Erosion: The Psychopathology of Self-Criticism
Abstract
Self-criticism is a personality trait that has been implicated in a wide range of psychopathologies and developmental arrests. Defined as the tendency to set unrealistically high standards for one's self and to adopt a punitive stance towards the self once these standards are not met, self-criticism is both active and cyclical. Self-critics actively create the social-interpersonal conditions that generate their distress, and their distress itself exacerbates self-criticism. Erosion offers a comprehensive treatment of self-criticism based in philosophy, developmental science, personality and clinical psychology, social theories, and cognitive-affective neuroscience. Professor Golan Shahar expertly summarizes the most recent research on the topic and synthesizes theory, empirical research, and clinical practice guidelines for assessment, prevention, and treatment. The book rests upon three elements that, as Shahar argues, are central to the maintenance of self-critical vulnerability: the importance of a concept of an authentic self or the need to "feel real"; the importance of intentionality and goal-directedness; and the power of interpersonal relationships and cultural context. Shahar argues that exploring these elements requires an integrated clinical approach that incorporates multidimensional assessment and interventions which reconcile science, practice, and policy. The result is a broad and scholarly volume that is useful to practitioners, researchers, and theorists interested in self-criticism.
... Hated-self is "linked to selfhating and wanting not to improve aspects of the self but to get rid of them" (Gilbert, 2022, p. 170). Shahar (2015) formulated the Axis of Criticism Model (ACRIM). The model posits that the origins of SC lie in parental criticism and in the child's (and later the adolescent and adult's) failed attempt to develop their true self through authenticity and self-knowledge (SK). ...
... According to this perspective, high levels of SC stem from a lack of authenticity and self-knowledge as well as from experiences of criticism expressed by significant others. Shahar (2015) characterized selfknowledge as a distorted manifestation of SK that creates a gap between an individual's evolving selfknowledge and accurate self-knowledge. ...
... Despite a general agreement among scholars that SC entails a negative internal dialogue and a critical and hostile self-judgment Shahar, 2015), the literature has provided diverse descriptions and definitions regarding the multidimensional nature of SC (Rose & Rimes, 2018). This diversity in SC definitions may be linked to the development of different theoretical models or to the overlap of SC with other constructs . ...
Objective: Self-criticism (SC) is a central transdiagnostic factor in several
psychopathological conditions, influencing the development and maintenance of
symptomatology. The importance of this construct has stimulated quantitative and
qualitative research about it. The main purpose of this systematic review is to highlight
which qualitative methods have been used most frequently and which are most suitable
for studying SC.
Method: We conducted a systematic search by searching the following databases
to identify publications: PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, MEDLINE, Scopus, Web
of Science, PubMed, and ERIC (all years up to and including January 2024). We
aggregated search terms into two concepts for all databases: “self-criticism” and
“qualitative analysis”.
Results: After removing duplicates, we screened a total of 852 records, resulting
in the identification of 28 full-text articles that we assessed for eligibility. Upon closer
examination, there was consensus that 16 of those studies met the inclusion criteria.
Data extracted from the included studies revealed the lack of a shared approach
regarding qualitative analysis of SC. Some studies employed a top-down coding
approach, others used a bottom-up coding approach, and a few combined both
methods. Consensual qualitative research and thematic analysis have been used most
widely in the field. Furthermore, the data revealed no consensus among researchers
on the conceptualization of SC. SC categories identified through qualitative analysis
frequently do not align with existing theoretical models, and these categories are rarely
re-examined in subsequent studies.
Conclusions: There is a need to test existing theoretical models of SC through
qualitative analysis and to develop new models that should be examined with
qualitative and quantitative methods in different clinical populations to fully capture
the complexity and multidimensionality of SC.
... In contrast to the personal resilience factors, self-criticism is a pivotal transdiagnostic personal risk dimension (Luyten & Blatt, 2011;Shahar, 2015;Werner et al., 2019). Self-critical individuals are characterized by a tendency to set high self-standards, obsessive fear of failure, feelings of worthlessness and guilt, and a tendency to blame and criticize the self (Blatt et al., 1976;Shahar, 2015). ...
... In contrast to the personal resilience factors, self-criticism is a pivotal transdiagnostic personal risk dimension (Luyten & Blatt, 2011;Shahar, 2015;Werner et al., 2019). Self-critical individuals are characterized by a tendency to set high self-standards, obsessive fear of failure, feelings of worthlessness and guilt, and a tendency to blame and criticize the self (Blatt et al., 1976;Shahar, 2015). Despite having been demonstrated as a risk factor for psychopathology during COVID-19 (Besser et al., 2022), the potential role of self-criticism in predicting distress among teaching staff during COVID-19 has yet to be examined. ...
... Thus, in line with our second hypothesis, focusing on the role of risk factors in predicting teaching staff psychological status, the findings suggest that the higher the self-criticism of teaching staff, the higher their levels of depression and burnout. These results add to the mounting evidence that portrays self-critical individuals as being at a higher risk for diverse psychopathologies (Shahar, 2015;Werner et al., 2019) and compassion fatigue among helping professionals in specific (Ondrejková & Halamová, 2022). As selfcritical individuals tend to experience guilt and shame when faced with personal failures or challenging life events such as COVID-19, it is not surprising that self-criticism is related to depression and burnout, above and beyond COVID-19-related distress (Besser et al., 2022;Shahar, 2015). ...
Teaching staff have been especially vulnerable to experiencing psychopathology and compassion fatigue during COVID-19, given the significant demands they have experienced. Yet, research on risk and resilience factors is scant. We assessed the psychological status of Israeli teaching staff during COVID-19, focusing on psychopathology (depression, anxiety, somatization), compassion fatigue (burnout, secondary traumatic stress), and compassion satisfaction. We also examined the role of transdiagnostic risk and resilience factors—mentalizing, self-compassion, self-criticism, social support, and specialized trauma training—in predicting psychological status and mitigating the link between COVID-19-related distress and psychological status. An online questionnaire was completed by 350 teaching staff. Analyses included outlining the distributions of psychological status outcomes and running a series of moderation models using hierarchical robust regression. While 48% of the participants exhibited moderated-to-high levels of anxiety and 28.27% had no somatization, only 13% exhibited moderate-to-severe levels of depression; 60% had moderate levels of burnout, 48% had moderate levels of secondary traumatic stress, and 52% had low levels of compassion satisfaction. COVID-19-related distress, self-criticism, prementalizing modes, low socioeconomic status, and being in an intimate relationship emerged as key risk factors positively associated with psychological status, while self-compassion, general mentalizing, interest and curiosity about mental states, and social support were negatively linked with these outcomes. Teacher’s mentalizing about students’ mental states and social support moderated the link between COVID-19-related distress and psychological status. The findings highlight the importance of risk and resilience factors for assessing and preventing teaching staff’s psychopathology and compassion fatigue during COVID-19.
... In contrast, self-criticism refers to a harsh stance towards one's experience and identity. Shahar [5] writes that self-criticism is marked by an intense and persistent relationship with the self that is characterized by demands for high standards accompanied by hostility and derogation toward the self. The psychologically detrimental aspects of self-criticism involve self-directed hostility and "self-slamming" for the having made "mistakes or failed." ...
... The psychologically detrimental aspects of self-criticism involve self-directed hostility and "self-slamming" for the having made "mistakes or failed." This personality style has long been established as a vulnerability marker for depression as well as other types of psychopathologies [5][6][7][8][9]. Self-criticism has implications for functioning in a wide variety of domains and may put individuals at risk for disturbed relationships [10] and negative life events [11]. ...
... In contrast to the SCS, reliable measures of self-criticism with excellent psychometric properties have been documented over the last 40 years [5,6,25]. The best-known measure is the self-criticism factor of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ; [6]. ...
Self-criticism versus self-compassion
... Although to date, SC is generally considered to be transdiagnostic, as it is present in various clinical profiles and considered a maintenance factor of suffering, its status as a cause or as a symptom of specific clinical profiles (28) has not yet been clarified. Several authors agree that certain forms of SC have multiple functions and effects, including acting as vulnerability factors, accentuation factors of symptom presentation, or hinderers and inhibitors of psychological changes (22,(29)(30)(31). ...
... Furthermore, the debate regarding the multidimensionality of SC is also open. Different theoretical models have been developed, which conceptualize SC as a personality trait (i.e., a pervasive and stable propensity to criticize the self) (28,32), a maladaptive personality characteristic (33), a "mode" (34), a "multiple" (35), or a vulnerability factor (28), whereas others describe it as a coping process (36) or a manifestation of perfectionism (37,38). This diversity of clarity calls into play another important issue concerning the overlapping of the construct with perfectionism (38)(39)(40), rumination (30, 41), or lack of self-esteem (28). ...
... Furthermore, the debate regarding the multidimensionality of SC is also open. Different theoretical models have been developed, which conceptualize SC as a personality trait (i.e., a pervasive and stable propensity to criticize the self) (28,32), a maladaptive personality characteristic (33), a "mode" (34), a "multiple" (35), or a vulnerability factor (28), whereas others describe it as a coping process (36) or a manifestation of perfectionism (37,38). This diversity of clarity calls into play another important issue concerning the overlapping of the construct with perfectionism (38)(39)(40), rumination (30, 41), or lack of self-esteem (28). ...
Background
Several authors have developed important theoretical models on an important transdiagnostic factor in psychopathology: self-criticism (SC). Currently, there are substantial variations in the theoretical definition of SC. The lack of awareness of similarities and differences between models may in turn impact the comparison between empirical results, limiting their clinical implications.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to identify current trends in the field of SC and to explore whether these were approached and shaped by different conceptualizations of SC.
Methods
Core components of the most influential models of SC were identified. A meta-review was conducted searching for systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses in the following databases: PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed (all years up to 28 April 2023).
Results
Contributions were heterogeneous with respect to the definition of SC and the theoretical framework. Almost all systematic reviews poorly addressed the multidimensionality of SC. In addition, discrepancies between the definitions of SC provided and their operationalizations emerged.
Conclusions
The lack of dialogue between the different theoretical perspectives emerged from key contributions in the field of SC. Potential research questions to answer to stimulate this dialogue are proposed.
... Self-criticism, a personality vulnerability dimension, is characterized by high personal standards and a tendency to blame oneself when these standards are not met, followed by negative self-evaluation, low self-worth, and guilt (Blatt et al., 1976;Shahar, 2015). It has been identified as a key risk factor in numerous psychopathologies (Werner et al., 2019), mainly via its negative impact on interpersonal relationships (Luyten & Blatt, 2011 Self-critical individuals worry about disappointing others and losing their acceptance, shy away from closeness and intimacy, and tend to be more ambivalent and distrustful in relationships (Shahar, 2015). ...
... Self-criticism, a personality vulnerability dimension, is characterized by high personal standards and a tendency to blame oneself when these standards are not met, followed by negative self-evaluation, low self-worth, and guilt (Blatt et al., 1976;Shahar, 2015). It has been identified as a key risk factor in numerous psychopathologies (Werner et al., 2019), mainly via its negative impact on interpersonal relationships (Luyten & Blatt, 2011 Self-critical individuals worry about disappointing others and losing their acceptance, shy away from closeness and intimacy, and tend to be more ambivalent and distrustful in relationships (Shahar, 2015). They tend to overemphasize autonomy and engage in attachment deactivation strategies at the expense of interpersonal relatedness in the attempt to deal with negative affect, thereby experiencing low social support (Luyten & Blatt, 2011. ...
... However, despite this knowledge, the underlying mechanism and explanations for this relationship remain poorly understood. Based on the well-established association between childhood maltreatment and self-criticism, which is often tied to a wide range of negative outcomes such as psychological distress, physical health problems, low satisfaction in romantic relationships, and reduced well-being (Lassri & Shahar, 2012;Shahar, 2015;Werner et al., 2019), we investigate the potential mediating role of self-criticism in the link between childhood maltreatment and adult sexual functioning. This is done by two independent studies, each utilizing a distinct dataset. ...
Background: Childhood maltreatment has been linked to negative sexual functioning, but the
Childhood maltreatment Sexual functioning Self-criticism Personality
Mediation analysis
underlying mechanisms for this association are poorly understood.
Objective: Addressing this gap, this study investigates the mediating role of self-criticism in the association between childhood maltreatment and adult sexual functioning.
Participants and setting: Two independent studies were conducted, each utilizing a distinct dataset to enhance the robustness and generalizability of the findings. The sample in Study 1 included 914 participants, while the sample in Study 2 consisted of 451 women. Both samples completed self-report online questionnaires; however, in Study 2, we purposefully oversampled for child sexual abuse survivors.
Methods: This study employed a mediation model using PROCESS.
Results: Study 1 confirmed the negative association between childhood maltreatment and sexual functioning, as well as the positive association between childhood maltreatment and self- criticism. Self-criticism was also negatively associated with sexual functioning. The mediation analysis revealed that self-criticism significantly mediated the association between childhood maltreatment and sexual functioning. Study 2 built upon these findings by oversampling child- hood sexual abuse survivors and incorporating comprehensive measures of sexual functioning. The results in Study 2 replicated the findings of Study 1, providing a more representative un- derstanding of the link between childhood maltreatment and sexual functioning.
Conclusions: The findings highlight the importance of self-criticism as a potential mechanism underlying the negative impact of childhood maltreatment on sexual functioning in adulthood. This knowledge can inform interventions and therapeutic approaches aimed at addressing self- criticism and improving sexual well-being in individuals with a history of childhood maltreatment.
... yüksek standartlara erişimi hedefleyen sürekli bir istek içermektedir. 8 Öz eleştiri kavramının mükemmeliyetçilikle olan bu ilişkisi, sporun mükemmele ulaşma yanılgısı ile ilişkilendirilmektedir. 9,10,11 Öz eleştiri ve öz şefkat kavramları karşıt iki terim olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Nitekim öz şefkat sahibi sporcu kendisine nezaket ve anlayış gösterebilirken, öz eleştiri yapan sporcu yargıcı ve acımasız bir tutum sergileyebilmektedir. 4 Literatürde bu iki kavramı inceleyen çalışmalara rastlanmaktadır. ...
... Ölçekte pozitif ve negatif durumu ölçen iki farklı bileşen vardır. Birinci bileşen (2,3,5,6,7,10) pozitif ifadeleri içermektedir (ortak insanlık deneyimi, öz nezaket ve bilinçli farkındalığı); İkinci bileşen (1,4,8,9,11,12) ise negatif ifadeleri içermektedir (izolasyon, kendini yargılama ve aşırı özdeşleme). 5 li likert tipindeki ölçek maddeleri, olumsuz (ters) madde içermektedir (1,4,8,9,10,11,12). ...
... Birinci bileşen (2,3,5,6,7,10) pozitif ifadeleri içermektedir (ortak insanlık deneyimi, öz nezaket ve bilinçli farkındalığı); İkinci bileşen (1,4,8,9,11,12) ise negatif ifadeleri içermektedir (izolasyon, kendini yargılama ve aşırı özdeşleme). 5 li likert tipindeki ölçek maddeleri, olumsuz (ters) madde içermektedir (1,4,8,9,10,11,12). Ölçeğin iç tutarlık katsayısı α=.849 olarak belirlenmiştir. ...
Bu araştırmanın amacı, profesyonel voleybol oyuncularında öz eleştirileri ile öz şefkat düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemektedir. Çalışmada, ilişkisel tarama modeli kullanılmıştır. Çalışma grubu (72 erkek, 52 kadın) 124 sporcudan oluşmaktadır. Veri toplama araçları olarak ‘‘Sporcu Durumluk Öz Eleştiri Ölçeği’’, ‘‘Sporcu Öz Şefkat Ölçeği’’ ve kişisel bilgi formu kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde Bağımsız Örneklem T-Testi, Tek Yönlü Varyans Analizi (ANOVA) testi ve Pearson korelasyon analizi kullanılmıştır. Analiz sonuçlarında sporcu durumluk öz eleştiri puanlarında, cinsiyet ve spor yılı değişkenine göre anlamlı farklılık olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Yaş değişkenine göre durumluk öz eleştiri puanları arasında anlamlı farklılık saptanmamıştır. Sporcu öz şefkat puanlarında, cinsiyet değişkenine göre anlamlı farklılık belirlenmemiştir. Yaş ve spor yılı değişkenlerine göre öz şefkat puanlarında anlamlı farklılık görülmüştür. Korelasyon analizi sonucuna göre sporcularda öz eleştirileri ile öz şefkat düzeyleri arasında anlamlı ilişki saptanmamıştır. Sonuç olarak, voleybol oyuncularında öz eleştiri ile öz şefkat düzeyleri arasında bir ilişki olmadığı görülmektedir.
... Such research was largely inspired by the theories and studies of Blatt (1974Blatt ( , 1998Blatt ( , 2004 and Beck (1996). One of the clear patterns emanating from this research is the centrality of self-criticism as a dimension of vulnerability to all types of unipolar depression, as well as to other, related psychopathologies (Shahar, 2015b;Werner et al., 2019). Selfcriticism activates a host of emotions, including sadness, fear, anger, shame, and contempt (Whelton & Greenberg, 2005). ...
... Voluminous research demonstrates compellingly that self-critics create a maladaptive social environment comprising interpersonal life stress (rejections, confrontations, breakups) and a dearth of positive experiences and social support (for a review, see Shahar, 2015b). Filling this pattern with psychodynamic depth, Shahar argued that, propelled by the reformulated depressive position, individuals project into their future both their hope for an accepting other and their expectations for a judgmental and punitive one. ...
... Several longitudinal studies provide solid evidence for the role of self-criticism in the maintenance of depression (Dunkley et al., 2009), anxiety (Kopala-Sibley et al., 2015, and eating disorders (Zelkowitz & Cole, 2020), which suggests the transdiagnostic nature of self-criticism that is implicated in a wide range of psychopathology (Schanche, 2013). Presently, three models of self-criticism are linked to psychopathology: (1) the Two Polarity Model of Personality Development and Psychopathology (Blatt & Luyten, 2009), (2) the Axis of Criticism Model (ACRIM; Shahar, 2015), and (3) the cognitive-evolutionary approach to self-criticism (Gilbert, 2014). The current study will focus solely on the cognitive-evolutionary approach to self-criticism, which posits that self-criticism operates within a "threat-protection" system aimed to protect individuals from perceived harm of critical attitudes and motivate towards higher rank (Gilbert et al., 2010;Gilbert, 2014). ...
... The nding that self-criticism fully mediated between maternal invalidation and internalizing symptoms is consistent with previous studies that have examined the role of negative self-evaluation on psychological di culties (McIntyre et al., 2018;Werner et al., 2019). This is further consistent with the various developmental models of self-criticism (Blatt & Luyten, 2009;Shahar, 2015;Gilbert, 2014), regarding the role of parental criticism in the development of psychopathology (Campos et al., 2013;Sobrinho et al., 2016). The mechanism of self-criticism underlying the association between parental invalidation and internalizing symptoms can be explained by Linehan's (1993) nal consequence of selfinvalidation whereby dismissal from others would lead individuals to distrust their own emotions and experiences. ...
The parent-child relationship in childhood is significant in the child's development of psychopathology in later life, especially the mother who is often the primary caregiver. While invalidation is often associated with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), limited research has examined its association with other forms of psychopathology, specifically in Asia and there is a further gap examining its underlying mechanisms. This study examined the effect of maternal invalidation on various internalizing symptoms and whether difficulties in emotional regulation and self-criticism mediated the association between childhood invalidation and internalizing symptoms. Using a sample of Singaporean adults ( N = 359), results revealed that maternal invalidation is significantly associated with symptoms of depression, social anxiety, and eating disorder. Mediation analyses revealed that emotional dysregulation and self-criticism fully mediated the association between maternal invalidation and internalizing symptoms. Overall, the present paper presents a parallel mediation model that delineates the influence of maternal invalidation on various internalizing symptoms through emotional dysregulation and self-criticism, which has been supported in depression and social anxiety disorder only. These findings provide empirical support that emphasizes the non-specificity of invalidation to BPD and the importance of emotional dysregulation and self-criticism in various internalizing symptoms. The implications and limitations are also discussed.
... well as in nonclinical presentations makes it an important target of interventions employed by counseling psychologists in particular. Furthermore, it has been shown that rigid self-criticism creates an obstacle in generating changes through therapeutic processes (Bagby et al., 2001;Marshall et al., 2008;G. Shahar, 2015). It is, therefore, not surprising that self-criticism is becoming a focus of the treatments specifically targeting it (Löw et al., 2020). Regarding treatment, we find a limited number of studies. In a systematic review, Löw et al. (2020) compiled studies on the treatment of self-criticism that include various approaches, primarily cogni ...
... Second, it is the harshest and most resistant form of self-criticism, associated with a higher level of pathology and personality disorders (Gilbert et al., 2004), and may therefore require a longer intervention (G. Shahar, 2015). Furthermore, the study by B. Shahar et al. (2012) found that changes in HS following EFT were not maintained at follow-up. ...
Self-criticism is a transdiagnostic phenomenon associated with different psychopathological manifestations in clinical and nonclinical samples. This fact has led to an increase in research on its measurement and treatment. This study seeks to examine the effects of emotion-focused therapy on self-criticism in a nonclinical population through pretreatment, posttreatment, and follow-up questionnaires. The study was designed as a randomized control trial comparing emotion-focused therapy for self-criticism (n = 24) versus a wait-list control group (n = 28). The efficacy was evaluated using Inadequate Self and Hated Self scales of Forms of Self-Criticizing/Attacking and Self-Reassuring scale, as well as measures of depression, general distress, and interpersonal problems. The results showed significant improvements on the inadequate self, depression, general distress, self-compassion, and self-reassuring measures at the end of the treatment for emotion-focused therapy condition in comparison with the control, with most of the changes also being maintained in the follow-up. The results show the promise of emotion-focused therapy as a way of treating self-criticism.
... According to the author, in self-critical perfectionism, there is constant and severe self-examination accompanied by concern about one's inability to handle stressful situations, which leads the individual to disengage using avoidance coping that increases self-denigration and leads to chronic dysphoria (Dunkley & Blankstein, 2000). Shahar (2015) proposes a model called the "Axis of Criticism Model" that originates from psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theory: the author defines selfcriticism as a tendency to set unrealistically high standards for oneself that, when not met, lead to the adoption of a selfpunishing attitude. The model postulates that self-criticism arises from the criticism expressed by the parent and the child's subsequent failure to develop adequate self-knowledge. ...
... The model postulates that self-criticism arises from the criticism expressed by the parent and the child's subsequent failure to develop adequate self-knowledge. According to Shahar (2015), distorted self-knowledge would impede the expression of one's authenticity, leading, along with criticism expressed by others, to the development of greater self-criticism (Lassri & Shahar, 2012). Also, from a developmental perspective, Thompson and Zuroff (2004) identified and operationalized two levels of selfcriticism. ...
Self-criticism is a transdiagnostic factor of significant clinical relevance. Research has studied its detrimental role on mental health without discriminating how this differs based on individual psychological functioning. Furthermore, little research has considered the lack of emotional awareness as an essential competence that contributes to dysfunctional self-critical processes and, consequently, to psychopathological outcomes. The objective of the study was to investigate how different forms of self-criticism are associated with specific symptoms, considering social anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and eating disorder symptoms. Furthermore, we wanted to explore the role of alexithymia in this relationship. The sample comprised 564 subjects (M = 35.12, SD = 12.8), 389 females and 175 males. Participants completed online questionnaires to investigate levels of self-criticism, alexithymia, and specific symptoms. Hierarchical regression and path analyses showed that aspects of self-criticism have different importance in psychopathological features. Furthermore, the subscales of alexithymia differently mediate the relationship between self-criticism and symptomatological features, depending on the type of feature considered (social anxiety, eating or obsessive-compulsive). In light of the results, since self-criticism is a contributing factor to the onset and maintenance of many mental disorders, it becomes important to distinguish its specific characteristics and how they are linked to the disorders. A better understanding of these processes would help to prepare more targeted interventions.
... Self-criticism can be defined as an uncompromising demand for high standards in performance and an expression of hostility towards the self when those high standards are not met (Shahar, 2015). Self-criticism is a transdiagnostic factor related to a range of psychopathologies, including depression, borderline personality disorder (BPD), posttraumatic stress disorder, non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), suicide, social anxiety and eating disorders (Dunkley et al., 2010;Fennig et al., 2008;Zelkowitz et al., 2019;Zuroff et al., 2015). ...
... Luyten and Blatt (2011) described self-criticism as a continuum that includes moderate or adequate levels with some people reporting minimal negative impacts associated with their self-criticism (Thew et al., 2017;Zuroff et al., 2015). Indeed, honest and non-judgmental self-reflection over one's weaknesses and errors might represent a valuable source for self-improvement and fulfilment (Werner et al., 2019), like the processes of compassionate self-correction (Gilbert, 2010) or high authenticity and self-knowledge (Shahar, 2015). There is also evidence to suggest that a complete lack of self-criticism may relate to narcissistic grandiosity, lack of impulse control and anti-social behaviour (Kealy et al., 2012;Luyten & Blatt, 2013). ...
Two studies explored whether Hated Self and Inadequate Self forms of self-criticism demonstrate different relationships to self-critical rumination (SCR), metacognitive beliefs, decentering and psychopathology. In study 1, 137 community participants experiencing SCR completed an online questionnaire battery. Self-hate was associated with higher SCR, stronger positive and negative metabeliefs about SCR, higher psychopathology and nonreactivity to internal experiences. Effects of Inadequate Self on psychopathology were fully mediated by SCR whereas Hated Self exerted direct effects on psychopathology alongside indirect effects via SCR. Study 2 explored whether higher self-hate attenuated the ability to detach from SCR triggers. Twenty-three participants received a single-session detached mindfulness intervention; pre-post changes in study 1 questionnaires and daily diary ratings of study 1 constructs in the week before and after the intervention were compared. Most measures improved; higher self-hate was not associated with reduced response. Although self-hate confers risk for psychopathology outside SCR, metacognitive interventions both undermine uncontrollability beliefs and facilitate decentering, so should continue to be investigated as interventions for SCR.
... This trait, associated with various psychiatric disorders (depression, anxiety, eating disorders etc.; Werner, Tibubos, Rohrmann, & Reiss, 2019), also predicts poor outcomes in a psychotherapy (Löw, Schauenburg & Dinger, 2020;Shahar et al., 2011). Shahar (2015) further characterized self-criticism as a tendency to set unreasonably high standards (perfectionism) and to act punishingly towards oneself when these standards are not attained. Described as a personality trait, a social norm, and a possible risk factor for mental and physical illnesses, self-criticism is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon (Shahar, 2015). ...
... Shahar (2015) further characterized self-criticism as a tendency to set unreasonably high standards (perfectionism) and to act punishingly towards oneself when these standards are not attained. Described as a personality trait, a social norm, and a possible risk factor for mental and physical illnesses, self-criticism is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon (Shahar, 2015). Naragon-Gainey and Watson (2012) add to this understanding, defining self-criticism as the tendency to negatively evaluate oneself, resulting in feelings of worthlessness, failure, and guilt when expectations are unmet, whether they are self-imposed or from external sources. ...
... When parents or caregivers constantly criticize a child, the child may internalize these negative thoughts, perpetuating the cycle of self-critical rumination (Gilbert et al., 2004). Continuous and excessive self-criticism, including self-critical rumination, can lead to a detrimental impact on an individual's self-concept, subjective well-being, and poor mental health outcomes (Collins et al., 2023;Neff, 2003b), and it is related to feelings of worthlessness, guilt, and shame, ultimately undermining overall well-being (Shahar, 2015). The studies identified self-criticism and, similarly, selfcritical rumination as transdiagnostic personality vulnerability risk factors for poor mental health outcomes (Gilbert et al., 2004;Martínez-Sanchis et al., 2021;Shahar, 2015;Wakelin et al., 2021;Werner et al., 2019). ...
... Continuous and excessive self-criticism, including self-critical rumination, can lead to a detrimental impact on an individual's self-concept, subjective well-being, and poor mental health outcomes (Collins et al., 2023;Neff, 2003b), and it is related to feelings of worthlessness, guilt, and shame, ultimately undermining overall well-being (Shahar, 2015). The studies identified self-criticism and, similarly, selfcritical rumination as transdiagnostic personality vulnerability risk factors for poor mental health outcomes (Gilbert et al., 2004;Martínez-Sanchis et al., 2021;Shahar, 2015;Wakelin et al., 2021;Werner et al., 2019). ...
This study aimed to explore the underlying mechanism of childhood psychological maltreatment and self-satisfaction through serial mediation involving self-critical rumination and self-compassion. The study employed a cross-sectional design with 528 participants (343 females, 185 males), including young adults and adults aged 18 to 59. The convenience sampling method was used, and to collect data, the participants completed the self-satisfaction scale, childhood trauma questionnaire, self-critical rumination, and self-compassion scale. Structural equation modeling results indicated that, controlling for age and gender effects, childhood psychological maltreatment was negatively correlated with self-satisfaction and self-compassion and positively correlated with self-critical rumination. The serial mediation analysis revealed that self-critical rumination explains a unique variance beyond the influence of self-compassion. Furthermore, even when controlling for the effects of self-critical rumination and self-compassion, childhood psychological maltreatment still directly affected self-satisfaction. The bootstrapping process revealed substantial relationships between childhood psychological maltreatment and self-satisfaction through self-critical rumination. An important result of this study indicated that childhood psychological maltreatment may impair individual’s subjective well-being even during adulthood. To enhance the self-satisfaction of these individuals, interventions should focus especially on decreasing self-critical rumination and increasing self-compassion. Public health professionals should make efforts to prevent children from experiencing psychological maltreatment, which can adversely impact their subjective well-being in adulthood. The study acknowledges its limitations, and suggestions for future research are highlighted in light of the existing literature.
... In psychopathology perspective, self-criticism is including negative and critical thought towards somebody's personal characteristic or physical, overwhelmed feeling and blaming their own selves towards their weaknesses, unable to reach goals and highly standard tasks. People may also perceive themselves being observed by others (Shahar, 2015). Inappropriate self-criticism is a form of tendency to justify and punish themselves, which may lead to another psychological problems (Shahar et.al, 2012). ...
... 3 Saya sulit bangkit dari kegagalan yang saya alami. 4 Saya lebih memilih menyelesaikan tugas hingga selesai daripada tidur. 5 Butuh waktu yang lama untuk belajar dari kegagalan. ...
This study aims to examine the ability of self-criticism in individuals through the construction of scale. Preparation of scale using the theory of self-criticism from G. Shahar (2016). Self-Criticism is an intense and persistent relationship with oneself which can be revealed through two aspects, namely (1) demanding oneself to achieve high performance standards; (2) expressions of self-hatred and humiliation when these high standards are not met. Scaling in the initial stage involved 62 items consisting of 31 items for the first aspect and 32 items for the second aspect. The field test for the construction of scale involved 94 active students withdiploma, graduate and postgraduate students from various universities in Indonesia. A series of psychometric processes included a validity test with Aiken's V and Cronbach Alpha reliability (α = 0.92). The final stage of the scale development process produces 32 valid and reliable items. The results showed that 71.3% of students had high self-criticism abilities. Students tend to set targets for very high achievement and not in accordance with their potential. When students cannot reach the targets, they will punish themselves for that disability.
... Such research was largely inspired by the theories and studies of Blatt (1974Blatt ( , 1998Blatt ( , 2004 and Beck (1996). One of the clear patterns emanating from this research is the centrality of self-criticism as a dimension of vulnerability to all types of unipolar depression, as well as to other, related psychopathologies (Shahar, 2015b;Werner et al., 2019). Selfcriticism activates a host of emotions, including sadness, fear, anger, shame, and contempt (Whelton & Greenberg, 2005). ...
... Voluminous research demonstrates compellingly that self-critics create a maladaptive social environment comprising interpersonal life stress (rejections, confrontations, breakups) and a dearth of positive experiences and social support (for a review, see Shahar, 2015b). Filling this pattern with psychodynamic depth, Shahar argued that, propelled by the reformulated depressive position, individuals project into their future both their hope for an accepting other and their expectations for a judgmental and punitive one. ...
The Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicidal Behavior (IPTS)
posits that suicide stems from a motivation to die by suicide, emanating
from perceived-burdensomeness and failed belongingness, and
a capacity to kill oneself. We propose a bridge between IPTS and
dissociation theory/research via a recent reformulation of Melanie
Klein’s notion of the depressive position, as comprised of three elements:
Demeaning affect, compensatory affect-regulatory maneuvers,
and mental representation of self-as-deficient and others as judgmental/
punitive and at times seductive. This position is formed in childhood,
proceeds to adulthood, and is projected into the future with the
hope of finding respite from criticism. This hope is then thwarted by
the sufferer’s interpersonal action leading to interpersonal strife. We
posit that, in the Basic Level, a trauma-based, dissociative structure is
formed, whereby the reformulated depressive position disengages from
benign and benevolent mental processes, in turn creating interpersonal
havoc. In the Advanced Level, dissociative mechanisms are utilized to
assist the now depressed-suicidal position to succeed in its mission:
Killing the self. A chilling case illustration of this pattern is presented
and discussed. Clinically, we recommend a routine measurement of
both dissociation and suicide risk, and appraisal of the psychodynamic
connecting dissociation and suicidality.
... It is represented as continuous reassurance required from interpersonal relationships. Poor self-image in borderline personality disorder qualifies as an anacliticrelational configuration and narcissistic as an introjective defined disorder (Shahar, 2015). The introjective polarity, in contrast, emphasises perfectionism, self-judgement and feelings of worthlessness. ...
... It is also true that psychotherapists have to work on themselves to allow themselves to also become self-aware about their relational patterns, and defenses. In a study by Shahar (2015), the author examined how individuals who struggle with self-criticism might unintentionally evoke similar feelings of self-criticism or inadequacy in their therapists. Thus, for a smooth therapeutic alliance and dynamic understanding of the therapeutic relationship, it is important for psychotherapists to identify their attachment patterns which are also being reinforced in clinical settings with their clients. ...
Many psychological concepts have underlying constructs that need further exploration to navigate through unresolved concerns in psychotherapy. Researcher explores to what extent do rumination and alexithymia transform self-critical tendencies into self-sabotaging behavior. Researcher investigates associations between variables of self-criticism, ruminative response style and alexithymia using correlation coefficient. Further, series of regression analysis were employed to study the effect of self-criticism on rumination and alexithymia. The sample included, male and female participants between 18–25 years. Participant responses were collected on three scales, Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking and Self-Reassuring Scale (FSCRS), Ruminative responses scale (RRS) and Perth alexithymia questionnaire (PAQ). Findings indicate that inadequate self positively correlates with brooding and depressed; hated-self correlated with brooding, depressed and difficulty identifying emotions. Brooding and difficulty identifying emotions predicts self-destructive behaviour. Ruminative tendencies can be reformed by strengthening self-psychotherapy work. Thus, the implications of the study may indicate psychotherapy interventions may need modified approaches to work with self-criticism tendencies with clients.
... However, when used excessively, self-criticism creates a vulnerability to psychopathology and complicates recovery (Halamová et al., 2018). Self-criticism can be defined as "the tendency to set unrealistically high standards for oneself and act punitively toward the self when these standards are not met" (Shahar, 2015). This maladaptive behavior produces a cyclical process in which self-critics unintentionally create the conditions for their own distress and, thus, reinforce their self-criticism. ...
... Through this framework, there is a clear association between self-criticism and both the development and maintenance of psychological disorders. Previous literature also highlights correlations between selfcriticism and social anxiety (Cox et al., 2000), self-harm (Halamová et al., 2018), suicidality (Shahar, 2015), borderline personality disorder (Donald et al., 2019), and various mood disorders (Gilbert, 2014). As could be expected, selfcriticism is also negatively associated with emotional regulation strategies that would help prevent psychopathology from developing (Daros & Ruocco, 2021). ...
Self-criticism is known to contribute to the development and maintenance of various psychological disorders. Previous research has identified positive correlations between anxiety and attentional control, making the connection between self-criticism and attentional control likely. Mentalization, defined as an ability to make sense of ourselves and others, has been shown to reduce symptoms of psychological distress and increase tolerance to difficult thoughts and feelings. One dimension of mentalization, mentalized affectivity, is a form of emotional regulation that can be further broken down as identifying, processing, and expressing emotions. This study first examined the relationship between self-criticism and attentional control, and then investigated the indirect effect of mentalization, or more specifically mentalized affectivity, on that relationship. Participants (N = 215) completed measures of mentalization, self-criticism, and attentional control. Mediation analysis revealed that one dimension of mentalized affectivity, processing ability, produced a statistically significant partial indirect effect. When looking more specifically at attentional control, shifting attention produced a full indirect effect, whereas focusing attention maintained a partial effect. Our study highlights the role of processing emotion in maintaining self-criticism and affecting cognitive strategies. The current research bears important clinical implications, potentially how addressing mentalized affectivity may ameliorate self-critical thinking and, subsequently, attentional deficits.
... Self-criticism refers to having high expectations of oneself and striving for progress (Shahar, 2015). People high in self-criticism become vulnerable when faced with obstacles to achieve their goals. ...
... People high in self-criticism become vulnerable when faced with obstacles to achieve their goals. These individuals are prone to experience depression with feelings of inferiority and worthlessness, and failure to adjust with expected standards (Shahar, 2015). According to the cognitive-behavioral model of Shafran et al. (2002) in people with high NP, self-assessments are extremely dependent on access to personal standards. ...
The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of enhanced cognitive-behavioral group therapy (CBT-E) on negative perfectionism (NP), self-criticism, and self-compassion in female college students. The method of the present study was quasi-experimental with a pretest-posttest control group design. The statistical population included all female college students with NP, high self-criticism, and low self-compassion attending universities in Hamadan, Iran. Of college students who referred to the counseling center of Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamadan, in 2019-2020 academic year, 30 were selected based on the scores obtained in the questionnaires of Hill's Perfectionism, Clark et al.'s self-criticism, and Neff's self-compassion by purposive sampling and randomly assigned into two groups. The experimental group underwent eight weekly 120-min sessions of CBT-E. Univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data in SPSS-21. The results revealed that CBT-E significantly reduced NP and self-criticism and significantly increased self-compassion in the posttest, which indicates the effectiveness of this treatment in female college students.
... The SCRS-NL correlated most strongly with self-esteem and self-criticism. In line with this, high levels of self-criticism are strongly linked with low self-esteem (Dunkley & Grilo, 2007;Grzegorek et al., 2004;Shahar, 2015), and self-critical rumination has been shown to mediate the relationship between self-criticism and self-esteem (Kolubinski et al., 2019). Indeed, self-critical rumination involves persistent, critical self-evaluations, which undermine one's selfworth. ...
Self-criticism and rumination are critically involved in affective disorders, with network approaches highlighting self-critical processes as central to rumination. The Self-Critical Rumination Scale (SCRS) assesses self-critical rumination, a repetitive negative thinking pattern that devalues the self, and has demonstrated good psychometric properties. This study aimed to validate a Dutch version of the SCRS (SCRS-NL) in a Belgian sample (N = 466). Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the one-factor structure of the original SCRS, and the SCRS-NL demonstrated internal consistency comparable to the original scale. The SCRS-NL showed moderate to large correlations with scales measuring related constructs (e.g., repetitive negative thinking, self-evaluative attitudes, fear of failure, perfectionism, symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress). Moreover, the SCRS-NL exhibited incremental validity over established rumination measures (ruminative response scale and perseverative thinking questionnaire) in predicting symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. Finally, multi-group confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated measurement and scalar invariance between the SCRS-NL and the original English SCRS, confirming the SCRS-NL’s cross-cultural applicability and validity in assessing self-critical rumination.
... And second, Shahar tells us, following up on his earlier review of this literature (Shahar, 2015), the main psychological culprit in complex depression is self-criticism. This is an important conclusion because psychoanalytic clinicians of varying perspectives, although recognizing the centrality of self-criticism, guilt, and self-reproach in depression, have long proposed that there is a connection between depression and phenomena like loss and early relational instability (Abraham, 1927(Abraham, /1979Bowlby, 1960Bowlby, , 1961Bowlby, , 1963Fairbairn, 1952;Freud, 1917Freud, /1957bKlein, 1935Klein, , 1940Rado, 1928;Spitz & Wolf, 1946;Winnicott, 1958Winnicott, , 1965. ...
... Melihat pentingnya self-compassion maka peneliti tertarik untuk mencari tahu mengenai hubungan antara self-compassion dengan self-criticism terhadap mahasiswa kedokteran di kota Makassar. Shahar (2015) mengemukakan bahwa self-criticism merupakan kecenderungan dalam memberikan standar tinggi pada diri, jika standar tersebut tidak tercapai maka individu akan menghukum dirinya. Self-criticism adalah sikap menyalahkan diri sendiri karena adanya suatu kesalahan yang diperbuat sehingga individu tidak dapat menerimanya dalam kehidupan nyata, sehingga akan mengutuk pemikiran dan dapat menimbulkan depresi (Gilbert dkk, 2004). ...
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui hubungan antara self-criticismdengan self-compassionpada mahasiswa kedokteran di kota Makassar. Pengambilan data dalam penelitian ini menggunakan metode kuantitatif dengan teknik korelasi Pearson Product-Moment. Sampel pada penelitian ini berjumlah 350 mahasiswa kedokteran di kota Makassar. Pengumpulan data pada penelitian ini menggunakan dua skala psikologi yaitu Self-CriticismScaleyang terdiri 22 item dengan reliabilitas Cronbach Alphasebesar 0.895 dan skala Self-compassionScale (SCS) yang mengacu pada aspek Neff (2011) terdiri dari 20 item dengan nilai reliabilitas Cronbach Alphasebesar 0.609. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa korelasi antara kedua variabel self-criticismdengan self-compassionpada mahasiswa kedokteran di kota Makassar yaitu sebesar -0.263 dengan nilai signifikan 0.000 (p<0.05). Hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa terdapat hubungan yang negatif antara self-criticismdengan self-compassionpada mahasiswa kedokteran di Kota Makassar.
... Self-criticism is a personality trait characterized by feelings of guilt, self-scrutiny, fear of disapproval, and perfectionistic tendencies (Blatt and Zuroff, 1992). While it is associated with a broad range of conditions spanning eating disorders, anxiety disorders, personality disorders and psychosis (Shahar, 2015;Werner et al., 2019), one of the most reliable associations is between self-criticism and depressive symptoms (Blatt et al., 1976;Gilbert et al., 2010;Petrocchi et al., 2019). Specifically, it is a well-established risk and perpetuating factor for depressive symptoms (Luyten et al., 2007;McIntyre et al., 2018;Shahar et al., 2022) and MDD (Kopala-Sibley et al., 2017). ...
... Our novel findings can be explained when considering the double stressful model. The combination of having high levels of self-criticism-and therefore having the tendency for self-blame, a self-critical mindset, and feeling unable to comply with a self-imposed standard of "perfect motherhood" (Maia et al., 2012), which may lead to a hostile internal dialogue towards the self (Shahar, 2015)-and having a premature infant (a stressful life event that promotes high levels of emotional distress) puts mothers at double risk for more emotional distress and fewer patient and positive parenting behaviors. ...
This study examined the links between maternal self‐criticism, maternal postpartum emotional distress (PPED), and maternal non‐hostility among Arab‐Bedouin mothers living in southern Israel. We proposed a moderated mediation model in which self‐criticism would be related to PPED, which, in turn would be related to maternal non‐hostility. One hundred five Arab‐Bedouin mothers and their preterm ( n = 48) and full‐term ( n = 57) infants were recruited shortly after birth and were followed up when infants were 6 months old (corrected for prematurity). The self‐report measures were done shortly after birth, and, the measurement of observation was done at the 6‐month visit. Findings demonstrated evidence for a moderated mediation model in which higher levels of maternal self‐criticism correlated over time with higher levels of maternal PPED, and this, in turn, predicted lower levels of maternal non‐hostility. This model was found only among the preterm group.
... In this regard, self-criticism, narrow band-width personality dimension characterized by excessive focus on self-worth and achievement, often accompanied by harsh standards and a strong need for acknowledgment (Blatt 2008;Luyten et al. 2007), has been conceptualized as a major personality factor in explaining the relationship between personality and stress. One explanation for this association might be stress generation processes through which self-critical individuals tend to interpret situations and engage with their environments in ways that unwillingly increase stress (Dunkley, Zuroff, and Blankstein 2003;Shahar 2015;Zuroff et al. 2021). For instance, self-critical parents may interpret challenging parenting circumstances as evidence of their ineffectiveness as parents, leading to feelings of incompetence, dissatisfaction, and stress, whereas other parents may not necessarily engage in such harsh self-scrutiny. ...
Introduction
Research on parenting stress in adoptive parents during the early years post‐placement reveals significant variability, yet few studies examine both parent‐ and child‐related factors. This study investigates the role of the personality dimension of self‐criticism and perceived negative child emotionality in relation to parenting stress during the first four years after transnational adoption. Additionally, it explores the moderating effect of child age at placement, a key factor associated with early adversity.
Methods
Drawing upon a longitudinal five‐wave dataset in the first 4 years after the child arrived in the adoptive family, this study used multi‐informant data of 96 adoptive mothers and fathers of transnationally adopted children (mean child age at placement = 13.48 months). Data were analyzed using a multilevel structural equation modeling approach.
Results
Parents' self‐criticism was positively associated with parenting stress at the between‐parent level. At the within‐parent level, year‐to‐year fluctuations in both parents' self‐criticism and perceived child's negative emotionality were positively associated with corresponding fluctuations in parenting stress. Child age at placement did not moderate any of these associations.
Conclusions
Overall, this study yielded convincing evidence for the dynamic nature of parenting stress in the first years after child placement, the role of parental self‐criticism, and the child's perceived negative emotionality herein.
... In comparison with self-compassion, self-criticism is a harsh self-regulatory tactic. Self-criticism is a process involving the act of critically evaluating and scrutinizing oneself (Shahar, 2015). This type of self-regulatory process has been found to correlate with adverse emotions such as self-contempt and anxiety (Whelton & Greenberg, 2005) as well as psychological distress (Halamová et al., 2018). ...
This study investigated the roles of self-regulatory processes and perceived academic stress in the academic coping of Taiwanese university students, as well as the relationships of these variables to academic resilience and anxiety. Additionally, this study explored the moderating influence of self-criticism on the connections between mindfulness and academic coping. A total of 535 Taiwanese undergraduate students completed an online survey assessing the variables described above. The collected data were analyzed using regression techniques. The results showed that self-compassion abilities were identified as essential factors associated with engagement coping and academic resilience. There is also a link between students' engagement coping and academic resilience. Moderation analyses suggested that the adaptive effects of mindfulness on academic coping were only shown for students low in self-criticism. The findings from this study provide empirical support for the conceptual model of adaptive stress and coping processes.
... Dependency and sociotropy exhibit some convergence, while self-criticism and autonomy show less overlap (Coyne & Whiffen, 1995). Furthermore, self-criticism and sociotropy have been identified as predictors of psychopathology, although results for dependency and autonomy have been mixed (Lerman et al., 2012;Priel & Shahar, 2000;Shahar, 2015;Shahar et al., 2018;Werner et al., 2019). ...
... Therefore, self-critical ruminating has lately been introduced as an emotionfocused coping technique and rumination of a particular kind that concentrates on the issue of self-critical thinking, i.e., on the shortcomings and restrictions of the self (Smart et al., 2016). Shahar (2015) defines self-criticism as the potent and enduring form of internal dialogue which implies resentment toward the self when individual cannot achieve one's own uppermost ideals. It has been determined that self-critical thinking or self-criticism is a form of intrapersonal trait that primarily manifests in situations involving failure and a sense of loss of status in both personal and societal spheres and includes a persistent, negative internal self-assessment as well as selfjudgmental and critical thinking and feeling directed toward the self (Gilbert et al., 2004). ...
The present research scrutinized the nexus between English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ metacognitive awareness (MCA), personal best goals (PBs), the positive dimension of self-critical rumination (PSCR) and language achievement (LA) via a quantitative approach. To accomplish this aim, 526 EFL students studying at different private English institutes and a university were asked to take part in a questionnaire survey and fill in three questionnaires. The first questionnaire was L2 Self-Critical Rumination Questionnaire (Ghanizadeh & Jahedizadeh, forthc.). It included 11 items and evaluated positive and negative metacognitions. In this study, positive metacognition was employed. To measure the metacognitive awareness in this study, the scale developed by Schraw and Dennison (1994) was used. It comprised 52 statements measuring two broad classifications of knowledge of cognition (two subcomponents), and regulation of cognition (five subcomponents). To measure student PB goals, the Persian version of ‘Personal Best Goals Scale’ developed by Martin (2006) and translated to Persian and validated by Najafzadeh et al. (2019) was considered. The 16 statements that made up the personal best scale assessed challenging goals, specific goals, competitively self-referenced goals, and self-improvement goals. The results computed via Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) demonstrated that MCA positively predicted PSCR (β = 0.45, t = 6.05), PB (β = 0.51, t = 6.48), and LA (β = 0.61, t = 7.87). A further finding was that both PB (β = 0.63, t = 8.08) and PSCR (β = 0.31, t = 3.18) positively predicted LA. Taken together, the highest impact on LA was exerted by PB, followed by MCA. The association between the subscales of MCA and PB demonstrated that the highest correlation is between MCA and information management strategies (r = 0.71, p < 0.05) followed by monitoring (r = 0.70, p < 0.05), planning (r = 0.69, p < 0.05), and evaluation (r = 0.67, p < 0.05). The outcomes of this study can be significant for teachers, education policymakers, and material developers. They should understand that enhancing metacognitive awareness helps students be more mindful in their learning and set more ideal goals, resulting in greater academic achievement.
... In addition, adolescents (including college freshmen) undergo important changes in their self-definition during this period, and adolescents are more likely to develop a self-critical orientation when parent-child relationships are poor (Shahar, 2015). Self-criticism is a conscious, automatic self-assessment that usually involves self-blame and self-directed anger, disgust, and even hatred (Whelton & Greenberg, 2005). ...
Prior research has demonstrated a negative correlation between the parent-child relationship and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) among adolescents. However, dysfunctional parent-child relationships encompass a variety of forms, and the potential disparities in the impact of different types on NSSI remain uncertain. The current study examined the impact of a dysfunctional parent-child relationship on adolescent NSSI through psychological and physical mechanisms. Additionally, the study explored the influence of self-criticism and sensation seeking on these effects. The present study comprises two samples. Sample 1 comprises 725 high school students (mean age of 15.44 ± 0.55 years), while sample 2 consists of 341 college students (mean age of 18.41 ± 0.73 years). Each participant filled out the Adolescent Non-Suicidal Self-Injurious Assessment Questionnaire, the Parent-Child Conflict Questionnaire, the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales, the Self-criticism Subscale of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire, and the Sensation Seeking Questionnaire. The results suggested that parent-child conflict may influence NSSI in high school students both directly and indirectly through the effects of self-criticism and sensation seeking. In college students, the direct effect of parent-child conflict on NSSI was not significant, and self-criticism completely mediated the relationship between parent-child conflict and NSSI. Additionally, parental-child corporal punishment was directly related to NSSI for both high school and college students, and the mediation effects of self-criticism and sensation-seeking were not significant in either of them. In addition, the direct effect of parental-child corporal punishment was greater than that of parent-child conflict. The current study revealed that two distinct forms of dysfunctional parent-child relationships exhibit inconsistent patterns of influence on NSSI during both early and late adolescence.
... Öz-Eleştirel Ruminasyon yaşayan kişiler özellikle öz-eleştirel olarak, eski başarısızlıklara odaklanmaktadır (Smart ve ark., 2016). Kişinin kendisine yönelik oluşturduğu özeleştiri, önceden ifade edilen standartlar karşılanamadığında, kişinin kendine yönelik düşmanlık temalarını ihtiva eden, yoğun ve ısrarcı içsel diyalogları olarak kavramsallaştırılmaktadır (Shahar, 2015). Özellikle de İmkânsız bir iş yapılmaları istendiğinde, akut sıkıntının daha yüksek oranda görüldüğü saptanmıştır (Kobunski ve ark., 2020). ...
Bu çalışmanın amacı, eğitim kurumlarında öğretmenlerin algıladıkları hata yönetimi kültürünün, öz eleştirel ruminasyona yönelik etkisini belirlemektir. Bu amaca yönelik literatürde var olan hazır ölçekler kullanılmıştır. Elazığ merkez ilçede görevini sürdüren 367 öğretmenin görüşü alınmıştır. Araştırmanın amaca yönelik olarak basit tesadüfi örnekleme tekniği uygun görülmüştür. Öğretmenlerin görev yaptıkları okullardaki hata yönetimi kültürüne yönelik algıladıklarını ortaya koymak için Hata Yönetimi Kültürü Ölçeği; öğretmenlerin algıladıkları öz eleştirel ruminasyona belirlemek amacıyla da Öz Eleştirel ruminasyon Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Araştırma verilerini değerlendirmek için; frekans, yüzde, aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma, değerleri hesaplanmıştır. Ayrıca tek yönlü varyans analizi ile birlikte t-Testi, Korelasyon ve regresyon analizleri de yapılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre öz eleştirel ruminasyon ile hata yönetimi kültürünün alt boyutları olan hataya tepki, hatadan kaçınma ve hata yönetimi kültürünün geneli arasında negatif yönde anlamlı ilişkiler tespit edilmiştir. Hata yönetim kültürü, öz eleştirel ruminasyonun yaklaşık %9’unu açıklamaktadır.
... Personality vulnerability has also been conceptualized transdiagnostically (Blatt & Luyten, 2009;Schanche, 2013). Dependency and self-criticism have been associated with borderline personality disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, eating disorders, social anxiety, suicidality, and nonsuicidal self-injury (Boone et al., 2012;Campos et al., 2018;Claes et al., 2012;Kopala-Sibley et al., 2013;Levy et al., 2007;Sekowski et al., 2022;Shahar, 2015). Most research on dependency and self-criticism have excluded mixed-vulnerability participants who score highly on both traits (e.g., Deng et al., 2019aDeng et al., , 2019bKopala-Sibley et al., 2015;Shahar & Henrich, 2019). ...
Personality vulnerabilities (i.e., dependency and self-criticism) have been established as critical risk factors for psychopathology in general and for depression in particular. However, research does not address ways of treating those who score high on both dependency and self-criticism, or mixed-vulnerability individuals. To benefit these individuals, we developed an online, group-administered, multi-component positive psychology intervention (MPPI) and tested its effects and mechanisms. Participants (N = 70) were randomly assigned to either receive the MPPI or an active placebo control. The six-session intervention took place over three weeks, and measures were completed at baseline, midtest, posttest, and one-month follow-up stages. Compared to the control condition, the MPPI significantly attenuated self-criticism and dependency for up to one month. The intervention also decreased depression and promoted self-esteem and subjective well-being (SWB). Parallel mediation analyses revealed that lower self-criticism mediated the intervention’s effects on depression, self-esteem, and SWB, while lower dependency mediated effects on self-esteem. This study highlights how an MPPI can decrease personality vulnerability in mixed-vulnerability individuals, and how this change can have further positive effects.
... This is opposed to people who have less of an inclination towards waking imagery or pictorial thought, who tend to focus mainly on verbal or abstract semantic concepts during wakefulness. For example, people may be distraught by negative semantic self-evaluations or abstract self-derogatory and self-critical appraisals (e.g., "you are worthless"), predisposing them to depression (Shahar, 2015); conversely, others may be inclined to imagine themselves repeatedly being victimized or abused in different, novel ways (Somer, Abu-Rayya, et al., 2021). Both are indicative of maladaptive, self-berating associations, but one does not necessarily involve salient images, whereas the other is significantly affected by imagery. ...
Some conceptualizations of dreaming have focused on the visual image-to-verbal thought direction of causality, inspired by bottom-up models of perception. However, dreams are more like imagination than perception, with agentic dream thoughts affecting subsequent nonagentic dream images as well. Thus, oneiric experiences are made up of reciprocal, continuous, moment-to-moment influences between the dream and the dreamer: visual images and verbal, abstract, or otherwise imageless thoughts. A dreamlike cognitive dynamic of everchanging image-thought-image meaningful momentary associations coupled with reduced agentic control of images may be present in waking to a greater or lesser extent. Individual differences in fantasy proneness, suggestibility, dissociative absorption, or imagination tendencies may reflect this type of cognitive processing. In other words, for some individuals, non-agentic visual images may be a significant driving force in their spontaneous mental activity. This carries implications for the field of spontaneous thought. Off-task thinking, or
mind-wandering, are labels that may be used to denote internally generated mentation, but more specificity is needed; Considering the tendency for dreamlike associations may represent one important distinction, which may be relevant for understanding psychopathology. Whereas some individuals may find themselves distracted by abstract, semantic, or otherwise image-less associations (e.g., abstract worries or verbal self-derogatory inner speech, as commonly occurs in depression), others may find themselves drawn to intrusive—or alluring—visual images, that interact significantly with their verbal thoughts and associations, and may be experienced with decreased sense of agency. This may occur in obsessive-compulsive disorder, dissociative disorders, or maladaptive daydreaming, suggesting that clinicians need to pay attention to their clients’ spontaneous visual imagery.
... These styles may be maladaptive as they hinder the individual from taking advantage of positive social aspects. Self-criticism creates a vicious cycle in which its repetition internalizes a sense of unworthiness and incapacity, leading to the non-acceptance of others' admiration and appreciation [94]. Withdrawal and attack-other both provide temporary relief but are eventually counterproductive. ...
Background
General Emotion Dysregulation (GED) is increasingly implicated as an underlying factor in personality pathology; however, the regulation of specific emotions, such as shame, has been relatively overlooked in the literature. We aimed to identify distinct clusters of shame-coping/regulation and compare them regarding attachment insecurities, mentalizing deficits, and personality pathology, controlling for GED.
Methods
A convenience sample of 600 participants (351 females and 249 males) from the general population with ages ranging from 18 to 65 (M = 33.78, SD = 12.80) completed a battery of self-report instruments, measuring shame-coping styles, GED, attachment insecurities, mentalizing deficits, criteria A and B of the alternative model for personality disorders, and borderline personality traits. A two-stage clustering method was employed, with shame-coping styles as the clustering variables. The identified clusters were then compared for their effects on dependent variables using multivariate and univariate analyses. These comparisons were also performed after controlling for GED.
Results
Multiple determination methods suggested a two-cluster solution: maladaptive and adaptive shame-coping. Attack-self, withdrawal, and attack-other styles were the main discriminators. Compared with the adaptive cluster, the maladaptive cluster was characterized by higher use of maladaptive and lower use of adaptive shame-coping styles. Multivariate analyses demonstrated significant differences for all the between-cluster comparisons, with and without GED as the covariate (p < .001).
Conclusions
The current study provides evidence for the presence of homogenous clusters of shame-coping in community-based adults. Between-cluster contrasts after controlling for GED suggest that addressing shame-coping could have incremental utility over and above GED.
... Consequently, individuals will apply self-criticism when they are in an uncomfortable situation. Moreover, based on an evolutionary approach (Gilbert & Woodyatt, 2017), self-criticism functions as an individual's self-protection when facing negative interpersonal consequences such as fears of rejection and exclusion (Shahar, 2015). Thus, self-criticism is more accurately one of the mechanisms that explain the emergence of depression due to the experience of being a victim of relational aggression. ...
The research examined the role of self-compassion and self-criticism as moderators and mediators in the relationship between relational aggression victimization and depression. Victimization of relational aggression had various negative consequences, one of which could be depression. However, few previous studies had examined moderator and mediator variables in the relationship between victimized relational aggression and depression. On the other hand, self-compassion and self-criticism could potentially be moderators and mediators between negative experiences and depression. The research used a cross-sectional approach involving 492 adolescents aged 12-21 years who had experienced victimization of relational aggression in the last three months. Analysis of moderators and mediators was used to test the hypothesis. The result shows that self-compassion does not act as a moderator and mediator. At the same time, self-criticism also does not act as a moderator but can mediate the relationship between relational aggression victimization and depression. It indicates that adolescents who get relational aggression from their friends tend to blame themselves excessively, which triggers feelings of depression. This finding indicates that adolescents tend to blame themselves after being victims of relational aggression, which eventually causes depression. Surprisingly, adolescents in Indonesia do not use self-compassion as a strategy in dealing with relational aggression by friends.
... Self-criticism dapat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor awal, seperti genetik (Shahar, 2015). Hal tersebut memungkinkan seseorang membawa gen bawaan dari orang tuanya. ...
This study aims to understand the effect of exercise routines on the stability of self-criticism in college students. We used a quantitative research method with 304 students (P = 231, L = 73) from various study programs. The instruments used are the self-criticism scale and exercise activity on The Ways of Coping (Revised) scale. The data obtained were analyzed by simple regression technique analysis. The results of this study found that exercise routines affect the level of stability of self-criticism in college students (p <0.05). This makes exercise routines a stress-coping technique and a predictor of students' ability to stabilize their level of self-criticism. With this, students can reduce the risk of chronic stress or the other mental disorders. In addition, our study found that college students had low levels of self-criticism, even though some of them could potentially be exposed to higher levels of the condition. One of the reasons is that only a few of these students often exercise regularly.
Mentalized affectivity, a component of mentalization, is a more complex form of emotion regulation which requires self-reflection and looking at current experiences through the lens of one’s past experiences. It consists of three components of emotional experience: identifying, processing, and expressing. Healthy levels of mentalized affectivity can act as a protective buffer from adverse experiences and psychological distress. Therefore, without this system functioning properly, it may leave one vulnerable to psychological distress, especially when exposed to dysfunctional relationships such as those in relationships where one is perceived to have narcissism. The present study investigates how the capacity for mentalized affectivity might mediate the potential impact of relationships with perceptions of narcissism, both grandiose and vulnerable, on individual levels of self-criticism and fear of happiness. Participants (N = 297; 69.4% female) completed measures of perceptions of narcissism in others, and self-criticism, fears of happiness, and mentalized affectivity in themselves. Parallel mediation analysis reveals patterns of indirect effects of mentalized affectivity, suggesting unfavorable outcomes if systems are not in place to protect against these harmful relationships. Mentalized-based treatment may help bring awareness to the importance of these functions, stabilize mentalized affectivity abilities, and mitigate these experiences for such individuals.
Çalışmanın amacı, üniversite öğrencilerinde aile öngörülemezliği ile yeme tutumları arasındaki ilişkide kendini eleştirinin aracılık rolünü incelemektir. Çalışmanın örneklem grubunu 2022-2023 eğitim öğretim döneminde üniversiteye devam eden 307 üniversite öğrencisi (240 kadın, 67 erkek) oluşturmuştur. Katılımcıların yaş ortalaması 26,27 (SD = 5,21) olarak belirlenmiştir. Öğrencilere kolayda örnekleme yöntemiyle ulaşılmıştır. Araştırmaya katılım gönüllülük esasına göre olup, anketler çevrimiçi olarak toplanmıştır. Çalışmada veri toplama araçları olarak Geçmişe Dönük Aile Öngörülemezliği Ölçeği, Yeme Bozukluğu Değerlendirme Ölçeği, Kendini Eleştirinin Formları ve Kendini Rahatlatma Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Değişkenler arasındaki ilişkiler Pearson korelasyon testi ile analiz edilmiştir. Çalışma kapsamında aracılık etkilerinin değerlendirilmesi için Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesi kullanılmıştır. Yapılan analizler sonucunda aile öngörülemezliğinin kendini eleştiri ve yeme tutumlarını pozitif olarak yordadığı belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca kendini eleştirinin de yeme tutumlarını pozitif yönde yordadığı görülmektedir. Model testi sonucunda aile öngörülemezliği ile yeme tutumları arasındaki ilişkide kendini eleştirinin kısmi aracılık etkisinin olduğu belirlenmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular ilgili alanyazın çerçevesinde tartışılmıştır.
Self-criticism, considered as a transdiagnostic concept in the emergence of various psychopathologies, is considered as negative evaluations directed towards oneself especially in perceived failure situations. In literature various views regarding self-criticism, suggesting it as a personality trait, a style of relating to oneself, a coping response to various situations, or a safety strategy developed to restrain negative experiences, exist. In this regard, various researchers have conceptualized self-criticism with different dimensions and structures, leading to the development of various measurement tools. Findings obtained from these scales indicate that self-criticism is a risk factor for psychopathology and a factor that affects individuals to experience difficult emotions and their engagement in various challenging behaviors such as perfectionism and emotional eating. For this reason, several interventions aimed at reducing individuals' levels of self-criticism have been conducted in the literature. In this study the scales developed based on different conceptualizations of self-criticism were introduced, the effects of self-criticism on individuals were presented by compiling results of studies in which the relationships between self-criticism and various variables were examined and finally the results of intervention studies based on Cognitive Therapy, Emotion-Focused Therapy, and Compassion-Focused Therapy were summarized. It is believed that providing comprehensive theoretical and empirical knowledge related to self-criticism will contribute to future studies in the field.
Even though self-criticism is a well-known transdiagnostic process, there is no consensus about its different forms and functions in nonclinical populations when measured with the Forms of Self-Criticizing/Attacking and Self-Reassuring Scale (FSCRS) and the Functions of Self-Criticism/Attacking Scale (FSCS). Although these scales are widely used and translated into multiple languages, there is no Spanish version of the instruments. To study the appropriateness of differentiating these forms of self-criticism, we conducted a Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the Spanish version of the FSCRS with 242 participants, comparing the one-factor, two-factor, three-factor, two-tier, and bifactor models. The 3-factor model presented the best fit in a nonclinical population. The FSCS was also explored, and the two-factor solution was confirmed. The relationship between different functions and forms of self-criticism and the capacity of self-reassuring was explored through mediation and moderation analysis to provide external validation of the scales. Mediation analysis revealed the extensive and pervasive influence of the Self-Persecution function on depression through all forms of self-criticism. Moderation analysis showed that whereas the influence of the Inadequate-Self form on depressive symptomatology was buffered by compassionate self-treatment, the effect of the Hated-Self was not moderated by self-reassure or self-compassion. This study suggests that self-criticism may have different functions with different effects on depressive symptoms. We propose that individuals cope indirectly with self-criticism through self-compassion, which, in turn, would reduce the impact on depression.
Considering the rapid aging process of the population, it seems necessary to investigate important factors in the formation and control of depression. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between self-criticism and loneliness with depression in older adults through the mediating role of rumination. This was a descriptive research with the structural equation modeling (SEM) method. The statistical population consisted of all people over 60 living in Shahryar and Quds nursing homes in Karaj, Iran, 2022-2023, among whom 195 people (119 women, 76 men) were selected using convenience sampling method. In order to collect information, Nolen Hoeksma and Maro's rumination, Thomson and Zarav's self-criticism, Russell et al.'s loneliness, and Beck's depression questionnaires were used. SEM was used to test the hypotheses. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS-24 and Smart-PLS 3.2.8. The findings indicated that there is a positive and significant relationship between internal and comparative self-criticism and depression, as well as between rumination and depression, but the relationship between loneliness and depression did not reach significance level, and rumination plays a mediating role in the relationship between inner self-criticism and loneliness with Depression. According to the results of the present study, psychologists are recommended to train the techniques of controlling and stopping rumination, and self-critical thoughts in the treatment of depression in older adults, so that the loneliness of older adults may not lead them to feel depression.
The current study aimed to determine the level of ego depletion,self-control, self-efficacy, and self-criticism among university students and verify the correlation and statistical significance level between ego depletion and each of self-control, self-efficacy and self-criticism among a sample of university students. In addition, it tests the validity of the hypothesized modelf or the effects of both self-efficacy and self-criticism as mediating variables modifying the relationship between ego depletion and self-control among a sample of university students. The study sample consisted of (578), including(47) male and (531) female university students. The study scales were Ego depletion scale prepared by (Salmon, Adriaanse, DeVet, Fennis, & De Ridder,2014) and the self-control ability scale prepared by (Tangney, Baumeister, &Boone, 2004) As well as the self-criticism scale, prepared by (Gilbert, Clarke,Hempel, Miles, & Irons, 2004), and the self-efficacy scale, prepared by(Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) ( All of these Scales Arabization of the current study). The study results revealed that university students feel ego- -depletion,often feel self-criticism, can control themselves, and enjoy self-efficacy. The results also showed a statistically significant relationship at the level of 0.01between ego depletion and self-control, self-efficacy, and self-criticism among a sample of university students. The results also indicate a statistically
significant relationship between self-criticism, self-control, and self-efficacy.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan sebuah buku bantuan diri sebagai referensi dalam mengurangi tingkat kritik diri pada mahasiswa. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode Penelitian berbasis Desain atau Design Based Research (DBR) yang dikembangkan oleh McKenney & Reeves. Tahapan dalam penelitian ini meliputi, analisis dan eksplorasi, desain dan konstruksi, serta evaluasi dan refleksi. Pada tahap analisis, peneliti melakukan studi pendahuluan pada 329 mahasiswa Universitas Negeri Jakarta yang meliputi Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Ekonomi, Fakultas Ilmu Pendidikan, Fakultas Ilmu Olahraga, Fakultas Ilmu Sosial, Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Fakultas Pendidikan Psikologi, dan Fakultas Teknik. Hasil rata-rata kritik diri yaitu, sebesar 38. Selanjutnya pada tahap evaluasi, produk divalidasi oleh dua validator ahli yaitu, validator ahli media dan ahli materi. Penelitian ini menghasilkan sebuah buku bantuan diri yang berjudul “Berdamai dengan Jejak Kritik Diri”. Hasil persentase kelayakan buku dari masing-masing validator yaitu, validator ahli media menilai sebesar 75% (Layak) dan validator ahli materi menilai sebesar 95% (Sangat Layak). Kesimpulan dari penelitian ini yaitu, buku bantuan diri ini dapat dikategorikan Sangat Layak dengan rata-rata persentase sebesar 85%. Diharapkan buku bantuan diri untuk mengurangi tingkat kritik diri dapat diujicoba sehingga semakin efektif saat digunakan.
Introduction
When people feel hopeless, they are more likely to think about suicide. Prior work has shown that both hopelessness and suicidal ideation fluctuate over time; however, there are likely other contextual factors underlying increased hopelessness and suicidal ideation in moments of time.
Method
In two studies using retrospective recall of a real event (Study 1, n = 268) and an experimental imaginal vignette design (Study 2, n = 356), we examined self‐criticism and self‐efficacy for self‐regulation as crucial factors underlying hopelessness in people vulnerable to suicidal ideation.
Results
In both studies, greater state self‐criticism and lower state self‐efficacy were associated with greater hopelessness. In Study 2, we also measured suicidal ideation, and found that higher self‐criticism and lower self‐efficacy for self‐regulation scores were associated with greater suicidal ideation, even when controlling for negative affect. Evidence of an interaction between self‐criticism and self‐efficacy was found with scores in Study 2 but not in Study 1; specifically, lower self‐efficacy was associated with greater ideation when self‐criticism was high but not when self‐criticism was low.
Conclusion
Overall, results support self‐criticism and self‐efficacy as important contextual factors underlying hopelessness and suicidal ideation and attending to the potential interactive effect between self‐criticism and self‐efficacy.
Background
Self-criticism is a psychological process largely studied as a vulnerability factor for several psychological difficulties in the adult population and, to a lower extent, in adolescent samples. Thus, the availability of instruments to effectively capture this construct is important, especially for younger populations.
Objective
This study examined the factor structure, measurement invariance to group samples, and psychometric properties of the short version of the Forms of Self-criticism and Self-reassuring Scale (FSCRS-SF) in Portuguese adolescents in non-clinical and clinical samples.
Methods
Two non-clinical samples (N = 1224 and N = 140) and a clinical sample (N = 103) were used. Participants’ ages ranged between 12 and 18 years old for both genders. Participants voluntarily completed a set of self-report questionnaires in the classroom. 418 adolescents completed the FSCRS 6-weeks after the first administration.
Results
Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the factor structure of the FSCRS-SF was similar to the one found in the adults’ version, with three factors (inadequate self, hated self, and reassured self). The measurement invariance was established for both samples. The FSCRS-SF revealed adequate to good construct validity, reliability, and temporal stability. Gender differences were found for the three subscales. Similarly, adolescents from the clinical sample reported higher levels of inadequate self and hated self and lower levels of reassured self in comparison with the non-clinical sample, as expected.
Conclusions
The FSCRS-SF was revealed to be a valid and reliable measure of self-criticism and self-reassurance for adolescents and seems to be a useful tool for research and clinical purposes.
Objective: The purpose of these studies was to examine whether college students' beliefs about themselves (i.e., self-compassion and beliefs about emotions) could be mechanisms explaining the relationship between problematic parenting behaviors (helicopter parenting and parental invalidation) and outcomes including perfectionism, affective distress, locus of control, and distress tolerance. Participants: Respondents included 255 (Study 1) and 277 (Study 2) college undergraduates. Methods: Simultaneous regressions and separate path analyses with helicopter parenting and parental invalidation as predictors, with self-compassion and emotion beliefs as mediators. Results: Across both studies, parental invalidation predicted perfectionism, affective distress, distress tolerance, and locus of control, and these links were often mediated by self-compassion. Self-compassion emerged as the most consistent and strongest link between parental invalidation and negative outcomes. Conclusion: People who internalize their parents' criticism and invalidation such that they hold negative beliefs about themselves (i.e., low self-compassion) may be vulnerable to negative psychosocial outcomes.
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