiliensis (LP); and (iii) a silvopastoral system with rows of the legume tree Leucaena diversifolia planted within LP pastures (SPS). The experiment was arranged in a complete randomized block design with three replicates and grazing cattle rotating across blocks. Plots were grazed by three (treatments CP and LP) or four bulls (SPS) aiming to reflect the expected cattle intensification in SPS systems. Physico-chemical soil properties and macrofauna abundance and their spatial heterogeneity as affected by the distance from the tree rows in SPS, were assessed. Herbaceous legumes positively affected the abundance and diversity of soil macrofauna and soil physical properties in LP and the alleys between tree rows in SPS, as compared to CP. In the SPS, the highest soil quality and macrofauna abundance occurred at the edge of the tree lines, while the highest soil compaction and the lowest abundance of soil macrofauna occurred in the tree rows, probably due to the behavioral change of the grazing cattle in combination with the higher stocking rate in SPS. Soil properties in LP and in the alleys between the tree rows of SPS were comparable despite higher stocking rate in SPS. Overall, the SPS and LP systems, proved to be suitable alternatives to CP allowing for sustainable intensification of pastures although careful evaluation of possible trade-offs associated with increased spatial heterogeneity in SPS is recommended to avoid localized soil compaction. Soil macrofauna, particularly functional groups (classified by feeding habits) proved to be a sensitive soil quality indicator in response to contrasting pasture systems.
... In Colombia, approximately 99% of the total production is located in the west zones close to the Cauca River (Moncada et al. 2013) in a region known as the Cauca River Valley, which extends over five departments: Cauca, Valle del Cauca, Quindío, Risaralda, and Caldas (Vargas et al. 2017). The Cauca River Valley, having an approximate area of 448,000 ha (Delgadillo- Vargas et al. 2016), is characterized by intensive agriculture and high industrialization in projects related to sucrose, energy, sugar, and bioethanol (Vargas et al. 2017;Villamizar and Brown 2016). The sugarcane crop covers about 50% of the arable land of this region (Villamizar and Brown 2016). ...
... In geological terms, this valley is represented by a graben-type structure and is limited in its two flanks by regional faults that cross through the piedmont areas of the central and western Andean mountain chains (Delgadillo-Vargas et al. 2016). Figure 11.2 highlights the valley of the Cauca River territory, as well as its sugarcane mill distribution. ...
Like other emerging countries in South America, Colombia is currently looking for alternatives to replace the use of fuels derived from petroleum in an attempt to reduce dependence on foreign energy markets, besides contributing to diminish the effects of global warming and climate change. Ethanol, biodiesel, and bioelectricity are examples of bioenergy sources which can substitute fossil fuels. Sugarcane is one of the most competitive feedstocks because of its bioenergy potential and various other factors. Sugarcane agro-industry in Colombia is mainly located in the valley of the Cauca River; the country is currently specializing in the production of sugar, molasses, and ethanol. This chapter discusses the current status of biofuel production in Colombia and provides a perspective of expanding this sector with the development of biorefineries that can produce biofuels, bioenergy, and other bioproducts. It also explores the full aptitude of sugarcane (including using straw and bagasse), improving the profitability and sustainability of this industrial sector, as well as replacing conventional energy sources.
... Th e majority of Colombian sugarcane plantations are located around the Cauca River Valley, and grow all year round with the potential to produce around 954 000 L d −1 of ethanol from sugarcane juice. 17 Th is would represent the second largest ethanol producer in Latin America with all bioethanol coming from sugarcane. 17,18 Sugarcane plantation in Cauca River Valley in Colombia is harvested on around 200 000 ha of land and it is estimated that the country can potentially generate 3.8 million L d −1 of fuel ethanol by 2020. ...
... 17 Th is would represent the second largest ethanol producer in Latin America with all bioethanol coming from sugarcane. 17,18 Sugarcane plantation in Cauca River Valley in Colombia is harvested on around 200 000 ha of land and it is estimated that the country can potentially generate 3.8 million L d −1 of fuel ethanol by 2020. 19 In Mexico, sugarcane is harvested through manual cutting once a year in a period between December and May. ...
Sugarcane bagasse is a large-volume agriculture residue that is generated on a ~540 million metric tons per year basis globally1,2 with the top-three producing countries in Latin America being Brazil (~181 million metric ton yr−1),3 Mexico (ܾ15 million metric ton yr−1),4 and Colombia (ܾ7 million metric ton yr−1),5 respectively.6 Given sustainability concerns and the need to maximize the utilization of bioresources, the use of sugarcane bagasse is receiving significant attention in biorefining applications, as it is a promising resource for the conversion to biofuels and biopower. This review provides a comprehensive review of bagasse and its chemical constituents and on-going research into its utilization as a feedstock for cellulosic ethanol and electricity generation. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
... Surya et al. (2020) developed an in-field quick detection and quantification of soil moisture content based on an integrated capacitive sensor. Nano-biosensors are also used to detect nitrite and urease contents in soil and water based on microfluidic impedimetric and colorimetric assay (Delgadillo-Vargas et al., 2016). ...
... Surya et al. (2020) developed an in-field quick detection and quantification of soil moisture content based on an integrated capacitive sensor. Nano-biosensors are also used to detect nitrite and urease contents in soil and water based on microfluidic impedimetric and colorimetric assay (Delgadillo-Vargas et al., 2016). ...
... Urea (most widely used fertiliser for the yield of crops), nitrate, nitrite and urease cause eutrophication and have environmental effects and contaminants in water (Delgadillo-Vargas et al. 2016;Mura et al. 2015). Based on microfluid impedimetric and colorimetric assessments, the detection of these infections in soil and water is done using nanobiosensors. ...
In the current scenario, there is an urgent need to satisfy the nutritional requirements as a result of the world’s rapidly expanding population. The crops get damaged mainly due to climate change, microbial attacks, natural disasters, poor soil quality, deficiency of nutrients, pest infestation, and a haphazard application of chemical pesticides and fertilisers. More innovative technologies are immediately required to overcome these issues. In this regard, agronanobiotechnology has contributed to the agrotechnological revolution that can improve the quality of food, crop production, and food safety. Nanoparticles (NPs) may aid in the delivery of genetic material, the detection of plant diseases and contaminants, nutrient addition, growth promotion, the preservation and formation of soil structure, and the regulation of the release of agrochemicals for pest and pathogen protection. In addition, several NPs serve as nanofertilisers (ZnO, TiO2, SiO2), nanopesticides (CuO, Ag, ZnO), nanofungicides (Al2O3), nanoherbicides (2,4-D, atrazine) to combat nutrient deficiency, pests, and pathogen-induced stress in agricultural systems to maintain sustainability. Moreover, the NPs acted as nanoemulsifying agents and nanosensors to reduce microbial contamination to increase food quality and safety. However, the plant and nanomaterials (NMs) interaction opens a new avenues towards providing crop practices through increased nutrient supply, plant growth, disease resistance, and crop yield. In this chapter, we review the current state of agronanotechnology research that could benefit productivity and food security in the future.KeywordsAgronanobiotechnologyNanoparticlesFood safetyNanomaterialsNanobiosensorsPlant protectionSoil structure
... For instance, inputs and outputs balance of N, P, and K in sugar cane soils has been of positive sign (inputs > outputs) since 1940 because of fertilizer over application, especially nitrogen. However, the magnitude of this "unbalance" has been reducing towards the present time due to better soil management practices, which leads to an optimal nutrient use through incorporation of crop residues [ 85 ]. Nutrient losses through leaching in Colombian coffee soils depend on its mineralogy, which is highly variable in the Andean region. ...
For Colombia, reversing land and soil degradation is a fundamental challenge looking to guarantee food security and conservation of its wide ecosystem diversity. This chapter analyzes trends and challenges of land and soil degradation associated with agricultural practices in Colombia. Using a methodological framework based on expert consultation, systematic search of information, and bibliometric analysis, we ask about the importance of different degradation process on agricultural land, as well as their main causes and its problematics. At a regional level we analyze the extension of different processes of land and soil degradation and agricultural practices which can or will be more viable to reduce it. Furthermore, we identify research gaps or current problems which demands immediate and effective actions to advance towards a sustainable management of soils and lands. Finally, we conclude that to stop agricultural and land degradation in Colombia, and, if possible, to reverse this process, is only feasible through state-level policies and the transformation of paradigms in which diverse actors impact soils and land with their agricultural activities.KeywordsAgricultural frontierCattle ranchingResearch gapsSoil erosionSustainability
... Consistent with previous evidences (Peñuelas et al., 2020, Wironen et al., 2018, we found P additions decreased soil N:P ratios of croplands (Fig. 5), which is likely because the manure applied is characterized by low N:P ratios (Oster et al., 2018). This suggests the widespread P accumulations of crop soils (Delgadillo-Vargas et al., 2016), leading to low P-use efficiency for crop plants . Therefore, improving the use efficiencies of P fertilizers is of critical importance to crop yield. ...
Carbon (C): nitrogen (N): phosphorus (P) stoichiometry in plants, soils, and microbial biomass influences productivity and nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems. Anthropogenic inputs of P to ecosystems are increasing; however, our understanding of the impacts of P addition on terrestrial ecosystem C:N:P ratios remains elusive. By conducting a meta‐analysis with 1413 paired observations from 121 publications, we showed that P addition significantly decreased plant, soil, and microbial biomass N:P and C:P ratios, but had negligible effects on C:N ratios. The reductions in N:P and C:P ratios became more evident as the P application rates and experimental duration increased. The P addition effects on terrestrial ecosystem C:N:P stoichiometry did not vary with ecosystem types or climates. Moreover, the responses of N:P and C:P ratios in soil and microbial biomass were associated with the responses of soil pH and fungi:bacteria ratios. Additionally, P additions increased net primary productivity, microbial biomass, soil respiration, N mineralization, and N nitrification, but decreased ammonium and nitrate contents. Decreases in plant N:P and C:P ratios were both negatively correlated to net primary productivity and soil respiration, but positively correlated to ammonium and nitrate contents; microbial biomass, soil respiration, ammonium contents and nitrate contents all increased with declining soil N:P and C:P ratios. Our findings highlight that P additions could imbalance C:N:P stoichiometry and potentially impact the terrestrial ecosystem functions.
... Fertilizers help to increase crop productivity and stimulate soil fertility. However, some environmental implications can be caused by the spread of fertilizers in the environment, causing pollution of surface and groundwater (Delgadillo-Vargas et al. 2016). Therefore, the use of fertilization must be used rationally, in an adequate crop growth stage and the correct dosage to avoid the occurrence of environmental damage. ...
Innovative technologies such as bionanocomposites have been developed for application in the agricultural sector, increasing crop productivity and improving soil quality. The use of nanomaterials in agriculture consists of seed coating, pest and disease control, controlled release of nanofertilizers, and the application of nanosensors. From these applications, bionanocomposites provide agricultural sustainability, as well as a higher cost–benefit ratio, as they provide controlled release of chemicals for cultivation at the right time and place and with specific concentrations, reducing their excess use. Nanofibers are an important group of nanomaterials due to their characteristics of high surface area and high porosity compared to other materials. Besides, these nanostructures can be produced with natural and biodegradable polymers to reinforce biocomposites. When carrying out this process, the nanofibers contribute to their functional properties due to the high interfacial adhesion of the biocomposite in the polymeric matrix, improvement in the mechanical properties, and a high proportion of surface area per unit volume. Thus, this chapter addresses the importance of nanofiber-reinforced bionanocomposites for agriculture, highlighting the opportunities and challenges that these new materials present for the development of the agricultural sector.
... It is important to improve food self-sufficiency using sustainable agriculture. In order to ascertain the sustainability of VF on a long-term basis in terms of N and P, the indispensable nutrients for crop production [56,57], the N and P environmental emissions associated with VF need to be monitored. ...
The reduced requirement for nutrients in vertical farming (VF) implies that the potential for lower environmental impact is greater in VF than in conventional farming. In this study, the environmental impacts of VF were evaluated based on a case study of VF for vegetables in Miyagi Prefecture in Japan, where VF has been utilized in post-disaster relief operations in the wake of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake. The nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) footprints of these VFs were determined and analyzed to quantify the potential reduction in N and P emissions. First, the N and P footprints in conventional farming were calculated. Then, those footprints were compared with three different scenarios with different ratios for food imports, which equate to different levels of food self-sufficiency. The results show a decrease in the N and P footprints with increased prefectural self-sufficiency due to the introduction of VF. In addition to reducing the risks to food supply by reducing the dependence on imports and the environmental impacts of agriculture, further analysis reveals that VF is suitable for use in many scenarios around the world to reliably provide food to local communities. Its low vulnerability to natural disasters makes VF well suited to places most at risk from climate change anomalies.
... This special issue would have been impossible without his generous contributions. While many publications from the Sustainable Farm Systems project appeared in sustainability science journals Delgadillo et al. 2016;Gingrich et al. 2015;Giziki-Neundlinger and Güldner 2017;González de Molina et al. 2015;Güldner and Krausmann 2017;Tello et al. 2012), here we aim to make this work accessible for historians. ...
... The use of fertilizers in agriculture has the main purpose of increasing productivity (Delgadillo-Vargas et al., 2016). Many products are nowadays commonly used by farmers, who discovered their remarkable attributes as high performance, cost-effective products promoting plant growth, magnification and stabilization of fertilizers, and potent stimulation of soil life. ...
This book is organized into 18 chapters covering the following subjects: history (Chapter 1); use of nanomaterials in agriculture (Chapter 2); green nanotechnology (Chapter 3); nanonutrients (Chapter 4); enhanced productivity (Chapter 5); synthesis and applications of nanoparticles in agriculture (Chapter 6); toxicity, fate and transport of nanomaterials (Chapters 7, 8 and 9); global market (Chapter 10); nanoproducts (Chapter 11); applications and emergence in agriculture (Chapter 12); effects of nanotechnology in agriculture (Chapter 13); nanosensors (Chapter 14); nanofertilizers (Chapter 15); biosafety and regulatory aspects (Chapter 16); water treatment (Chapter 17); and nanopesticides (Chapter 18). This book provides a thorough analysis of the progressive journey in agriculture from green revolution to nano revolution, with recommendations of certain key points to be addressed in current and future agri-nanotechnology research, on the basis of recognized knowledge gaps. It is hoped that the current volume will serve as a reference book for students, scientists, professors, teachers and researchers who are involved in the study and research on the various aspects of agri-nanotechnology.
... Pesticides are commonly used in agriculture to improve crop yield and efficiency. Urea is the most-widely used fertilizer for crop production and source of nitrate, nitrite, and urease that are ubiquitous contaminants in water causing eutrophication posing environmental implications [11] [12]. According to global urea market report, the demand for urea is 187.8 million metric tons in 2020, Figure 1. ...
Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture in order to increase yields has proved unnecessary because a large part of them remain unused and have negative effects on the environment and human health.Therefore, it is a great challenge for farmers to replace the application of pesticides and fertilizers with nanopesticides and nanofertilizers, with the aim of reducing the use of mineral fertilizers and increasing yields, as well as supporting agri-cultural development. This review provides a detailed overview of the classi-fication of pesticides, commonly used nanoparticles in agriculture and their function, as well as impact of nanopesticides and nanofertilizers on the envi-ronment. The application of nanopesticides and nanofertilizers and new de-livery mechanisms to improve crop productivity are reviewed and described. Particularly, the advantage of the nanoencapsulation process is emphasized for both pesticides and fertilizers. For hydrophobic pesticides, it may be a tool to provide greater stability, dispersion in aqueous media, and allowing a con-trolled release of the active compound, which increases its effectiveness. In na-nofertilizers, micro- or macronutrients can be encapsulated by nanomaterials which allow to release of nutrients into the soil gradually and in a controlled way maintaining soil fertility, thus preventing eutrophication and pollution of water resources. Risks assessment of application of nanopesticides and nano-fertilizers in agriculture are required for their correct and safe application.
... Pesticides are commonly used in agriculture to improve crop yield and efficiency. Urea is the most-widely used fertilizer for crop production and source of nitrate, nitrite, and urease that are ubiquitous contaminants in water causing eutrophication posing environmental implications [11] [12]. According to global urea market report, the demand for urea is 187.8 million metric tons in 2020, Figure 1. ...
Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture in order to increase yields has proved unnecessary because a large part of them remain unused and have negative effects on the environment and human health. Therefore, it is a great challenge for farmers to replace the application of pesticides and fertilizers with nanopesticides and nanofertilizers, with the aim of reducing the use of mineral fertilizers and increasing yields, as well as supporting agricultural development. This review provides a detailed overview of the classification of pesticides, commonly used nanoparticles in agriculture and their function, as well as impact of nanopesticides and nanofertilizers on the environment. The application of nanopesticides and nanofertilizers and new delivery mechanisms to improve crop productivity are reviewed and described. Particularly, the advantage of the nanoencapsulation process is emphasized for both pesticides and fertilizers. For hydrophobic pesticides, it may be a tool to provide greater stability, dispersion in aqueous media, and allowing a controlled release of the active compound, which increases its effectiveness. In na-nofertilizers, micro-or macronutrients can be encapsulated by nanomaterials which allow to release of nutrients into the soil gradually and in a controlled way maintaining soil fertility, thus preventing eutrophication and pollution of water resources. Risks assessment of application of nanopesticides and nano-fertilizers in agriculture are required for their correct and safe application. How to cite this paper: Bratovcic, A., Hikal, W.M., Said
... This has a big impact on its life cycle assessment results (Cherubini et al., 2009;Davis et al., 2009;Hoefnagels et al., 2010;Rocha et al., 2014) and therefore impacts the marketability of ethanol, which has to obey to stringent compliance criteria, especially in export markets (Corbiere-Nicollier et al., 2011). Despite the fact that there is no export of fertilizer nutrients within the main products of the sugarcane industry, there is usually a need of mineral fertilizer application on the sugarcane plantations (Singh et al., 2007;Allen et al., 2010;Franco et al., 2011;Delgadillo-Vargas et al., 2016). Especially in case of combined fertilization with undigested organic fertilizers, enhanced N 2 O-emissions occur, as reported earlier (do Carmo et al., 2013). ...
Sugarcane is the most produced agricultural commodity in tropical and subtropical regions, where it is primarily used for the production of sugar and ethanol. The latter is mostly used to produce alcoholic beverages as well as low carbon biofuel. Despite well-established production chains, their respective residues and by-products present unexploited potentials for further product portfolio diversification. These fully or partially untapped product streams are a) sugarcane trash or straw that usually remain on the fields after mechanized harvest, b) ashes derived from bagasse combustion in cogeneration plants, c) filter cake from clarification of the sugarcane juice, d) vinasse which is the liquid residue after distillation of ethanol, and e) biogenic CO 2 emitted during bagasse combustion and ethanol fermentation. The development of innovative cascading processes using these residual biomass fractions could significantly reduce final disposal costs, improve the energy output, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and extend the product portfolio of sugarcane mills. This study reviews not only the state-of-the-art sugarcane biorefinery concepts, but also proposes innovative ways for further valorizing residual biomass. This study is therefore structured in four main areas, namely: i) Cascading use of organic residues for carboxylates, bioplastic, and bio-fertilizer production, ii) recovery of unexploited organic residues via anaerobic digestion to produce biogas, iii) valorization of biogenic CO 2 sources, and iv) recovery of silicon from bagasse ashes.
... The values were significantly enriched even further downstream, possibly due to high loading rates that encouraged bacterial transformations of N compounds, the impact of the sewage treatment works, as well as increased suspended particulate organic matter (De Brabandere et al., 2002). Furthermore, it is possible that sites downstream of agricultural zones accumulated organic impacts associated with this land-use type (Delgadillo-Vargas et al., 2016). These observations are in contrast with Calizza et al. (2020), who observed low periphyton δ 15 N values 2.5 km downstream from treatment works, suggesting that treated sewage inputs were diluted and also low in N concentrations. ...
Rivers are impacted by pollutants from anthropogenic activities such as urbanisation and agricultural practices. Whilst point source pollution has been widely studied and in some cases remediated, non-point pollutant sources remain pervasive, particularly in developing countries that lack economic and human capacity. Monitoring of pollution levels in many regions is additionally challenged by a lack of robust indicators for nitrogen inputs, however, diatom community indices and analysis of variation in microphytobenthos (MBP) stable isotope analysis variations have potential. The present study investigates variations and utilities in benthic diatom indices and MPB δ15N along different river sections (n = 31) of an austral river between two seasons (wet and dry), testing for relationships with key environmental variables (physical, water and sediment), in the context of N monitoring. One hundred and eighteen diatom taxa belonging to 36 genera were identified, with physical (water flow), water (nitrate, P and total dissolved solids) and sediment (B, Ca, Cr, Na, N, P, SOM, Pb and Zn) variables correlating to one or more of the 12 diatom indices presented. In particular, Biological Diatom Index, Biological Index of Water Quality, Central Economic Community, Index of Artois-Picardie Diatom (IDAP) and Sládeček’s Index were strongly explained by sediment variables, whilst Descy’s Pollution Index and Schiefele and Schreiner’s Index were explained by water and physical variables. While MPB δ15N were within the “no impact” level in the wet and dry seasons at reference (i.e. unpolluted) sites, all sites located in agricultural or urban areas, and downstream of sewage discharges, had a wider range that encompassed increasing organic impacts (“inorganic impacts” to high “organic impacts”). Temperature and turbidity (negative), as well as dissolved oxygen, waterway width and depth (positive), significantly affected MPB δ15N, while effects of chemistry variables were less apparent. Overall, we found that MPB δ15N signatures were significantly correlated with Trophic Diatom Index, the Specific Pollution sensitivity Index and the Artois-Picardie Diatom Index, suggesting the utility of diatoms and MPB δ15N in assessments of aquatic pollution. In turn, MPB δ15N values are strong indicators of N pollution across spatial and seasonal gradients. Thus, the results showed the effects of sediment variables on diatoms to be strong, indicating that sediment rather than water characteristics more strongly structure diatom communities. Thus, sediments variables should be sampled when conducting bioassessment studies. Free PDF download: https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1bquyB8ccoMk9
... Urea is the most-widely used fertilizer for crop production and source of nitrate, nitrite and urease that are ubiquitous contaminants in water causing eutrophication posing environmental implications (Mura et al., 2015;Delgadillo-Vargas et al., 2016). Nanobiosensors are used to detect these contaminants in water and soil based on microfluidic impedimetric and colorimetric assay (Table S1). ...
Nanotechnology has shown promising potential to promote sustainable agriculture. This article reviews the recent developments on applications of nanotechnology in agriculture including crop production and protection with emphasis on nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, nanobiosensors and nano-enabled remediation strategies for contaminated soils. Nanomaterials play an important role regarding the fate, mobility and toxicity of soil pollutants and are essential part of different biotic and abiotic remediation strategies. Efficiency and fate of nanomaterials is strongly dictated by their properties and interactions with soil constituents which is also critically discussed in this review. Investigations into the remediation applications and fate of nanoparticles in soil remain scarce and are mostly limited to laboratory studies. Once entered in the soil system, nanomaterials may affect the soil quality and plant growth which is discussed in context of their effects on nutrient release in target soils, soil biota, soil organic matter and plant morphological and physiological responses. The mechanisms involved in uptake and translocation of nanomaterials within plants and associated defense mechanisms have also been discussed. Future research directions have been identified to promote the research into sustainable development of nano-enabled agriculture.
... Our multi-budget analysis highlights two elements that have not been worked out in depth so far from a sociometabolic perspective: (a) the role of the human labour performed by different individuals belonging to different social and gender groups in socio-ecological reproduction processes; and (b) the unequal distribution of the final product among these different genders and social groups that results from the reproductive processes that take place through the market. Until now, the emphasis in sustainability analyses of agrarian systems has been on the reproduction of two agroecosystem funds: soil fertility and livestock (Billen, Barles, Garnier, Rouillard, & Benoit, 2009;Burke et al., 2002;Cunfer, 2004Cunfer, , 2005Cunfer & Krausmann, 2013Delgadillo-Vargas, Garcia-Ruiz, & Forero-Alvarez, 2016; García-Ruiz, González de Molina, Guzmán, Soto, & Infante-Amate, 2012;Gingrich, Haidvogl, Krausmann, Preis, & Garcia-Ruiz, 2015;Tello, Garrabou, Cussó, Olarieta, & Galán, 2012). Less attention has been paid to the third fund; that is, household peasant units and their annual reproduction (Scheidel, 2013). ...
Exploiting the labour of other people has historically been one of the main strategies to tackle the biophysical tension that always exists between the satisfaction of human needs and the labour required to fulfil them. Based on the insights of ecological, feminist, and Marxist economics, we disentangle the exploitation of the labour of women and labouring poor through a novel methodology that integrates energy, material, time, and cash balances. We apply it to the sociometabolic flows between household units endowed with different land and livestock resources in a traditional rural community in Catalonia (Spain) in the mid‐19th century. The results show that land and livestock hoarding led to a process of accumulation through dispossession that increased the exploitative relationships through the labour market, which in turn relied on the patriarchal division of labour between men and women at home. Our estimates of energy labour surplus reveal that male wages represented 88% of the equivalent consumption basket that would have been obtained by carrying out the same amount of labour on land of one's own. However, in the case of female wages, the percentage was 54%. This shows that wage labour incorporated a significant amount of unpaid domestic family labour.
... The exploitation of nanostructured biosensors among these technologies is gaining strength for facing against the challenges of agriculture because these sensors can correctly assess the crop health and growth status, detect the plant pathogens and accurately estimate the amount of fertilizer and water needed by crops [160]. Moreover, due to rising population, the application of fertilizers to stimulate plant growth [167] and use of pesticides to encounter weeds and pathogens has become completely indispensable [160]. Although both of them play helpful role in agriculture, but their significant environmental implications and human health hazards cannot be ignored [168]. ...
... The current state of research in landscape agroecology is set in the outcomes of the Sustainable Farm Systems research project, which has focused on an innovative development of Energy Return on Investment (EROI) analysis [6,[11][12][13] also merging it with MuSIASEM [14], on nutrient cycles [15,16] and on the original development of Energy-Landscape Integrated Analysis [10,17,18], which in turn draw from previous work on social metabolism [9,19,20] and EROI analysis [21]. As well, these novel methods applied in landscape agroecology can bridge with and contribute to the land sharing/sparing debate [22], which is still a controversial issue [23,24]. ...
The paper analyses how between 1956 and 2009 the agrarian metabolism of the Barcelona Metropolitan Region (BMR) has become less functional, losing circularity in biomass flows and in relationship to its landscape. We do so by adopting a Multi-Energy Return on Investment (EROI) and flow-fund (MuSIASEM) analyses and the nexus with landscape functional structure. The study of agricultural flows of Final Produce, Biomass Reused and External Inputs is integrated with that of land use, livestock, power capacity, and population changes between 1956 (at the beginning of agrarian industrialization) and 2009 (fully industrialized agriculture). A multi-scale analysis is conducted at the landscape scale (seven counties within the Barcelona metropolitan region) as well as for the functions deployed, within an agroecosystem, by the mutual interactions between its funds (landscape, land-uses, livestock, and farming population). A complex nexus between land, livestock, dietary patterns, and energy needs is shown; we conclude that, from the perspective of the circular bioeconomy the agrarian sector has gone worse hand in hand with the landscape functional structure. Therefore, a novel perspective in landscape agroecology is opened.
... The current state of research in landscape agroecology is set in the outcomes of the Sustainable Farm Systems research project, which has focused on an innovative development of EROI analysis [29,41,69,71] also merging it with MuSIASEM [74], on nutrient cycles [72,73] and on the original development of Energy-Landscape Integrated Analysis [40][41][42][43], which in turn draw from previous work on social metabolism [20,75,77] and EROI analysis [76]. As well, these novel methods applied in landscape agroecology can bridge with and contribute to the land sharing/sparing debate [78] which is still a controversial issue [79,80] The main aim of this paper is to assess, for the case study of the Barcelona Metropolitan Region, the loss in sustainability that has occurred as a result of agricultural industrialization by highlighting the virtues of a past model that could inspire future developments towards more sustainable agriculture, landscape and diets. ...
The paper analyses how between 1956 and 2009 the agrarian metabolism of the Barcelona Metropolitan Region (BMR) has become less functional, losing circularity in biomass flows and in relationship to its landscape. We do so by adopting a Multi-EROI and flow-fund (MuSIASEM) analyses and its nexus with landscape functional structure. The study of agricultural flows of Final Produce, Biomass Reused and External Inputs is integrated with that of land use, livestock, power capacity and population changes between 1956 (at the beginning of the Green Revolution) and 2009 (fully industrialized agriculture). A multi-scale analysis is conducted at the landscape scale (seven districts within the Barcelona metropolitan region) as well as for the functions deployed, within an agroecosystem, by the mutual interactions between its funds (land-uses, livestock and farming population). A complex nexus between land, livestock, dietary patterns and energy needs is shown; we conclude that from the perspective of the circular bioeconomy the agrarian sector has gone worse hand in hand with the landscape functional structure. Therefore, a novel perspective in landscape agroecology is opened
... Cunfer, 2004;Allen, 2008;Cunfer y Krausmann, 2009;García-Ruiz et al., 2012;Tello et al., 2012;Güldner et al., 2016;). Solo hemos identificado un trabajo con evidencias cuantitativas para Latinoamérica, pero cubriendo un marco temporal más corto (Delgadillo-Vargas, et al. 2016). b) Una gran parte de la superficie de café de Costa Rica se ha manejado históricamente, y se sigue manejando hoy en día, en forma de sistema agroforestal (SAF), integrado con múltiples especies arbóreas generadoras de sombra, así como de otros muchos servicios ambientales (Muschler, 1999). ...
El manejo de la fertilidad de la tierra es hoy señalado como principal variable explicativa de las revoluciones agrícolas que han tenido lugar desde el siglo XVIII. Sin embargo, apenas contamos con trabajos que profundicen en los procesos de cambio agrario en agriculturas tropicales y, menos aún, en sistemas agroforestales, en los que el reciclaje de biomasa resulta fundamental para entender las dinámicas de productivas. En este trabajo estimamos los balances de nitrógeno de los agroecosistemas de café de Costa Rica entre 1838 y 2010, cubriendo la transición de un manejo tradicional de la fertilidad a otro industrializado. Nuestro modelo incluye el efecto del estrato sombra, esto es, estimamos los flujos de biomasa reciclados, así como a la producción primaria total. Nuestros resultados muestran una profunda transición de los sistemas basados en el reciclaje de nutrientes a la dependencia de insumos externos; una creciente ineficiencia en el uso de fertilizantes; y un aumento de la productividad del café pero no así de la productividad primaria neta. También observamos que la exportación de biomasa para usos no alimentarios debido al carácter multifuncional de las agriculturas tradicionales limitaba las posibilidades de aumentar los rendimientos del café. El trabajo concluye con una propuesta para periodificar la historia del café en Costa Rica en base al manejo de la fertilidad de la tierra, esto es, proponemos una suerte de regímenes del metabolismo del nitrógeno que están condicionados por los cambios funcionalidad del cultivo y por las posibilidades tecnológicas para intensificar el uso del suelo.
... Paradoxically, industrialization processes have usually resulted in increasing total biomass extraction and consumption, as has been demonstrated in long-term socioecological research (LTSER, see Haberl et al. 2006;Singh et al. 2013). Various case studies around the globe have studied increasing biomass extraction and use at different scales, ranging from regional (Cusso et al. 2006;Delgadillo-Vargas et al. 2016) to national (Kastner 2009;Gingrich et al. 2015b;de Souza and Malhi 2017) and global ). However, relatively little is known about the changes in composition and quantity of energy use for biomass extraction, and changes in energy returns on investment. ...
... According to the FAOSTAT, fertiliser consumption is increasingly growing worldwide [21]. The use of fertilisers in agriculture has the main purpose of enhancing productivity promoting plant growth and potent stimulation of soil life [22]. Nonetheless, fertilisers have significant environmental implications being able to pollute surface and groundwaters when spread into the environment. ...
Intense farming represents one of the main sources causing detriments to vital resources as lands and water, due to unsustainable agricultural practices and the resulting environmental pollution. Furthermore, the increasing world population and the impact of climate change contribute to worsen these constraints. To these regards, several attempts have been completed to provide pioneering technologies for facing against these challenges, including nanostructured (bio)sensors. Indeed, nanotechnology-based (bio)sensors, thanks to the exploitation of fascinating properties of functional materials at the nanoscale, can support farmers in delivering fast, accurate, cost-effective, and in field analyses of i) soil humidity, ii) water and soil nutrients/pesticides, and iii) plant pathogens. Herein, we report a glance of the nano nanostructured (bio)sensors developed to support smart agriculture, reporting representative examples form the literature of the last 10 years.
For more than fifty years, international aid for agricultural research has been shaped by an unusual partnership: an ad-hoc consortium of national governments, foreign aid agencies, philanthropies, United Nations agencies, and international financial institutions, known as CGIAR. Formed in 1971 following the initial celebration of the so-called Green Revolution, CGIAR was tasked with extending that apparent transformation in production to new countries and crops. In this volume, leading historians and sociologists explore the influence of CGIAR and its affiliated international research centres. Traversing five continents and five decades of scientific research, agricultural aid, and political transformation, it examines whether and how science-led development has changed the practices of farmers, researchers, and policymakers. Although its language, funding mechanisms, and decision-making have changed over time, CGIAR and its network of research centres remain powerful in shaping international development and global agriculture. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Nanotechnology is believed to accelerate our fight to sustain and enhance crop productivity for the ever-increasing world population. It has been reckoned as one of the safest and most cost-efficient techniques to boost crop productivity in the future. The ever-increasing state-of-the-art availability of various nanomaterials has allowed us to pursue their beneficial properties in agronomy. Nanotechnology will help minimize the dependency on chemical fertilizers and existing crop production techniques that have already been exploited to their maximum potential. Therefore, in the present context, it could well be realized that agriculture will be driven by nanotechnology in the future.
This book focuses on the application of nanotechnology for enhancing crop production through the application of nanofertilizers or nanocomposites. Several avenues of nanotechnology are beneficial in improving crop productivity in a sustainable manner, which has been presented in a comprehensive way. The book also delves into the mechanistic view of nanoparticle functioning and its role in stress alleviation. In addition, the book presents some recent insights into the application of nanotechnology for post-harvest management, stress tolerance and usage as nanobiosensors.
Broadly, the book will encompass the following advances in the field, distinguishing it from other published volumes. The salient features include:
· Role of nanoparticles in improving abiotic stress tolerance in plants.
· Role of nanoparticles in protection against pathogens and pests.
· Mechanism of nanoparticle-induced plant responses.
· Synthesis and modification of nanoparticles to enhance their biological efficacy.
· Prospects of nanofertilizers, nanoformulations, nanopesticides, etc., and their beneficial attributes.
This book, therefore, presents this emerging topic and the most recent innovations in this field for postgraduate students, researchers and faculty members working in the fields of plant science, microbiology, biotechnology, agricultural sciences, etc.
A significant portion of pesticides and fertilizers used in agriculture go unused and affect the environment in various ways. In an attempt to ensure food security, excessive usage of such agrochemicals is done. It has several detrimental impacts on the environment, human health and the economy. An improvement in the nutrient usage efficiency of fertilizers would certainly be helpful for increasing yields and promoting agricultural growth. The application of nanotechnology has a significant interest in agriculture and there is a dire need to replace conventional agrochemicals with nanopesticides and nanofertilizers. At the nanoscale, their potential is improved owing to regulated release, precise distribution, high solubility and greater bioavailability. Nanoagrochemicals may offer new avenues for sustainable development of the agricultural sector. Several nano-enabled products have been developed with smart delivery and optimal nutrient use efficiency; however, not much work has been done in this regard. Efforts are still underway to design sustainable nanoagrochemicals which are quantitatively efficient as well as qualitatively significant. In this chapter, we have tried to highlight the different methods by which nanopesticides and nanofertilizers are developed. We have also brought to light the achievements of nanoagrochemicals and the future aspects of their development. Moreover, we have also brought into account the green synthesis of nanoagrochemicals.
The human species’ main challenge today is the future. The future is a growing concern. As never before, natural and social processes have become entangled and have generated unpredictable, surprising new dynamics and synergies that threaten the human species, planetary equilibrium, and life as a whole. We are witnessing a crisis of civilization: the crisis of modern, industrial civilization that requires new paradigms of a reality that has been transformed into a highly complex, socio-natural or natural-social system (Toledo in Papeles 110:171–177, 2011). In such a context, science as a whole must build knowledge of the past in order to draw lessons from it: in this way, we can adopt a rigorous historical perspective and achieve a comprehensive understanding of present situations. The implication of this scientific commitment is twofold: first, an integral and interdisciplinary conceptual framework capable of orchestrating research on nature-human relations must be developed; and second, a functional and meaningful analysis of such relations over time and space needs to be conducted.
The world faces the latest challenges, such as an increasing population, climate change, declining soil quality, and food security, demanding innovative solutions for producing high-quality, larger-scale food products. One such solution is the integration of nanotechnology into agriculture. Recently, nanotechnology has been introduced in agricultural engineering, where nanomaterials are used to develop various technologies for sustainable agriculture applications. Nanotechnology catalyzes sustainable agriculture by infusing the agricultural landscape with efficiency, accuracy, eco-friendliness, and environmental stewardship. Nanotechnologies have infiltrated from the early germination of seeds to the final stages of food processing, encompassing upstream and downstream activities. At the seed level, nanoscale coatings enhance viability, disease resistance, nutrient uptake, the germination stage, and seed quality. Nanosensors and nanobiosensors monitor and manage crop health, water usage, and soil quality. As crops mature, nano-enabled delivery systems precisely apply fertilisers, pesticides, and growth regulators, minimizing waste and maximizing efficacy.Additionally, nanotechnology aids in food processing, improving food preservation, smart packaging, and quality control, reducing post-harvest losses and extending shelf life. It optimizes resource utilization, improves crop J o u r n a l P r e-p r o o f Journal Pre-proof resilience, and reduces waste, offering a sustainable path to feed the growing global population-however, the analysis and integration of nanotechnology in agriculture open avenues for innovation and future advancements. Environmental issues, cost-effectiveness, soil health, and health risks associated with nanomaterials in agricultural practices are the main challenges that must be addressed. This review focuses on nanotechnology's potential to revolutionize agriculture by enhancing crop yield, quality, cost-effectiveness, soil health, and environmental sustainability. Embracing nanotechnology ensures food security and environmental stewardship for future generations, making it a crucial tool in addressing global agricultural challenges.
Augmenting value-added products generation with the biorefinery process of sugar cane by utilizing the by-products helps to achieve a more sustainable model of the sugarcane industry and in turn, contributes to the circular economy. Among the value-added products produced from sugarcane waste, functional foods offer additional health benefits besides their nutritional and calorific value. In recent years non-digestible sugars gained interest as potential prebiotic functional foods which benefit the host without increasing calorific value. These sugars are produced by the breakdown of carbohydrate polymers like cellulose and xylan, by thermochemical treatment or by enzymatic hydrolysis, or a combination of both. Sugar cane bagasse (SB) is an economical source of xylan which can serve as the substrate for xylooligosaccharides (XOS), xylobiose, xylitol, and ethanol. Cellulases, xylanases, and ligninases have wide applications in food processing, agro-fiber, pharmaceutical, and the paper and pulp industries including nutraceuticals production, where these enzymes provide eco-friendly alternatives to some chemical processes and help to reduce environmental impact. Conventional thermochemical methods for nutraceuticals production require chemicals that result in the release of toxic byproducts thus requiring additional steps for refining. In this context, the sustainable and eco-friendly processes for the production of nutraceuticals require employing biocatalysts like microbial enzymes or microbes as a whole, where in addition to averting the toxic byproducts the refining process requires lesser steps. The present chapter discusses the current research and challenges in the production of value-added products from sugarcane byproducts and their contribution to the sustainability of the sugarcane industry.
We hypothesize that biocultural landscapes configured by indigenous, peasant, and afro traditional agricultural systems, significantly contribute to the ecological functionality of the metropolitan region of Cali (Colombia).
Current landscapes reflect an ongoing local transition from organic-based agriculture to an industrial one that began in the first half of the 20th century. This transition has happened within a complex sociopolitical and cultural context in which the rural livelihoods are at a crossroads with regional agroindustry development. We
propose an integrated landscape-metabolism assessment based on georeferenced farm system typologies (local scale) and the region’s land cover data (landscape scale). The results expose the rupture between society (sociometabolic flows) and nature (ecological processes) in this metropolitan region driven by land-use intensification.
Our findings support the hypothesis of the contribution of biocultural landscapes to the region’s ecological functioning, and that show that agroforestry mosaics can offer promising contributions to biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provision in metropolitan regions.This landscape-metabolism assessment offers an opportunity to enrich intersectoral land policy formulation for highly biological and culturally diverse regions where agriculture constitutes a fundamental pillar to its economy, the local culture, and rural livelihoods. Given the confluence of the Colombian post-conflict implementation agenda, the global (un)sustainability crisis,
and the UN development goals, there is a need to bring biocultural landscapes into a broader interdisciplinary dialog and evaluate the sustainability, political feasibility, and social desirability of current agricultural development.
In present days, nanotechniques have achieved great attentions because of its various roles in many fields such as energy storage devices, clinical drugs, catalytic process, and materials. Several reports also revealed that nanotechnology would have a major and prolonged effect on the agriculture sector. Agriculture is an ecologically costly technique. An increasing number of peoples and unfavorable climatic situations increase the requirement of using insecticides and chemical fertilizers. However, they tend to have high adverse effects as they release toxic molecules in high quantity in the environment. The main solution of this issue is the formation of nanomaterials-based fertilizers and pesticides. Owing to small size, nanomaterials discharge desirable substances. Thus, these can also help in decreasing the wastes. By using nanotechniques, agriculture is developing fast. There are several roles of nanotechnology in agriculture like rise in production rate by using nanofertilizers and nanopesticides, enhancement of the plant growth by employing nanomaterials (like carbon nanotubes, titanium dioxide, and silicon dioxide), increase in quality of the soil by using hydrogels and nanofertilizers, and give better survey by employing wireless nanosensor tools. Moreover, these techniques help to control the discharge of toxic substances from agrochemicals (like fertilizers and pesticides) and deliver many needed macromolecules on desired sites to improve the disease resistance of plants. However, many issues have been raised about the efficient adverse effects of nanoparticles on the environment as well as on biological systems, like the generation of toxic free-radicals that lead to lipid peroxidation and damage of DNA by employing these more potential techniques. This has led to an increase in the number of unemployed in the area of farming due to the reduced requirement of human workers with these better operative techniques. Under these scenarios, there is need to predict the adverse effect of these nanoparticles in near future.KeywordsNanotechnologyApplicationsAdvantagesDrawbacksAgriculture
A new tool for boosting crop output, nanotechnology has the potential to address today's agricultural issues. The producing nanomaterials have a range of properties, including a wide surface area, target action at active sites, and progressive release action. As a result, nanotechnology is utilized in numerous industries, such as precision farming, food processing, and agriculture. The efficiency of plants can be increased by using nanofertilizer , nanosensors,
nanoherbicides, nanopesticide etc.
RESUMEN El doctorado en Agrociencias de la Universidad de La Salle (Código SNIES: 101358) lanzado al escenario educativo colombiano hace siete años, se ha constituido en un nuevo reto de formación pos gradual de alto nivel en Colombia y Latinoamérica. Con cimientos en lo que es el significado global y valor de la innovación, el importante aporte de la bioeconomía, las variabilidades de la agricultura tropical y la apuesta por el desarrollo humano integral y sustentable de una nueva ruralidad del país, se abre paso exitosamente, con la interdisciplinariedad que lo caracteriza, demostrando que es posible construir conocimiento avanzado de pronta aplicación a las necesidades rurales del país. En el presente aporte, se hace una exposición de su modus operandi, los avances realizados, los obstáculos sorteados y de las sinergias efectuadas que han contribuido a su pronto reconocimiento por la comunidad investigativa. Se pretende así mismo en este Foro tomar contacto con sus pares nacionales e internacionales para facilitar espacios de diálogo e investigación conjunta que puedan aportar al desarrollo rural de los territorios de la región. Palabras clave: Agrociencias; formación doctoral; agricultura tropical; innovación agraria PROGRAMA ACADÉMICO: Doctorado en Agrociencias CÓDIGO SNIES: 101358 TÍTULO QUE OTORGA:
Current agricultural systems have reached a critical transition point in their biophysical performance, social and environmental impacts, and energy patterns. The theoretical underpinnings of transitions towards sustainable futures have been studied from different approaches. The perspective of Social Metabolism (SM) studies how dynamic equilibriums of society-nature interactions arise in complex agroecosystems characterized by specific metabolic profiles that set their capabilities and limits. Changes between these regimes are understood as sociometabolic Transitions (SMT).This article offers a quantitative and qualitative review of how these SM and SMTs have been studied in Latin America so far, pointing out: i) the main conceptual and methodological approaches used, ii) the geographical scales of analysis, and iii) the main periods studied in the literature review. After identifying the different ways to account for the SMTs in LA, it discusses the prevailing SM narratives on the region's economic development. We found a scarce effort in carrying out multi-scalar studies linking national data with local case studies and a need to spread and adopt innovative SM methodologies and indicators to carry out more complex and comprehensive research on how inequality has framed the LA's agricultural paths and set their prospects.
Sugarcane leaves are long and have high flexibility. A machine to pick-up, shred and return sugar cane leaves to the field has been designed. It consists of a roller which picks up leaves and feeds them into a cutting mechanism where they are then shredded. The working width of the cutting mechanism of the machine is less than the feeding width of sugarcane leaves and this can easily cause blockage and wrapping of the cutting mechanism. To address this issue, the blade roller of the machine was improved by adding anti-wrapping pipes and using bent blades. Based on a theoretical analysis of sugarcane leaves in different feeding states, it was shown that the structural parameters of the blade roller, wrapping length of sugarcane leaf and forward speed of machine were the key factors influencing blockage and wrapping. By simulating the cutting process of sugarcane leaves using LS-DYNA in two feeding states, the average displacement of sugarcane leaf elements in contact with the anti-wrapping pipes and bent blades was obtained. The simulation results showed that the average displacements of sugarcane leaf elements under two feeding states were greater when the blade roller had anti-wrapping pipes and bent blades, which indicated that the improved blade roller was more conducive to cutting sugarcane leaves. High-speed photography of the cutting process showed that cutting sugarcane leaves in the transverse feeding state was an improvement and only a small amount of leaves in the longitudinal feeding state were wrapped around, and adhered to the rotary blades and anti-wrapping pipes. However, there was little wrapping of the bent blades. The experiment showed that the average cutting rate and its standard deviation were 91.68% and 1.58% respectively, and the average wrapping rate and its standard deviation were 1.13% and 0.37%, respectively.
Fertile soils are essential for human health and nutrition and formed the foundation of human economies for millennia. Soils deserve close attention from environmental and economic historians and sustainability scientists. Most soil history literature addresses failure: misuse of soil, uncontrolled erosion, and the resulting collapse of past civilizations. More important, however, and of urgent interest for our present and future prosperity, are the mundane ways that historical farm communities sustained soil health, even while cultivating the same land for centuries. This article explains five strategies by which European and North American farmers accessed, recycled, replenished, and sustained soil fertility over 250 years. By evaluating inputs, extractions, transfers, and annual balances of potassium, phosphorus, and, especially, nitrogen, it models historical soil management in a variety of agroecosystems in various geographical settings and through time. This biophysical environmental history, based on socioecological metabolism methods borrowed from sustainability science, reveals ongoing adaptation to shifting social and environmental contexts. As industrialization, global trade, and population accelerated, farmers adjusted their soil fertility strategies to keep up with new pressures and opportunities. Each solution to existing soil fertility constraints created new obstacles and bottlenecks. Through the past quarter millennium, farm sustainability meant constant readjustment to new circumstances. As farmers innovated crop choices and rotations, corralled livestock, adopted new technologies, deployed novel energy sources, and expanded into new lands, they increased food productivity to feed growing world population and supply expanding markets, while maintaining the supply of soil nutrients necessary to fertilize next year’s crop.
The availability of carbon (C) from high levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and anthropogenic release of nitrogen (N) is increasing, but these increases are not paralleled by increases in levels of phosphorus (P). The current unstoppable changes in the stoichiometries of C and N relative to P have no historical precedent. We describe changes in P and N fluxes over the last five decades that have led to asymmetrical increases in P and N inputs to the biosphere. We identified widespread and rapid changes in N:P ratios in air, soil, water, and organisms and important consequences to the structure, function, and biodiversity of ecosystems. A mass‐balance approach found that the combined limited availability of P and N was likely to reduce C storage by natural ecosystems during the remainder of the 21st Century, and projected crop yields of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment indicated an increase in nutrient deficiency in developing regions if access to P fertilizer is limited. Imbalances of the N:P ratio would likely negatively affect human health, food security, and global economic and geopolitical stability, with feedbacks and synergistic effects on drivers of global environmental change, such as increasing levels of CO2, climatic warming, and increasing pollution. We summarize potential solutions for avoiding the negative impacts of global imbalances of N:P ratios on the environment, biodiversity, climate change, food security, and human health.
Crop diseases and pests are one of the major concerns of Colombian farmers, since the affected crops could highly reduce their yields, negatively impacting the livelihood of their families. Though recent researches have focused on opportunely detecting possible infections, most of the alerts are deployed through ineffective legacy systems wasting the opportunities brought by these researches. Thus, we propose an ICT-based easily-scalable dissemination system for coffee-rust early warning systems, capable of deploying alerts through both telecommunications and Web 2.0 services, and seamlessly connecting to current rust-detection systems through a standard Web interface. This system will allow Colombian agriculture-oriented alert systems to increase their efficiency and effectiveness, reducing the impact of crops pests and diseases on the Colombian economy, mainly for smallholders.
Our article analyzes several research approaches about fertilization strategies, considering the soil-plant-climate ecosystem. We used the systematic literature review methodology, aiming to answer the research questions raised in our study. Yield and productivity of sugar cane crops is closely related to quality and efficiency of fertilization strategies. We approach fertilization strategies in sugar cane crops analyzing old and new methodologies, recognizing their respective strengths and weaknesses, and looking for new improvements on them to prevent the environmental impact caused by crop fertilization.
The study of the chemical fertilizer consumption in different countries provides basal data for the decision-making of fertilizer production and for the environmental impact assessment of fertilizer application. Hence, the aim of this research was to study and compare the trend of the chemical fertilizer consumption from 1980 to 2012 in Iran, Turkey, Japan, Germany, France, and the USA. For this purpose, various indices such as application rates (kg ha−1) of N, P, and K, arable land, and total fertilizer consumption were analysed. Results showed that the application rates of nutrients (N-P2O5-K2O) in Iran, Turkey, Japan, Germany, France, and the USA in 2012 were 100-42-7, 100-42-7, 100-94-60, 100-17-25, 100-13-38, and 100-33-35, respectively. The lowest and highest area under production were observed in Japan with 4.0 million ha (0.033 hectares (ha) per person) and in the USA with 155.0 million ha (0.51 ha per person) during 2008-2015 respectively. In addition, the highest and lowest application rates of net nutrients consumption were recorded in France and Germany (285 and 285 kg ha−1) and in Iran (66 kg ha−1) respectively. Overall, the average net consumption of fertilizers in the studied countries in three recent decades (million tonnes) decreased in the order; The USA (19.282) > France (4.601) > Germany (3.302) > Turkey (1.825) > Japan (1.604) > Iran (1.130). Regarding an estimated 9.2 billion people by 2050, the balanced consumption of nutrients (N-P2O5-K2O) and the principles of optimal consumption of fertilizers are keys for achieving the increased food production, food security, and environmental conservation.
Key words: Food security; Chemical fertilizers; Inputs; Agricultural crops.
The excessive use of nitrogen (N) in sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is a source of contamination for aquifers. The objective was to evaluate sugarcane yield, as well as profitability and amount of N leached resulting from the application of different split N doses. Three N doses (250, 200 and 150 kg ha-1 ) and three different application numbers (2, 3 and 4) were evaluated using a factorial design in randomized blocks. When the N dose was divided in three and four applications yields higher than 125 ton ha-1 were obtained. The greatest benefit-cost-ratio (1.8) resulted from using 150 kg ha-1 of N divided in three applications. The lowest N losses due to leaching were obtained using 150 kg ha -1 of N divided in three (16.8 kg ha-1) and four (15.4 kg ha-1) applications. Low N doses divided in three or four applications did not reduce sugarcane production; furthermore, it was more profitable and had a lower environmental impact by reducing N leaching.
The objectives of this study were to evaluate nitrogen utilization by sugarcane ratoon from two sources, applied urea and sugarcane straw covering soil surface (trash blanket), besides the recovery of N from both sources in the soil-plant system. The following treatments were established in a randomized block design with four replicates: T1, vinasse-urea (100 kg ha-1 of urea-N) mixture applied on the total area of the soil covered with cane trash labeled with 15N; T2, vinasse-urea mixture (urea labeled with 15N; 100 kg ha-1 of urea-N) applied on the total area of the soil covered with non-labeled sugarcane trash; and T3, urea-15N (100 kg ha-1 of urea-N) applied in furrows at both sides of cane rows, with previous surface application of vinasse, onto soil without trash covering. The vinasse was applied at a rate of 100 m3 ha-1 in all treatments. The experiment was carried out on a Yellow Red Podzolic soil (Paleudalf), from October 1997 to August 1998, in Piracicaba, SP, Brazil. The nitrogen use efficiency of urea by the sugarcane ratoon was 21%, while that of the sugarcane straw was 9%. The main contributions of N from sugarcane trash, during one cycle, are the preservation and increase of the organic N in soil. The tendency for a lower accumulation of urea-N in the sugarcane plant, in the soil surface covered with sugarcane residue, was compensated by the assimilation of N from trash mineralization. Nitrogen derived from cane trash was more available to plants in the second half of the ratoon cycle.
Over the last two million years, humans have colonized almost the entire biosphere on Earth, thereby creating socio-ecological systems in which fundamental patterns and processes are co-regulated by socio-economic and ecological processes. We postulate that the evolution of coupled socio-ecological systems can be characterized by a sequence of relatively stable configurations, here denoted as ‘socio-metabolic regimes’, and comparatively rapid transitions between such regimes. We discern three fundamentally different socio-metabolic regimes: hunter-gatherers, agrarian societies and industrial society. Transitions between these regimes fundamentally change socio-ecological interactions, whereas changes and variations within each regime are gradual. Two-thirds of the world population are currently within a rapid transition from the agrarian to the industrial regime. Many current global sustainability problems are a direct consequence of this transition. The central hypothesis discussed in this article is that industrial society is at least as different from a future sustainable society as it is from the agrarian regime. The challenge of sustainability is, therefore, a fundamental re-orientation of society and the economy, not the implementation of some technical fixes. Based on empirical data for global resource use (material and energy flows, land use), this essay questions the notion that the promotion of eco-efficiency is sufficient for achieving sustainability, and outlines the reasons why a transition to a new socio-metabolic regime is now required. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.
Calculations of nitrogen (N) budgets can help in the understanding of agroecosystem functioning and in proposing more sustainable management strategies. Changes in the main N fluxes of the pampean agroecosystems of Argentina were calculated over time. The impact of management changes on regional N budget and possible future trends were estimated. Changes in land use were quantified using national censuses data. Biological N fixation of leguminous forages was assessed using a regression model and local field experimental data. Nitrogen fixation by soybean, the most extensive grain crop, was calculated using an existing model. Fertilizer input was based upon farmer surveys, and atmospheric N input estimated using local data. Nitrogen output by grain harvest was estimated using national yield statistics and averaged grain N concentration derived from many field experiments widespread over the region. During the last 50 years cropped area has doubled as a result of the widespread adoption of soybean as the main component of rotations. The agricultural expansion included areas previously used for grazing on seeded pastures and seasonal graminaceus forages. The historical N budget of the entire region was positive but has dropped from 2.0 Mt y−1 in 1960 to 1.3 Mt y−1 at present. This reduction implies that N fixation by soybean and fertilizer application were lower than the previous livestock/pasture systems N input. During the cropping phase of rotations the N budget was usually negative in the past. Currently, in low yielding areas of semiarid environments, the N budget turned positive; meanwhile in humid climates with high productivity scenarios it remained negative. Fertilizer rates applied balanced N output in the former case but not in the latter. Partial factor productivity of N inputs increased from 3- to 6-fold during the last 50 years in the Pampas. Uncertainties related to the estimations performed are discussed.
By reconstructing the nutrient balance of a Catalan village circa 1861–65 we examine the sustainability of organic agricultural systems in the northwest Mediterranean bioregion prior to the green revolution and the question of whether the nutrients extracted from the soil were replenished. With a population density of 59 inhabitants per square km, similar to other northern European rural areas at that time, and a lower livestock density per cropland unit, this village experienced a manure shortage. The gap was filled by other labour-intensive ways of transferring nutrients from uncultivated areas into the cropland. Key elements in this agricultural system were vineyards because they have few nutrient requirements, and woodland and scrublands as sources of relevant amounts of nutrients collected in several ways.
http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/handle/2445/43662
Changes in cropland intensification and extension and their socioeconomic consequences have been a topic mainly investigated by agrarian historians. Results of the nutrient balances of these historical agricultural systems with relatively closed nutrient cycles might have played an important role because long-term sustainability only is achieved when the replacement of nutrients match those harvested. Thus, the analysis of the nutrient balance of specific historical agricultural systems or management practices has been the focus of agrarian historians. However, many of these nutrient balances have failed to take into account specific processes of importance. In this study, we provide a guideline for constructing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium balances in historical agroecosystems at both crop and aggregated scales. A rationale for explaining the processes involved and the variables that must be taken into account is provided. We also apply the model for specific crops at a parish scale using a case study from 1752. In addition, we provide the basis for linking a specific outcome of the nutrient balance with the long-term sustainability of specific crops.
A doubling in global food demand projected for the next 50 years poses huge challenges for the sustainability both of food production and of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and the services they provide to society. Agriculturalists are the principal managers of global useable lands and will shape, perhaps irreversibly, the surface of the Earth in the coming decades. New incentives and policies for ensuring the sustainability of agriculture and ecosystem services will be crucial if we are to meet the demands of improving yields without compromising environmental integrity or public health.
Plant and therefore food and feed production require an adequate supply of nutrients. Efficient nutrient use is a major task to ensure economically and environmentally sound food production minimizing the impact of nutrients on ground water, the risk of eutrophication caused by rising nutrient concentrations in surface waters and the emission of trace gases such as nitrous oxide (N2O) and ammonia (NH3). Agri-environmental indicators (AEI) developed by the OECD shall identify and quantify the extent of impacts by agricultural management on the environment and track the effects of policy measures. Nutrient balances for nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) on the national level are two of these agri-environmental indicators used by the OECD to compare member states and draw conclusions about nutrient loads from agriculture into the environment. OECD member states are required to calculate and provide gross soil surface nutrient balances for N and P on an annual base. The German N gross soil surface balance for the time period from 1992 to 2006 shows a surplus between 89 and 121 kg ha(-1) a(-1) N. Because nutrient balances are simplifications of complex and variable processes they comprise a series of uncertainties. These uncertainties are mainly associated with either the statistical data base or the coefficient library used to convert the statistical data into nutrient quantities. Therefore, it is essential to be aware that the absolute balance values do not reflect the actual situation in a country. Nevertheless, in case that a consistent method of balance calculation is used for all years a comparison between these years to derive trends in nutrient surpluses or deficits is possible.
In this article the notions of 'societal metabolism' and 'colonization of nature' are used to describe the inter-relations between societies and their natural environment in order to operationalize the concept of 'sustainable development'. Metabolism refers to the material and energetic input-output processes of societies, i.e, the extraction of natural resources, their processing, storage within society, and finally their release as wastes and emissions. 'Colonization of nature' refers to activities which deliberately alter natural systems and keep them in a societally desired state. We empirically analyse the metabolism of five industrial countries. Their per capita material consumption is similar enough to support the notion of a 'characteristic metabolic profile' of industrial society, which can be viewed in a historical perspective against the metabolism of hunter-and-gatherer and agrarian societies, revealing an impressive increase. We then analyse the inter-relations between a society's energetic metabolism and the need as well as the limitations of its colonization strategies. For example, we discuss how the biomass productivity of plants limits the energy flow of agrarian societies and globally may limit population growth. Finally, we discuss how industrial societies might perceive their sustainability problems and respond to them.
To investigate both the temporal and spatial changes in the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of agroecosystems in the different
agricultural regions of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River basin, we constructed a nitrogen (N) budget by using a database of
county-level agricultural statistics that was collected every 10years from 1980 to 2000. Based on the mass balance model,
we defined the NUE of agroecosystems as the proportion of all N inputs that are exported via the harvested crop biomass. According
to our estimates, the mean total N inputs increased from 8.68Tg N in 1980 to 13.4TgN in 1990 and to 19.8Tg N in 2000 due
to regional human activities. The proportion of anthropogenic new reactive N to the total inputs increased from 42% in 1980
to 68% in 2000 while the proportion of recycled N decreased. N from synthetic fertilizers was the largest contributor to the
basin and dramatically increased to 12.23Tg N in 2000, corresponding to a fivefold increase over that in 1980. While the
amount of N from atmospheric deposition, biological N fixation, and recycled N varied slightly between 1980 and 2000, the
proportion of N in harvested crops to the total N inputs decreased. Furthermore, the proportion of N lost by denitrification,
volatilization, and riverine N transport, and that stored in soil increased between 1980 and 2000 as a result of intensified
agricultural activities. It was found that the change pattern of the NUE differs both temporally and spatially. In the Sichuan
basin and the plains in the middle and lower reaches that comprise the main agricultural regions of the Changjiang River basin,
the NUE increased between 1980 and 1990; however, it dramatically decreased in almost the entire area between 1990 and 2000.
On the other hand, in the mountainous and hilly regions of the lower Jinshajiang and Wujiang watersheds, the NUE decreased
between 1980 and 1990 but increased between 1990 and 2000. As a result, the total amount of N transported to the surface waters
from the agroecosystem reached 4.32Tg N in 2000, showing a 2.4-fold increase over that in 1980. The export of riverine N
increased, and the areas that exported large amounts of riverine N expanded widely from the Changjiang lower plain to the
Changjiang middle plain and the surrounding areas between 1980 and 2000. It was apparent that the high rates of N fertilizer
application were the most important factor that led to the dramatic decrease in NUE between 1990 and 2000.
The production of reactive nitrogen worldwide has more than doubled in the last century because of human activities and population
growth. Advances in our understanding of the nitrogen cycle and the impacts of anthropogenic activities on regional to global
scales is largely hindered by the paucity of information about nitrogen inputs from human activities in fast-developing regions
of the world such as the tropics. In this paper, we estimate nitrogen inputs and outputs in Brazil, which is the world’s largest
tropical country. We determined that the N cycle is increasingly controlled by human activities rather than natural processes.
Nitrogen inputs to Brazil from human activities practically doubled from 1995 to 2002, mostly because of nitrogen production
through biological fixation in agricultural systems. This is in contrast to industrialized countries of the temperate zone,
where fertilizer application and atmospheric deposition are the main sources of anthropogenic nitrogen. In Brazil, the production
of soybean crops over an area of less than 20 million ha, was responsible for about 3.2 Tg N or close to one-third of the
N inputs from anthropogenic sources in 2002. Moreover, cattle pastures account for almost 70% of the estimated 280 × 106 ha of agricultural land in Brazil and potentially fix significant amounts of N when well managed, further increasing the
importance of biological nitrogen fixation in the nitrogen budget. Much of these anthropogenic inputs occur in the Brazilian
savannah region (Cerrado), while more urbanized regions such as the state of São Paulo also have high rates of nitrogenous fertilizer inputs. In the
Amazon, rates of anthropogenic nitrogen inputs are relatively low, but continuing conversion of natural forests into cattle
pasture or secondary forests potentially add a significant amount of new nitrogen to Brazil given the vast area of the region.
Better measurements of biological fixation rates in Brazil are necessary for improving the nitrogen budgets, especially at
a more refined spatial scale.
Modern agriculture is based on the notion that nitrate is the main source of nitrogen (N) for crops, but nitrate is also the most mobile form of N and easily lost from soil. Efficient acquisition of nitrate by crops is therefore a prerequisite for avoiding off-site N pollution. Sugarcane is considered the most suitable tropical crop for biofuel production, but surprisingly high N fertilizer applications in main producer countries raise doubt about the sustainability of production and are at odds with a carbon-based crop. Examining reasons for the inefficient use of N fertilizer, we hypothesized that sugarcane resembles other giant tropical grasses which inhibit the production of nitrate in soil and differ from related grain crops with a confirmed ability to use nitrate. The results of our study support the hypothesis that N-replete sugarcane and ancestral species in the Andropogoneae supertribe strongly prefer ammonium over nitrate. Sugarcane differs from grain crops, sorghum and maize, which acquired both N sources equally well, while giant grass, Erianthus, displayed an intermediate ability to use nitrate. We conclude that discrimination against nitrate and a low capacity to store nitrate in shoots prevents commercial sugarcane varieties from taking advantage of the high nitrate concentrations in fertilized soils in the first three months of the growing season, leaving nitrate vulnerable to loss. Our study addresses a major caveat of sugarcane production and affords a strong basis for improvement through breeding cultivars with enhanced capacity to use nitrate as well as through agronomic measures that reduce nitrification in soil.
Several geopolitical factors, aggravated by worries of global warming, have been fueling the search for and production of renewable energy worldwide for the past few years. Such demand for renewable energy is likely to benefit the sugarcane ethanol industry in Brazil, not only because sugarcane ethanol has a positive energetic balance and relatively low production costs, but also because Brazilian ethanol has been successfully produced and used as biofuel in the country since the 1970s. However, environmental and social impacts associated with ethanol production in Brazil can become important obstacles to sustainable biofuel production worldwide. Atmospheric pollution from burning of sugarcane for harvesting, degradation of soils and aquatic systems, and the exploitation of cane cutters are among the issues that deserve immediate attention from the Brazilian government and international societies. The expansion of sugarcane crops to the areas presently cultivated for soybeans also represent an environmental threat, because it may increase deforestation pressure from soybean crops in the Amazon region. In this paper, we discuss environmental and social issues linked to the expansion of sugarcane in Brazil for ethanol production, and we provide recommendations to help policy makers and the Brazilian government establish new initiatives to produce a code for ethanol production that is environmentally sustainable and economically fair. Recommendations include proper planning and environmental risk assessments for the expansion of sugarcane to new regions such as Central Brazil, improvement of land use practices to reduce soil erosion and nitrogen pollution, proper protection of streams and riparian ecosystems, banning of sugarcane burning practices, and fair working conditions for sugarcane cutters. We also support the creation of a more constructive approach for international stakeholders and trade organizations to promote sustainable development for biofuel production in developing countries such as Brazil. Finally, we support the inclusion of environmental values in the price of biofuels in order to discourage excessive replacement of natural ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, and pasture by bioenergy crops.
This volume explores how agricultural activities have changed across the face of the globe since the earliest times. After an ecological introduction, it presents a series of themes which draw on research from a range of disciplines. Successive chapters deal with: the Neolithic 'agricultural revolution', cultivation systems on clearances in formerly wooded areas, the agricultural systems of the Nile valley, the agrarian systems of the Incas, agricultural changes in Classical Antiquity, the 'agricultural revolution' of medieval north-west Europe, the 'agricultural revolution' of the 18th and 19th centuries in western Europe, the impact of mechanisation and the transport revolution on world farming, and the most recent expression of these changes since 1950. The final chapter provides an exploration of the current agricultural crisis, with its many expressions including over-production in some parts of the developed world, low levels of production and rural poverty elsewhere, and the impact of trade in foodstuffs working to the relative disadvantage of the poorer parts of the world.
This article employs the concept of socio-ecological metabolism for historical analyses of agroecosystems. We empirically investigate two case studies in the Austrian Alps of c. 1830 in terms of food and feed provision and soil nitrogen (N) balances. Total biomass extraction and food production were higher in the prealpine Enns valley. However, the larger non-agricultural population working in metal processing relied on food imports. In the high alpine Möll valley, food production was lower, but sustained the smaller regional population. There is no evidence of soil N-depletion at the regional scale in the Enns valley, but it cannot be ruled out in the Möll valley. While our results confirm that output intensity of land use increases with population density, the lower soil N-balance of the less densely populated Möll valley indicates that system-level land-use intensity was unexpectedly higher.
In the Caribbean, valleys of the Andes, Oriental Plains and Andean region of Columbia, there is a great diversity of soils, soil quality and ways and hazards of soil degradation caused by large variations in parent materials, climatic conditions, biodiversity and the physiographic position of the land. Soil and environmental characteristics, soil use and soil degradation in Columbia are specified. There are also opportunities for increased agricultural production. The high degree of soil diversity provides ecological niches for the successful cultivation of modern crop varieties. Alternative cropping practices are suggested. To promote sustainable effects in Colombian soils, a reduction of and change in soil cultivation practices are proposed. Sugarcane fields planted in Alfisols, Vertisols or Mollisols support production levels of > 14 t ha(-1) month(-1) with high sugar production. In Andean or Caribbean soils, tropical fruit production can be maintained at > 40 t ha(-1) year(-1). Oil palm fruit can reach production levels of 33-35 t ha(-1). Combining practices results in an improvement in physical, chemical and biological soil properties, maintaining high production levels in soils of low, medium or high fertility. It is concluded that the productivity of Colombian tropical soils is a function of soil quality and management.
The industrial synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen has been of greater fundamental importance to the modern world than the invention of the airplane, nuclear energy, space flight, or television. The expansion of the world's population from 1.6 billion people in 1900 to today's six billion would not have been possible without the synthesis of ammonia. In Enriching the Earth, Vaclav Smil begins with a discussion of nitrogen's unique status in the biosphere, its role in crop production, and traditional means of supplying the nutrient. He then looks at various attempts to expand natural nitrogen flows through mineral and synthetic fertilizers. The core of the book is a detailed narrative of the discovery of ammonia synthesis by Fritz Haber -- a discovery scientists had sought for over one hundred years -- and its commercialization by Carl Bosch and the chemical company BASF. Smil also examines the emergence of the large-scale nitrogen fertilizer industry and analyzes the extent of global dependence on the Haber-Bosch process and its biospheric consequences. Finally, it looks at the role of nitrogen in civilization and, in a sad coda, describes the lives of Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch after the discovery of ammonia synthesis.
A simple, semi‐empirical model for estimating nitrogen (N) leaching losses and critical N application rates in dairy pasture systems is described. The model uses the annual rates of major N flux processes in the soil‐plant system to determine the potentially leachable N pool (mineral N and mineralisable N), and estimates the N leaching loss based on measured relationships between the N leaching loss and the potentially leachable N in the soil. The N flux processes considered in the model include fertiliser or effluent N applications, biological N fixation, soil N mineralisation and immobilisation, plant N uptake, animal N return at the urine patches, ammonium volatilisation, and denitrification. The impact of drainage on N leaching is taken into account by normalising the N leaching loss to a per 100 mm drainage basis. A quadratic equation is used to describe the relationship between the N leaching loss and potentially leachable N. Tests of the model predictions against other experimental data showed reasonable agreements between the estimated N leaching losses with those measured. The modelled critical N application rates which would cause the annual average N concentration in the drainage water to reach the drinking water standard (11.3 mg N r) are: 390–392 kg N ha for cut and carry, and 162–192 kg N ha for grazed pastures if urea is used; and 588–600 kg N ha for cut and carry, and 248–301 kg N ha for grazed pastures if dairy shed effluent is used.
The relative importance of nitrogen inputs from atmospheric deposition and biological fixation is reviewed in a number of diverse, non-agricultural terrestrial ecosystems. Bulk precipitation inputs of N (l–l2 kg N ha–1 yr–1) are the same order of magnitude as, or frequently larger than, the usual range of inputs from nonsymbiotic fixation (< 1="" –="" 5="" kg="" n="">–1 yr–1), especially in areas influenced by industrial activity. Bulk precipitation measurements may underestimate total atmospheric deposition by 30–40% because they generally do not include all forms of wet and dry deposition. Symbiotic fixation generally ranges from 10–160 kg N ha–1 yr–1) in ecosystems where N-fixing species are present during early successional stages, and may exceed the range under unusual conditions.Rates of both symbiotic and nonsymbiotic fixation appear to be greater during early successional stages of forest development, where they have major impacts on nitrogen dynamics and ecosystem productivity. Fates and impacts of these nitrogen inputs are important considerations that are inadequately understood. These input processes are highly variable in space and time, and few sites have adequate comparative information on both nitrogen deposition and fixation.
- more intensive studies of total atmospheric deposition, especially of dry deposition, are needed over a wide range of ecosystems;
- additional studies of symbiotic fixation are needed that carefully quantify variation over space and time, examine more factors regulating fixation, and focus upon the availability of N and its effects upon productivity and other nutrient cycling processes;
- process-level studies of associative N-fixation should be conducted over a range of ecosystems to determine the universal importance of rhizosphere fixation;
- further examination of the role of free-living fixation in wood decomposition and soil organic matter genesis is needed, with attention upon spatial and temporal variation; and
- investigations of long-term biogeochemical impacts of these inputs must be integrated with process-level studies using modern modelling techniques.
Nitrate (NO3
–) leaching from agriculturalproduction systems is blamed for the rising concentrations ofNO3
– in ground- and surface-waters around the world.This paper reviews the evidence of NO3
– leachinglosses from various land use systems, including cut grassland, grazed pastures,arable cropping, mixed cropping with pasture leys, organic farming,horticultural systems, and forest ecosystems. Soil, climatic and managementfactors which affect NO3
– leaching are discussed.Nitrate leaching occurs when there is an accumulation ofNO3
– in the soil profile that coincides with or isfollowed by a period of high drainage. Therefore, excessive nitrogen (N)fertilizer or waste effluent application rates or N applications at the wrongtime (e.g. late autumn) of the year, ploughing pasture leys early in the autumn,or long periods of fallow ground, can all potentially lead to highNO3
– leaching losses. N returns in animal urine havea major impact on NO3
– leaching in grazed pastures.Of the land use systems considered in this paper, the potential for causingNO3
– leaching typically follow the order: forest< cut="" grassland="">< grazed="" pastures,="" arable="" cropping="">< ploughing="" ofpasture="">< market="" gardens.="" a="" range="" ofmanagement="" options="" to="" mitigate="">3
– leaching isdescribed, including reducing N application rates, synchronizing N supply toplant demand, use of cover crops, better timing of ploughing pasture leys,improved stock management, precision farming, and regulatory measures. This isfollowed by a discussion of future research needs to improve our ability topredict and mitigate NO3
– leaching.
Fertigation can be a more efficient means of applying crop nutrients, particularly nitrogen (N), so that nutrient application rates can be reduced in fertigated crops. However, there is little information on the extent of the possible reduction in N application rate for fertigated sugarcane, one of the major row crops grown under trickle irrigation, nor the fate of N in fertigated sugarcane systems if N application rates are not reduced. An experiment was established to determine the response of cane and sugar production to different N rates (0–240kg ha–1 year–1) spanning that recommended for conventional irrigation systems (160kg ha–1 year–1). As well as yield, N removed in the crop and changes in soil mineral N were determined annually for four crops (a plant and three ratoon crops). 15N values were also measured in selected treatments at selected times to assess possible N inputs to the experiment via biological N fixation (BFN). Yields of cane and sugar responded to application of N fertiliser in the three ratoon crops, but they were not significantly increased by applying more than 80kg ha–1 of N. There were no N responses in the plant crop, as there was >200kg ha–1 of soil mineral N (SMN) to 2m depth at the site prior to planting, and much of this SMN was depleted in the treatment receiving no N. There was no evidence of N input from BFN in the experiment. During the 4-year study period, net removal of N from the treatment with no applied N totalled 207kg ha–1. When 80 or 120kg ha–1 year–1 of N was applied to ratoon crops, outputs of N from the harvested crop approximately balanced inputs from fertiliser and depletion of SMN during the experiment. Inputs clearly exceeded output at higher N application rates. Assuming that the net removal of N from the treatment with no applied N was the same as the net mineralisation of N from soil organic matter in all treatments in the experiment, 204–639kg ha–1 of N was unaccounted for in the treatments with applied N over the duration of the experiment. While some of this N (e.g. 45kg ha–1) may have resulted in small (and undetectable) increases in total soil N, much of it would have been lost to the environment. We suggest that the high soil water contents maintained with daily application of irrigation water through the trickle system promotes mineralisation of soil organic matter and hence losses of N to the environment. Thus, particular care is required to avoid over-application of N in fertigated sugarcane.
Mining of nutrients from the soil, particularly in developing countries, is a major problem, causing soil degradation and threatening long-term food production. This paper develops a methodology for carrying out nutrient audits, which includes the calculation of nutrient balances and an evaluation of trends in nutrient depletion/enrichment. Nutrient balances for arable farming are constructed for 197 countries for 1996 and for the world and two specific countries – a developed/enriching country (Japan) and a developing/depleting country (Kenya) for the period 1961 – 1996.
The results indicate that nutrient efficiency is approximately 50% for N, 40% for P, and 75% for K. In some countries in Western Europe and in Japan and the Republic of Korea, with large, mixed farming systems, there is a surplus of N, P, and K. However, in almost all other countries, food production is currently dependent on depleting large quantities of nutrients from soil reserves and this is likely to continue. The world average soil depletion of nutrients in 1996 was estimated to be 12.1 kg N ha−1, 4.5 kg P ha−1, and 20.2 kg K ha−1. The depletion of K is particularly severe and could ultimately lead to a serious loss of crop productivity in several countries. There is an urgent need to investigate this issue further. Analytical tools, such as the nutrient audit model described, can play an important role in assessing the problem, and in developing sustainable nutrient management policies, strategies, and practices.
China has been able to feed a rapidly growing population by increasing crop yields, partly through the use of mineral fertilizers. Although now faced with a lower population growth rate, the prospects for increasing food production are uncertain because of the decline in the rate of increase in crop yields. This paper describes the use of a nutrient audit model to calculate nutrient output and input relationships, nutrient balances, and nutrient depletion rates between 1961 and 1997. Over the last two decades, China has been able to reduce its nitrogen (N) deficit through the use of large quantities of N fertilizers and has now achieved a balance. About 65% of total N inputs are supplied as N fertilizers. Significant progress has also been made in reducing the phosphorus (P) deficit from 1.2 million tonnes in 1985 to 0.6 million tonnes in 1997, when P fertilizer accounted for 57% of total P inputs. There is, however, a major annual depletion of potassium (K) which increased from 2.9 million tonnes in 1961 to 8.3 million tonnes in 1997. Potassium balances for the 30 provinces in China in 1996 indicate high depletion rates in all provinces. China has no large K reserves so most K fertilizers have to be imported. Application rates of K have remained relatively low and K fertilizer accounts for only 14% of total K inputs.
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