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The Network Governance of Crisis Response: Case Studies of Incident Command Systems
Abstract
This article examines the application of a structural innovation known as Incident Command Systems (ICS) in different crises.
The ICS seeks to coordinate multiple response organizations under a temporary hierarchical structure. The ICS is of practical
interest because it has become the dominant mechanism by which crisis response is organized in the United States. It is of
theoretical interest because it provides insights into how a highly centralized mode of network governance operates. Despite
the hierarchical characteristics of the ICS, the network properties of crisis response fundamentally affects its operations,
in terms of the coordination difficulties that multiple members bring, the ways in which authority is shared and contested
between members, and the importance of trust in supplementing formal modes of control.
... For instance, researchers suggest that organizational factors, such as crisis plans and teams, culture, leadership, identification, learning, and the dyadic positive relationships with stakeholders are crucial for effective crisis management (see Kovoor-Misra, 2020;Pearson & Clair, 1998). In addition, the field of public administration has studied interorganizational relationships primarily between various governmental agencies during crises, such as wildfires, hurricanes, and bombings (e.g., Curtis, 2018;Dinh et al., 2024;Moynihan, 2009). They focus on the role of crisis response networks that typically are centralized with an incident command leader who has largely dyadic relationships with network members. ...
... They focus on the role of crisis response networks that typically are centralized with an incident command leader who has largely dyadic relationships with network members. Predefined routines and roles enable these structures to execute during the urgency of these crises (Moynihan, 2009). However, research finds that crisis response networks tend to be slow to scale as the crisis escalates and spreads, coordination among an increasing number of actors becomes difficult, and new actors that are key for a specific crisis tend to be ignored (Curtis, 2018;Moynihan, 2009). ...
... Predefined routines and roles enable these structures to execute during the urgency of these crises (Moynihan, 2009). However, research finds that crisis response networks tend to be slow to scale as the crisis escalates and spreads, coordination among an increasing number of actors becomes difficult, and new actors that are key for a specific crisis tend to be ignored (Curtis, 2018;Moynihan, 2009). The broader ecosystem and the role of multilateral, interorganizational relationships because of interdependencies that are critical during a grand crisis have tended to receive less research attention. ...
Organizations are vulnerable to grand crises, such as pandemics, terrorism, and climate disasters that are complex and often require a crisis management ecosystem (CME) to address them. However, the nature and core features of CMEs have not received much attention in the crisis management literature. In this paper, we provide insights into the complexity of grand crises, and the core features of CMEs that are important to address them. We draw from the management literature on ecosystems and crisis resilience, and study CMEs that were used in the United States, Spain, and India to respond to the Covid-19 pandemic. We also discuss the contributions and implications of our paper for crisis management research and practice.
... The attribute of impactfulness refers to the significance or far-reaching consequences of events on society or organizations (e.g., Roux-Dufort, 2007;Bundy, 2016). Impactful events challenge an organization's ability to respond effectively, prompting the literature to advocate for stronger coordination, communication, and networking among public organizations to manage such events (e.g., Moynihan, 2009;Kapucu & Garayev, 2011;Nowell & Steelman, 2014;Nowell et al., 2017). These events often suggest a higher level of complexity that public organizations must address collectively, although it remains unclear whether this complexity arises from greater interdependencies among environmental factors or from the broader scope of the event itself. ...
... The first views complexity as events so large they require coordination across multiple public agencies and levels of government (Comfort & Kapucu, 2006;Christensen et al., 2016;Christensen & Laegreid, 2016). This interpretation focuses on magnitude rather than uncertainty; the challenge is not the government's ability to assess the causes and consequences but its ability to coordinate fast and effective actions (Nowell & Boyd, 2014;Moynihan, 2009). ...
... The system-structural perspective dominates discussions on organizational capacity for adaptation (Stark, 2014). Many authors highlight the effectiveness of measures like decentralizing decisions, shortening planning cycles, enhancing communication and networking, promoting inter-agency collaboration, refining command-and-control structures, and adjusting leadership roles and responsibilities (Christensen & Laegreid, 2016;Christensen et al., 2016;Farazamand, 2007;Moynihan, 2009;Nowell & Steelman, 2015;Nowell et al., 2017;Tierney, 2012). Structural solutions are commonly prescribed to address external events, such as the Four C's framework, which emphasizes improving cognition, communication, coordination, and control (Comfort, 2007). ...
Literature on organizational response has significantly advanced our understanding of how public organizations can effectively respond to crises. However, these developments often assume a stable environment and struggle to adapt to dynamic environments. This paper problematizes the need for current theories to account for the dynamic and interconnected nature of modern crises, which challenge the response capacities of public organizations. This article identifies the need for a revised conceptualization of events and environments through insights from the literature on organization -environment relationships. Such revision is illustrated by analyzing the Police Departments’ responses to the 2020 protests against police violence in the United States, demonstrating the practical implications of the proposed conceptual revisions for crisis management and adaptation.
... This is a valuable aspect, given that formal protocols are frequently bypassed throughout transboundary crisis responses (Bravo-Laguna 2021). Examining three crises affecting different policy sectors helps transcend the issue focus of single-case studies to assess whether common network mechanisms travel across policy fields (Stone 2020), thereby enhancing the external validity of the findings at the expense of analytical depth (Moynihan 2009); fortunately, existing pieces have thoroughly reviewed the specificities of the crises that this paper examines 1 (Annex 1 includes brief descriptions of these). Despite their advantages, multiple-case network studies are still scarce due to their demanding data collection requirements. ...
... In crisis networks, actors have extensive freedom to choose their peers (Nohrstedt and Bodin 2020); indeed, the strengths of stable memberships (e.g., consistency of network outcomes) do not particularly benefit crisis networks, which are usually short-term arrangements. However, familiarity among crisis managers facilitates their successful coordination (Moynihan 2009). Finally, issue and crisis networks share their ability to produce innovative policy responses (Adam and Kriesi 2007): actors frequently need to think outside the box when facing incoming threats that render existing protocols useless. ...
... Thus, Ansell et al. (2010) argue that successful transboundary crisis management requires a mix of central governance and selforganization. Moynihan (2009) agrees that balancing hierarchy and centralization with flexibility is generally advantageous in network structures, and particularly beneficial in contexts of crisis. Moreover, contexts demanding transgovernmental activity tend to reconcile flexibility with effectiveness (Slaughter, 1997). ...
Although transboundary crises have gained relevance in an increasingly interdependent world, our understanding of the relational dynamics governing these phenomena remains limited. This paper addresses this knowledge gap by identifying common characteristics across interorganizational transboundary crisis networks and drivers of tie formation in successful structures. For this purpose, it applies descriptive Social Network Analysis and Exponential Random Graph Models to an original dataset of three networks. Results show that these structures combine elements of issue networks and policy communities. Common features include moderately high centralization, reciprocated ties, core-periphery structures, and the popularity of international organizations. Additionally, successful networks display smooth communication between NGOs and international organizations, whereas unsuccessful networks have fewer heterophilous interactions. Transitivity seems to play a role in network success too. These findings suggest that crisis networks are robust structures that reconcile bridging and bonding dynamics, thereby highlighting how evidence from relational studies could guide transboundary crisis management.
... A framework for integrating and organizing a multiagency response to a disaster or emergency is a critical incident management system. Such systems evolved during the early 1970s, when the California Department of Forestry was overwhelmed with extensive forest fires (Moynihan, 2009). The differences in responding personnel, equipment and terminology highlighted that there was a need for a systematic way of organizing and managing multiple firefighting agencies (Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2004;Wilson, 2009). ...
... al., 2006;Quarantelli, 1997). The system seeks to coordinate multiple response organizations under a temporary central hierarchical structure (Moynihan, 2009). The central structure, which is capable of solving the problem of interorganizational coordination common to most crises is one of the main reasons that first responding agencies were voluntarily adopting the Incident Command System (Moynihan, 2009). ...
... The system seeks to coordinate multiple response organizations under a temporary central hierarchical structure (Moynihan, 2009). The central structure, which is capable of solving the problem of interorganizational coordination common to most crises is one of the main reasons that first responding agencies were voluntarily adopting the Incident Command System (Moynihan, 2009). Other benefits of the hierarchical nature of the Incident Command System is that it provides a chain of command, a centralized planning capability, and a limited span of control (Cole 2000). ...
The National Incident Management System is a comprehensive, flexible, modular process that is used for responding to various types of disasters and emergencies across the United States. The incident management system was designed to provide a framework for coordinating and managing the response of different agencies to a disaster or major crisis. This chapter examines and compares the use of the Critical Incident Management System in New Zealand with the use of the National Incident Management System in the United States. The two systems were found to have several similarities and differences. The main differences that were identified have revealed that the New Zealand system did not use militaristic terminology and took more of a comprehensive approach to coordinating a multiagency response, whereas the National Incident Management System that is used in the United States includes militaristic terminology, as it was originally based on planning and response models used by the American military, and is more complex given the three-tiered levels of government within the United States.
... The incident command system (ICS) model arose from the aftermath of wildfires in California in the 1970s when local, state, and federal agencies came together to better integrate their efforts through the development of common language, management concepts, and communication (Moynihan, 2009;NGA Center for Policy Research, 1979). ...
... The impetus to develop the ICS was the disastrous 1970 fire season in Southern California that took the lives of 16 individuals, burned more than 700 structures, and covered more than 500,000 acres (FIRESCOPE, n.d.). To respond, local, state, and federal agencies came together to better integrate their efforts through the development of common language, management concepts, and communication (Chase, 1980;FIRESCOPE, n.d.;Moynihan, 2009;NGA Center for Policy Research, 1979). After extensive review conducted by the U.S. Forest ...
... Moreover, the incident command post provides common organizational procedures and terminology required for agency staff to efficiently plan and coordinate activities involving two or more agencies (FIRESCOPE, n.d.). The ICS establishes a clear line of command, control, and coordination through the identified incident commander who coordinates personnel from multiple agencies (DHS, 2010;FEMA, 2017;Moynihan, 2009; NGA Center for Policy Research, 1979). Although the incident command post is unified with a single incident commander, each participating responder agency maintains authority, responsibility, and accountability for its personnel and resources and is further responsible for maintaining communication within the systems (FEMA, 2017). ...
The purpose of this qualitative multiple-case study was to identify and describe
strategies exemplary superintendents of urban elementary K–8 school districts in Los
Angeles, Orange, Riverside, and San Diego counties used to lead in crisis using the five
critical tasks of strategic crisis leadership (CTSCL; sense making, decision making and
coordination, meaning making, accounting, and learning; Arjen Boin et al., 2017) during
the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020. In addition, it was the purpose to understand and
describe the experiences of exemplary leaders during a time of crisis.
... Solving complex problems requires a diversity of perspectives, skills, and knowledge and, therefore, a need for different emergency actors to come together and work towards a common goal [10][11][12]. This collaboration between emergency actors can be seen as taking place through networks, which can be helpful to quickly identify and access resources, share information, and coordinate efforts [13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. A network of inter-organisational relationships with the primary purpose of solving problems in a coordinated fashion can be defined as a Problem-Solving Network (PSN) [20]. ...
... Collaborating in networks is a well-known feature in emergency management literature (see e.g. [13,14,27]). Milward and Provan [20] denote networks created to facilitate collective problem-solving in emergencies as Problem Solving Networks (PSN), which is at the centre of this paper. ...
... The Incident Command created a PSN by dividing the problem into several known sub-problem, finding resources that could assist in understanding the building layout and sending resources to investigate each location emitting smoke. This is consistent with previous studies where it is argued that it is possible to divide complex problems into more manageable sub-problems [6] and manage the sub-problems through sub-networks that operate within the larger response network [13,16,55]. Even though the initial interpretation of the fire location was incorrect, the use of sub-problems allowed the ultimate outcome of the fire location. ...
This study explores how the Fire and Rescue Service can better prepare for solving complex problems in emergencies by using the concept of problems and problem-solving networks. Primary and secondary data from an extensive fire incident were analysed, including semi-structured interviews and incident assessment reports. Complex problems that arise during emergencies can be challenging to define, and solutions can be difficult to identify. However, this study demonstrates that breaking down complex problems into sub-problems can facilitate the identification of what kind of problem-solving network is needed to be able to solve problems in emergencies. Overall, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the rationale behind problem-solving network in emergency situations and highlights the importance of relationships in problem-solving network to address complex problems during emergencies.
... This phenomenon-the homophily effect-posits that the similarity of organizational characteristics will encourage organizations to have similar policy preferences, reduce information costs, and promote the tendency to collaborate . In emergencies, organizations with similarities can enhance trust, raise consensus for action, and respond more effectively to disasters (Moynihan, 2009;Tao et al., 2020). ...
... In the local emergency information release network, actors with different organization types are more inclined to collaborate with each other. While some scholars initially argued that organizational similarity could reduce the risks and barriers to collaboration (Comfort, 2007;Moynihan, 2009), empirical studies have indicated that effective emergency response requires cross-sectoral collaboration . Drawing on the resource dependence theory, complex and dynamic crisis events like COVID-19 demand coordination mechanisms that encompass multiple types of organizations to fulfill diverse social functions and integrate different resources (Boin & Rhinard, 2008;Grizzle et al., 2020). ...
Transparent and proactive emergency communication plays a crucial role in effectively responding to public crises. The effectiveness of emergency management throughout a crisis event depends on the organizations the local government collaborates with in information release. This study reviewed the institutional basis of Chinese emergency information release and explored the mechanism of collaborative networks in press conferences through the Exponential Random Graph Model (ERGM). The findings suggest that (1) local governments in China are gradually forming the whole-of-society pattern of emergency information release by establishing network structures with multiple triangulations across different types of organizations, irrespective of their jurisdictional level; (2) while an emergency response plan defines the responsibilities of certain organizations, in practice, network actors extend beyond these designations; (3) past collaborations have a lasting impact on subsequent ones, and the key participants in emergency response tend to create path dependence through long-term collaboration.
... Examples of crisis management from many countries have indicated that crisis management and consequently the informing of society are better undertaken by managers who are directly responsible, none other than the operational managers in charge of the crisis management (on the field). Thus, in the case of the Oklahoma City bombing (1995) ( [54], p. 895), the Incident Command System Synergistic Governance and Public Policies Cycle DOI: http://dx.doi.org /10.5772/intechopen.1004187 ...
... In the Oklahoma crisis management system model, there was a line of command, with a parallel recognition of the sharing (diffusion) of power particularly as the crisis unfolded. In other words, it was a system that successfully combined a collaborative model of governance with a hierarchical one in the sense that a competent delegate and representative of the most involved entity took ultimate responsibility for the actions undertaken and gave orders under the general supervision of the central administration to which he or she was accountable at the completion of the project [54]. The question of who is really in charge would be a constant concern if there was not to be a supreme body (e.g., in fires the fire brigade, and so on) that would be legitimized to take final responsibility after an assessment of the information gathered from all the bodies and organizations involved. ...
Public policies have been going through a transitional state in which conventional tools such as the “top-down” approach in the executive phase of public design have proven to be less effective. In an inherently uncertain and chaotic world, public administrations are assigned with the implementation of rules governing post-netaw public management expertise within a context that is ever-changing and which transcends what has been so far considered as “normality” in a hierarchical model. To create a viable environment, political leaders and civil servants engage in a struggle to manage uncertainties through existing networks and the relevant expertise of stakeholders. Moreover, nonconventional methods that are unfamiliar to the hierarchical (Weberian) state, such as heuristic judgments, the application of principles of the neuroscience behaviorist approach, and so forth, open up new road maps for public administration to enable organizations to act in a nonlinear and incrementalistic manner. In this chapter, it will be attempted to break down the new prospects that appear; this is a dynamic public administration, remodeled in an efficient manner catering to the needs of contemporary users. It is stressed that immediate, flexible forms of management must be established; the aim of this is to achieve a mutually accepted situation as has been recommended by experts and stakeholders, in order to be able to determine what may be a viable, provisional solution.
... Koordinationsmehraufwands, der Gewährleistung der Sicherheits-und Sorgfaltspflichten sowie teilweise widersprüchlicher Organisationslogiken. Zunächst erfordert die Einbindung von Freiwilligen erhebliche Ressourcen und Kapazitäten, um eine reibungslose Zusammenarbeit zu gewährleisten(Iusmen und Boswell 2017;Whittaker et al. 2015;Moynihan 2009). Insbesondere in Krisensituationen, in denen Zeit und Personal knapp sind und viele Kommunalverwaltungen bereits an ihrem Kapazitätslimit operieren(Brudney und Yoon 2021), kann die Integration von Freiwilligen die Effizienz beeinträchtigen, zu Kostensteigerungen und zu verlangsamten Entscheidungsprozessen führen. ...
... So kann beispielsweise der Bedarf an zusätzlichem Personal zur Schaffung von Positionen für sog. Freiwilligenkoordinatorinnen und -koordinatoren bereits Probleme erzeugen(Iusmen und Boswell 2017;Stark 2014;Moynihan 2009). Oftmals bleibt der Eindruck, dass der Mangel an finanziellen Mitteln oder qualifiziertem Personal die Ursache dafür ist, dass Kommunalverwaltungen nicht in der Lage sind, Freiwillige effektiv einzusetzen(Kang 2023;Brudney und Yoon 2021).Zudem sind Freiwillige in der Regel eine heterogene Gruppe aus Personen mit unterschiedlichen Erfahrungswerten, Kenntnissen und spezifischem technischen Wissen. ...
... It is important to note that a high number of organizations involved in emergency response does not necessary mean that the task will be better accomplished. Excessive involvement of "emergent organizations" might increase the scale and heterogeneity of emergency network, leading to a chaotic environment and disordered relationships, making coordination harder and affecting response efficiency 33 . Emergent organizations in emergency network should be managed wisely. ...
Public health emergencies (PHEs) pose significant threats to human health, economic growth and social stability. Network has been regarded as an effective way of dealing with emergencies. Based on the comparative study of multiple cases, this study examined the performance of PHE response network from a three-dimensional perspective of network nodes, node relationships and network structure, and then discussed the reasons affecting the performance of emergency network and finally proposed performance improvement strategies from the perspective of crisis learning. Cases of Beijing’s response to SARS in 2003, Shanghai’s response to H1N1 in 2009, and Wuhan’s response to COVID-19 in 2020 are selected for multi-case comparative study, and social network analysis (SNA) was employed to evaluate the performance of emergency network. The results of this study indicate that there exists is a gap between the actual performance of the emergency network and the target performance set by the planned network. The position of actors, the closeness of actor relationships, and the type of network structure are crucial reasons for this gap. These findings suggest to develop closed-loop emergency network performance improvement strategies: (1) establishing effective response networks through dynamic adjustment of emergency plans; (2) fostering organizational cooperation through open communication, especially strengthen the interactions between governments and NGOs; (3) improving the adaptability of emergency behavior and strengthening the cross-sector dissemination of crisis knowledge through systematic drill training.
... There is a consensus in network dynamics research that the evolution of the network's structure is fundamentally driven by changes in its nodes and ties (Chen et al., 2022;Schecter et al., 2018). Specifically, in the context of governance networks, the shared goals or tasks of participants are critical in shaping the network's dynamics, and the rules governing these interactions also form part of the network's structure, particularly during crises (Auschra and Sydow, 2023;Niu, Tao and Zhang, 2022;Moynihan, 2009). Building on this understanding, co-production during crises could be understood as an ongoing process where the goals, rules, and relationships among service co-producers are in a state of constant adaptation to the evolving crisis context (Scott and Thomas 2017;Scott and Ulibarri, 2019;Giest, 2019). ...
The co-production of public services is recognized as a cornerstone of resilient governance. However, its adaptability during prolonged turbulent conditions is not well understood. This study develops and applies a conceptual framework to examine how public service systems can respond flexibly to fluctuating demands and conflicts during crises. Utilizing extensive empirical data from Shanghai during the first half of 2022, this research explores the mechanisms of co-production during crises, characterized by citizen-government dialogues, citizen-led resource replenishment, multi-level government empowerment, and participatory rule-making. The findings reveal that co-production during crises evolves through stages of a crisis-each marked by distinct interactions between voluntary and coordinated citizen and government actions-effectively mitigating conflicts between service demands and provisions. This study extends the understanding of co-production in crisis contexts, offering evidence-based insights that underscore the importance of adaptable strategies in public service governance during emergencies, thus providing valuable guidance for policymakers.
... In contrast, the second stream of literature, network analysis, has intellectual roots largely in the social sciences and focuses on identifying recurring interactions among individuals or units that represent a structure of recurring patterns in human decision-making and action (Agranoff, 2007;Feiock et al., 2012;Kapucu, 2006;Meier & O'Toole, 2001;Steelman et al., 2021). Researchers have used network analysis to identify interactions among actors in many types of activities, but there has been a notable focus on response networks to identify key actors and their interactions following urgent events (Kapucu et al., 2010;Moynihan, 2009;Chang, 2024;Comfort, 2019). Network analyses in these studies have focused on identifying the patterns of interaction among varied actors at different levels of authority. ...
The transition from one level of operations to a next larger, more complex level while maintaining coherence as a system has stymied organizational theorists for decades. Drawing on systems theory, network analysis, and collaborative governance, we explore how networks adapt during rapidly escalating crises. Specifically, we investigate the emergence of a synthesizing intelligence function among networks to support coordinated action. Using a case study of the 2020 Santa Clara Unit Lightning Complex Fire, we analyze field operations data from Incident Reports filed by the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection to develop a system dynamics model. Our findings suggest that a synthesizing intelligence function, informed by various types of intelligence, influences the rate of change in operational systems during dynamic conditions. This system‐wide intelligence function is crucial for decision‐makers confronting extreme events, facilitating effective anticipation of complex transitions in large‐scale operational systems.
... 45,46 The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 47 states that 'ICS works, it saves lives'; academics, however, criticise the bureaucracy, rigidity and over-centralisation, lamenting a false assumption of disaster-zone chaos. [48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59] Moreover, Quarantelli 60 is highly critical, stating that 'most disaster researchers who have systematically studied disaster management for more than 40 years, think that this is a poor model for managing at times of crises'. Neal 61 argues that practitioners are supportive of NIMS/ICS, although their perspectives often lack supporting evidence, while Moynihan 62 notes that a lack of practitioner insight permeates misunderstandings concerning systemic efficacy, which illustrates the divergent nature of the academic and practitioner viewpoints. ...
Disasters and catastrophes are increasing in frequency, severity and complexity, meaning that effective multi-organisational response has never been more pertinent. The United States’ National Incident Management System (NIMS), which includes the on-scene Incident Command System (ICS) component, is mandated for use at all levels of government and is often framed, somewhat narrowly, as a mechanistic hierarchy or an organic network. The related literature is divergent: academic critiques are lamented for lacking real-world insights whereas practitioner accounts are, unfairly, dismissed as anecdotal, meaning that novel insights that inform future preparedness are needed. Accordingly, this conceptual study reimagines NIMS/ICS using pragmatism, metaphorical analysis — informed by Morgan’s seminal organisational metaphors, Pinto’s ‘Icehotel’, and McCabe’s ‘Wonderland’ metaphors — and symbolic logic. This paper demonstrates that NIMS/ICS is both mechanistic and organic, and much more at the same time. They engender much-needed novel and innovative perspectives which can be embedded within training and education activities to address the increasingly complex nature of disasters and catastrophes.
... However, while previous research has shown that such semihierarchical structures work well in non-catastrophic crises (Moynihan 2009), this back and forth is not without dilemmas: it entails that autonomous actors must temporarily submit to centralized command by otherwise equal actors during operations. There is little research on how existing horizontal relationships interact with the effects of hierarchical interventions (Zhou and Dai 2023). ...
Trust, previous collaboration history, power asymmetry, and shifts from horizontal to hierarchical governance are factors that have been argued and, to some extent, shown to impact the success of collaboration. However, we know little about how these factors play out in the context of emergency response collaboration, particularly between public authorities and organized search and rescue (SAR) volunteers. Using a conjoint experiment with organized SAR volunteers in Norway, we examine how collaboration that blends hierarchical command and horizontal network coordination works in practice by randomly varying multiple features of a hypothetical mission. Our exploratory study confirms that the shift from horizontal to vertical modes of governance poses a challenge for collaborative emergency response. Furthermore, the findings highlight that trust, as social capital built through repeated interactions, is a key resource in multi‐actor emergency management, both as an initial condition and during the response phase.
... Pragmatic constructivism reveals how different perspectives influence the development of sensemaking and decision-making, including during a pandemic. It helps us to examine contextual dimensions that influence crisis management, such as misunderstandings between actors or conflicting perceptions that hinder or delay decision-making in multi-actor networks (Moynihan, 2009). ...
... Each of these governance models has specific limitations, particularly regarding the production, dissemination, and utilization of information. First, network governance in crisis response shapes its functioning by creating coordination challenges for the actors involved, affecting how authority is distributed and negotiated (e.g., Moynihan, 2009). Its decentralized structure can create fragmented information streams and prompt a lack of agency. ...
This article examines the concept of epistemic governance during crises, a situation that presents simultaneous challenges of information scarcity and overload. Epistemic governance refers to the processes shaping collective perceptions and influencing the understanding of a situation. The research employs a complexity thinking approach, focusing on the interdependency of phenomena, actors, and events, which resists reductionism and linear thinking. It illustrates how epistemic governance—comprising self-organization, diversity, trust, feedback loops, attractor, and agency—operates in crises. The study advances a novel approach to epistemic governance in crises, promoting effective decision-making and embracing complexity-informed research.
... In the context of emergency management, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) defines preparedness as "establishing authorities and responsibilities for emergency actions and gathering the resources to support them" (Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 2010; 4-1). Typical preparedness guidelines require government or public agencies in a jurisdiction to assign or recruit staff for emergency management duties, train personnel, develop plans, procedures, and networks, designate or procure equipment and materials for emergency responses, as well as conduct disaster education (Moynihan, 2009; Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), 2006). Yet, some activities may fall under the umbrella of both preparedness and mitigation, such as developing evacuation plans and warning systems and communicating disaster risks (Sutton & Tierney, 2006). ...
As extreme weather events like floods and storms continue to increase, it is crucial to examine the degree to which various disaster preparedness and mitigation investments can lower these risks. In this research, we empirically examine the effects of multiple federal disaster aid programs on reducing subsequent flood‐ and storm‐related damages across US coastal states. Our analysis distinguishes aid programs and their funded projects targeting different emergency management functions, including preparedness, nonstructural and structural mitigation, emergency response and protective measures, and rehabilitation of public infrastructure. We construct panel data of more than 1800 US counties over the years 2000–2019 and estimate a fixed‐effects model with time‐varying county‐level socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. We find that disaster aid generally helps mitigate property damages, although this loss‐reduction effect varies by program. Among all aid programs, the Emergency Management Performance Grant results in the largest reduction of future flood damages. The Public Assistance grants supporting emergency work are also found to exert a strong effect on risk reduction. We also find that the impacts of disaster aid are higher in coastal counties. Our study is one of the first few examining the resilience implication of disaster aid in coastal counties, and our results underscore the importance of investing in capacity building, contingency planning, and consistency in maintenance.
... To carry out the large and complex tasks, these crisis partners have to work together in multi-layered networks (Kapucu, 2006;Moynihan, 2009). Collaboration between crisis partners in response to transboundary crises creates many new challenges (Blondin & Boin, 2020). ...
Societies are increasingly subject to transboundary crises that pose new challenges to crisis management and require a structural rethinking of longstanding arrangements. This study explores which governance aspects could be embedded in legislation to facilitate the organization of such transboundary crisis management. It builds upon research findings from the comprehensive 2020 governmental evaluation study of the Safety Regions Act in the Netherlands and the relevant literature. First, we provide a framework for a systematic study of the relationship between law and practice. Second, we present a model on how legislation for crisis management could be adapted to better fit with transboundary crises. This consists of a set of 10 key aspects categorized into five pillars: the interconnectedness of the various phases of crisis management and risk assessments as a starting point; flexible crisis management organization and network collaboration; allocated facilitator and exceptional decision‐making power; professional competences and netcentric information management; and learning capacities and democratic feedback. This model provides a point of departure for researchers and policymakers alike for rethinking the role that legislation can play in preparing for the crises of the future.
... In emergency situations, command must therefore be vested in a single operations center who makes decisions quickly and speaks to the population with one voice. Some studies emphasize the advantages of addressing crises through a single, predetermined command center (Mignone & Davidson, 2003; Militello et al., 2007;Moynihan, 2009). This widespread belief is confirmed by the fact that most countries provide mechanisms to centralize state power in the hands of selected officials if a crisis requires it (Boin, McConnell, et al., 2021). ...
The current body of multidisciplinary literature on crisis management still has some unresolved problems. This paper focuses on the following four "controversial issues" in dealing with crises: the usefulness of emergency plans; early signal detection; decision-making amid high uncertainty ; and the centralization/decentralization dilemma. The paper first presents the various, contradictory dimensions of these controversial issues, drawing on different strands of organization research, public policy theory, and crisis management studies. Next, these controversial issues are analyzed through the lens of public policy research, drawing specifically on the literature on policy robustness and policy capacities. This theoretical application shows how controversial issues can be framed differently and thus overcome-at least from an analytical and theoretical perspective-confirming that a bridge between crisis management and public policy can be very fruitful in improving our understanding of how crises can be addressed. K E Y W O R D S controversial issues, crisis management, policy capacity, policy robustness, public policy Risks Hazards Crisis Public Policy. 2024;1-22. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/rhc3 | 1
... Network governance is a multi-actor approach involving mechanisms of bringing together different actors to collectively manage complex public problems that a single actor cannot handle independently. The approach has increasingly been recognized as appropriate for tackling public risks, disasters, and crises (Moynihan, 2009;Christensen et al., 2016;Nohrstedt et al., 2018;Nowell et al., 2018;Kenis et al., 2019;Raab et al., 2020). ...
By nature, most infectious diseases are complex, wicked public problems that no single actor can handle independently. Therefore, collaborative health governance approaches are commonly relied on for response to infectious disease outbreaks. While collaborative governance approaches are conducive to responding to infectious diseases, not all countries can utilize them effectively. More knowledge is needed on the appropriation of collaborative approaches for better response. This article provides a set of propositions explaining possible response trajectories based on three key aspects: (a) the nature of the infectious disease threats, (b) the number of actors and their level of collaboration, and (c) the knowledge of disease causes and solutions. The number of actors and their collaboration increase with the disease threats, while the knowledge of disease causes and solutions increases with the decrease in the disease threats. The ideal governance response trajectory seems linear theoretically but not in practice because of the disease outbreak and governance complexities. The response trajectory depends on the nature and leadership capacity of government response; capacities and functions of collaborative networks; level of actor commitment; trust and interest alignment; the capacity of the health system to absorb the outbreak shocks; and the population's attitude towards response measures.
... To reduce 244 transaction costs, public organizations may select partners with similar characteristics or 245 interests. As similar characteristics between organizations can help coordinate their response 246 efforts (Moynihan 2009, Jung, Song et al. 2019, shared characteristics, such as region and 247 function, will reduce transaction costs between organizations in hazard mitigation and planning. 248 ...
This study examines patterns of interorganizational collaboration for hazard mitigation in metropolitan regions. Metropolitan regions whose populations reside in vulnerable places may experience extreme events. Facilitation of collective actions among organizations is critical for building resilient urban communities. Although the literature highlights the importance of interorganizational collaboration in disaster management, patterns of interorganizational collaboration for hazard mitigation in urban settings has been underexamined. Building on an institutional collective action framework, this study argues that hazard mitigation efforts tend to be localized. We tested this hypothesis using survey data collected in the Busan and Ulsan metropolitan regions, where natural disasters are problematic. An exponential random graph model confirmed the presence of a bonding strategy, which builds trust with municipalities and organizations within the region and creates interorganizational collaboration. We found that local public agencies tend to collaborate with organizations in the same jurisdictions or at higher levels of government.
... The simultaneous involvement in vertical and horizontal interactions represents a specific challenge, as autonomous actors must subject themselves to the control of otherwise equal actors during operations. Such semi-hierarchical structures have been shown to work well in non-catastrophic crises but to be less successful in more complex ones (Moynihan, 2009;Waugh Jr., 2009). ...
This article explores the conditions that underpin networks as enduring collaborative relationships. To identify key features that sustain long‐term collaboration, we use the Norwegian system of emergency management as our empirical case. Norway is characterized by the important role played by volunteers and voluntary organizations as partners to the police in search and rescue operations. In particular, the article focuses on two possible explanations for the endurability of these networks: the broad involvement of volunteers in the different phases and the role of intermediaries. The article concludes that intermediaries can compensate for a lack of broad involvement, which may be particularly relevant for emergency management where many different resources have to be mobilized in a short time span and in a fashion that enables fluid interaction. This finding is a reminder that both phases and levels need to be explored in empirical studies of collaborations.
... Given that the "Comprehensive Plan" involves a long-term planning and implementation process, the investment in time remains very high, now approaching 10 years, entailing the establishment of a horizontal structure with a permanent vocation: the "Driving team". However, the urgent and emerging processes that have motivated the neighbourhood articulations require a temporary hierarchical structure [9,77] to be effective. This has led to a loss of citizen control in the process, in line with Ran and Qi [9], who note that the less demanding the mission fulfilled by collaborative governance is, the more beneficial it is to share power for collaborative governance. ...
This study focuses on assessing collaborative governance from the perspective of power dynamics in a disadvantaged neighbourhood in southern Spain: Las Palmeras. Increasing global urbanisation in recent decades has exacerbated problems of segregation within cities, posing a major challenge to achieving healthy urban environments for harmonious coexistence. Public policies have struggled to address this challenge, particularly following the adoption of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which have underlined the importance of fostering inclusiveness and sustainability in urban environments. In this context, collaborative governance has emerged as a prominent strategy for democratising the implementation of public policies in urban contexts. However, the efficacy of collaborative governance is hampered by the dynamics of power relations, which limits its effectiveness. The aim of this study is understanding how these dynamics mediate collaborative processes in urban regeneration contexts, an area little addressed so far. Through a case study and the systematisation of experiences, the study proposes strategic recommendations for managing these dynamics within collaborative governance. The insights drawn from this study can serve as a basis for better addressing urban challenges, thus fostering greater inclusiveness and sustainability in urban areas as well as offering valid lines for future research in the field.
Nepal’s geographical and geological conditions, intensified by climate change, render it susceptible to frequent and severe natural hazards, leading to numerous cascading disasters that cause significant loss of life and economic damage yearly. Notwithstanding attempts to enhance disaster preparedness and response, current systems frequently fail to cope with the intricacies of managing complex disaster scenarios. The study, utilizing qualitative methods such as a comprehensive literature review, content analysis of existing laws, regulations, and policies, as well as interviews with key informants, concludes that a robust mechanism, specifically an Incident Command System, is essential for effective national response. This system offers a standardized, hierarchical framework that unifies personnel, facilities, equipment, and communications, enhancing coordination and efficiency in disaster response efforts. The system prioritizes standardized terminology, a feasible span of control, and thorough resource management, facilitating seamless collaboration among all responding agencies. The lack of a command structure results in coordination challenges, information deficiencies, and ineffective resource distribution during emergencies.
The alignment of governance forms and coordination performance within inter-organizational project networks (IOPN) is increasingly studied in operations and supply chain management literature. Despite growing acknowledgement of the adaptive nature of network governance, the mechanisms and process by which governance form is reconfigured are less understood. This study addresses this gap through a longitudinal, ethnographic study of the UK Grand Challenges (UKGC) program, focusing on how a network orchestrator, as a central entity, dynamically reconfigured governance to reduce coordination failures. We found that the orchestrator employed both upward and downward influencing mechanisms to guide the reconfiguration from shared governance to lead-organization governance mode through a three-phased process: (1) explicit manifestation of dissatisfaction with existing governance form, (2) emergence of new governance form, and (3) promoting and operationalizing the new governance form. We further found that the orchestrator’s actions in reconfiguring governance form contributed to improved coordination outcomes, particularly in complex, multi-stakeholder project networks. This study extends the understanding of the dynamic aspect of network governance and offers practical insights for managers aiming to enhance coordination of IOPN through intentional governance reconfiguration.
In the aftermath of the Cold War, Sweden experienced the rise of a doctrine advocating perpetual peace. This led to significant reductions in the country’s military defense capabilities and the complete dismantling of its civil defense infrastructure. However, events such as the Russian invasion of Georgia in 2008 and the annexation of Crimea in 2014 prompted Sweden to reassess its security situation in 2015. Consequently, Sweden initiated the process of rebuilding what is referred to as total defense, which involves close collaboration between civilian and military defense entities. A crucial component of this rebuilding effort has been the conduct of various exercises aimed at fostering cooperation between these two sectors. This study aims to examine the effectiveness of these exercises in promoting team learning, thereby enhancing the capacity for effective civil–military collaboration. Data for this research was gathered through participant observation during seven exercises, and was subsequently analyzed using the Edmondson team learning model. The findings indicate that the team learning model demonstrates effectiveness. However, notable deficiencies were observed in terms of context support and the prevalence of defensive routines, highlighting areas for improvement in civil–military collaboration.
Objectives
Larger, more complex inter-organisational networks with strong, centralised governance structures, often in the form of a network administrative organisation (NAO), have developed in recent years in response to wicked health and social problems. Set in Ontario, Canada, this study explored how NAOs and networks are structured, how they function, and how they evolve.
Methods
We conducted a case study of a NAO and network consisting of 40 member networks in the province of Ontario, Canada. We analysed secondary sources, including policy documents, legislation, contracts, websites, and existing qualitative data.
Results
The NAO and member networks developed in tandem and dialectically. They ultimately took on a form that defies categorisation within the existing literature due to their structure as a ‘network of member networks’ and by acting simultaneously as a policy network, service delivery coordination network, and governance network, by executing numerous complex mandates and functions in service of multiple stakeholders, and by exemplifying both high control and high collaboration.
Conclusions
We classified the NAO and its network as a ‘misfit’ and ‘jack of all trades’. These features may help explain its perceived effectiveness. The complexity and hybrid nature of the NAO and network may position it to best address multifaceted health care problems.
Robustness has recently taken center stage as an emerging paradigm to cope with turbulence and “build back better” toward new normalcy. Existing literature has shown how robust governance, with its mix of flexible adaptation and proactive innovation, is well-suited to addressing turbulence. However, there remains a gap in understanding the empirical variations within robust governance arrangements. In this article, we address three questions: how (1) structures, (2) coordination mechanisms, and (3) leadership are designed and unfold in robust governance. Through a qualitative approach grounded in case studies, interviews, and archival data, we provide evidence from six Italian regions, examining how they addressed the challenges of the COVID-19 vaccination campaign. Results enable the formulation of propositions about organizational arrangements in robust governance, in addition to suggesting competing pathways for flexible adaptation and proactive innovation.
This study aims to critically analyse the flood response in Pahang, Malaysia, focusing on identifying the issues and challenges from the perspectives of responsible agencies. Using qualitative research methods, including face-to-face interviews with 30 officers from various emergency response agencies, the study adopted thematic analysis to identify key issues. Findings indicated significant challenges, such as acute manpower shortages, severe deficiencies in logistical assets, substantial communication barriers, and coordination problems between agencies. The study underscored the need for improved resource allocation, enhanced communication technologies, better logistical planning, and stronger inter-agency cooperation to enhance flood response efficiency and effectiveness. Recommendations include adopting more robust communication technologies, comprehensive logistical asset management, proactive federal support, and a thorough overhaul of current emergency response protocols. This research highlights the urgent need for a more resilient and efficient disaster management framework to mitigate the impact of future floods.
This chapter explores the growing importance of local and indigenous knowledge (LIK) in disaster management theory and practice. It discusses the historical shift in scholarly understanding of disasters and emphasizes the role of LIK in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Drawing from case studies and examples in the literature, the study examines the dichotomy between external and local knowledge, drawing on ancient Greek concepts of metīs and techne to provide a framework for understanding this barrier. Finally, the chapter calls for the promotion of the inclusion of local and indigenous knowledge in disaster risk management processes and underscores the need for continued research in this area.
The police sergeant, or equivalent supervisor, is the glue that binds police units together, assigns workloads, and distributes organisational power from 'above' to ensure that those in the field play fairly and by the rules. Yet very little empirical research has been undertaken to examine the work of sergeants or consider how these roles impact the ability of police and their partners to manage critical incidents, including complex disasters. Drawing on a case study of disaster policing during Australia's Black Summer bushfires, this paper examines how police sergeants with two distinct emergency management roles leveraged their authority, relationships, and knowledge to support the effective management of this incident. Using composite accounts, it illustrates how both sergeants drew upon and adapted traditional understandings of their role to negotiate the perceived deficiencies of command-and-control and networked features of complex disaster management systems. The case studies illustrate how the officers' positionalities (organisationally, geographically, and systemically) enhanced their sensemaking abilities during the crisis, and they utilised their recognised authority, relationships, and soft skills to inform, nudge, and influence a wide range of stakeholders. The paper reveals that police sergeants may be uniquely positioned to assist with the coordination of increasingly complex disaster management assemblages at a time when the neoliberal state's ability to even 'steer' these effectively is increasingly called into question. ARTICLE HISTORY
In this crisis, the entire world economy can be seen growing slower and inflation is faster. MSMEs play an important role in overcoming obstacles to poverty, inequality and job creation. However, the development of SMEs still encounters many obstacles such as inadequate human resources, few raw material resources, activities that are low on environmental resilience, and inadequate coordination in governance resilience. Using the systematic literature review research method, which collects several related journals from Google Sholar, Emerald, Science Direct and Elsevier. As a result, the Crisis had an overall strong effect on the resilience of telecommunications companies. Given this, this study suggests that; Businesses should have a center for training corporate leaders and managers and equip them with the necessary capacities to overcome crises. When emergencies and public crises occur, crisis decision making is critical. Crisis decision-making must follow the principles of social (organizational) reform, the principle of selective radicalism and the principle of taking risks and avoiding possibilities by considering accurate information
Crisis response involves extensive planning and coordination within and across a multitude of agencies and organisations. This study explores how on‐the‐ground crisis response efforts align with crisis response guidelines. These guidelines are key to the effectiveness of crisis response. To this end, we construct, analyse and compare emergency response networks by using network analysis and natural language processing methods. Differences between plans and practice, that is, false positives (actions delivered but not prescribed) and false negatives (actions prescribed but not delivered), can impact response evaluation and policy revisions. We investigate collaboration networks at the federal, state and local level extracted from official documents (prescribed networks) and empirical data (observed networks) in the form of situational reports (n = 109) and tweets (n = 28,050) from responses to major hurricanes that made landfall in the United States. Our analyses reveal meaningful differences between prescribed and observed collaboration networks (mean node overlap ~9.94%, edge overlap ~3.94%). The observed networks most closely resemble federal‐level networks in terms of node and edge overlap, highlighting the prioritisation of federal response guidelines. We also observed a high ratio of false positives, that is, nongovernmental, nonprofit and volunteer organizations, that play a critical role in crisis response and are not mentioned in response plans. These findings enable us to evaluate the current best practices for response and inform emergency response policy planning.
One of the most topical issues in the debate on emergency policies concerns the concepts of resiliency (De Bruijne et al. 2010; DeMond Shondell and Rivera 2011; Ross 2014) and robustness (Kendra and Wachtendorf 2003b; Ansell et al. 2021), which have been used to highlight the fundamental characteristics of emergency response processes that work well. The two concepts have been variously stretched and even used interchangeably but, in reality, they refer to different concepts (Capano and Woo 2017).
Following the Cold War, Sweden adopted a doctrine promoting perpetual peace, resulting in significant reductions in military defense capabilities and the dismantling of civil defense infrastructure. However, geopolitical events such as the Russian invasion of Georgia in 2008 and the annexation of Crimea in 2014 prompted Sweden to reassess its security posture in 2015, leading to the reconstruction of total defense, and an emphasis on collaboration between the civilian and military defense sectors. Exercises have been instrumental in fostering civil‐military collaboration capability. This study aims to investigate whether these exercises are effective in enhancing capability for civil‐military collaboration. Data collection involved participant observation during seven exercises and was analyzed using constructive alignment (CA). Findings indicate that the exercises did not yield discernible learning outcomes, and this is attributed to the Swedish principles of responsibility, deficiencies in CA, contextual support, and entrenched defensive routines.
The present paper explores the state-of-the-art of the Italian administrative reform, which encourages all small municipalities to develop inter-local service agreements. By adopting an empirical approach, we survey 136 small municipalities. The survey results suggest a state of ‘collaborative inertia'. Small municipalities have signed inter-local service agreements for just a few services that have a small impact on their organisations and citizens. In spite of the efforts by the Italian government, the results thus show that this administrative reform has not yet taken off.
Disasters pose significant challenges to communities worldwide, necessitating effective disaster management and emergency response systems. This study aims to evaluate current practices in disaster management and emergency response, focusing on enhancing coordination and preparedness. Through qualitative analysis, including literature review and library research, this study assesses existing strategies and identifies areas for improvement. The findings underscore the importance of robust coordination mechanisms among various stakeholders involved in disaster management, including government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and community groups. Moreover, the study highlights the critical role of preparedness measures in mitigating the impact of disasters and facilitating timely and effective response efforts. By synthesizing insights from existing literature and case studies, this research provides valuable recommendations for enhancing disaster management and emergency response frameworks. The results emphasize the need for comprehensive planning, capacity-building initiatives, and the integration of technology to strengthen resilience and response capabilities. Furthermore, the study underscores the significance of community engagement and public awareness campaigns in fostering a culture of preparedness and resilience. Overall, this research contributes to the ongoing discourse on disaster risk reduction and emergency management by offering insights into improving coordination and preparedness strategies in the face of natural and man-made disasters.
As the scale and intensity of disasters and crises continue to increase, planning and managing crises have become a critical policy and governance issue. Of particular importance to this topic is crisis coordination, as effective response and recovery support the continuity of operations of governments and businesses, and are essential to the economy, health, and public safety. This paper applies a network governance perspective to explore the practical application of intergovernmental crisis coordination in Australia with reference to the COVID‐19 crisis contributing to a better understanding of the role of governing bodies in dealing with major crises in a coordinated manner. This paper also highlights the need to leverage collaborative leadership, organizational capacity, and a culture of collaboration to develop robust and connected networks in addressing crisis coordination within Australia's complex federal system.
This article reviews and discusses the empirical literature on interorganizational networks at the network level of analysis, or what is sometimes referred to as “whole” networks. An overview of the distinction between egocentric and network-level research is first introduced. Then, a review of the modest literature on whole networks is undertaken, along with a summary table outlining the main findings based on a thorough literature search. Finally, the authors offer a discussion concerning what future directions might be taken by researchers hoping to expand this important, but understudied, topic.
We examined the impact of organizational and network factors on agencies' new relationships within interorganizational networks. Analyses used secondary data from nine health and human service networks. A model including both organization-level and network-level predictors provided a better explanation than did a model with system-level predictors alone. At the service sector level, organization focus and time exposed to innovations; at the network level prior relationships and overall network centralization; and at the organizational level location of the organization in the network, status as a government agency, and being a sub-unit of an organization influence the addition of new interorganizational relationships.
Public administration has long considered the administrative agency as the core institution shaping action. But specialists in policy implementation, in particular, have suggested that networks spanning multiple organizations may be important phenomena. National legislation from two Congresses is analyzed to determine the kinds of structures explicitly stipulated or encouraged for new or amended programs. The most important questions have to do with the extent to which single-agency or networked (multiactor) structures are used and the relative degree to which intergovernmental versus intragovernmental programs are prominent. The evidence shows that the great majority of legislation requires multiactor structures spanning governments, sectors, and/or agencies; intergovernmental programs are especially prominent; and the multiactor character of the structures has remained relatively constant. These findings carry implications for the study and practice of public administration.
What do exemplary qualitative accounts look like, and how do they convince readers of their correctness? What sort of standards can be used to assess qualitative research accounts for public administration? To address these questions, the authors examined 72 recent qualitative research journal articles. Proceeding from a set of preliminary guidelines, they worked iteratively between articles and the emergent template to produce refined guidelines. In addition, they identified specific types of dilemmas for public bureaucracies and policies that trigger researchers’ strategies for persuading readers that their qualitative accounts are credible. They conclude with four actionable recommendations for improving the field’s qualitative research.
Research on emergent behavior has been a significant topic within disaster studies. Through a detailed review of the literature we provide background information about this particular branch of disaster sociology. Following a brief discussion of the process by which literature was selected, important trends and areas of debate are discussed. These include the validation of previous findings, an expansion of the discussion on emergent phenomena and a critique of the bureaucratic approach. We conclude with implications for the theory and practice of emergency management.
The goal of every author is to write a paper that readers (and reviewers) find convincing. Since writers of papers based on case research do not have recourse to the canonical statement "results are significant at p 0.05" that helps assuage read- ers' skepticism of empirical papers, researchers us- ing case research often feel they are fighting an uphill battle to persuade their readers. In this short essay, I provide some thoughts guided by my expe- rience of reading, reviewing, and writing papers based on case-based research over the last decade. These are clearly only the views of this particular writer and thus should be taken with a consider- able grain of salt. I am seeking here more to provoke thought than to provide answers. What makes a case study persuasive? The first
The central argument of network research is that actors are embedded in networks of interconnected social relationships that offer opportunities for and constraints on behavior. We review research on the antecedents and consequences of networks at the interpersonal, interunit, and interorganizational levels of analysis, evaluate recent theoretical and empirical trends, and give directions for future research, highlighting the importance of investigating cross-level network phenomena.
Although cooperative, interorganizational networks have become a common mechanism for delivery of public services, evaluating their effectiveness is extremely complex and has generally been neglected. To help resolve this problem, we discuss the evaluation of networks of commu- nity-based, mostly publicly funded health, human service, and public welfare organizations. Consistent with pressures to perform effectively from a broad range of key stakeholders, we argue that networks must be evaluated at three levels of analysis: community, network, and organization/participant levels. While the three levels are related, each has its own set of effec- tiveness criteria that must be considered. The article offers a general discussion of network effectiveness, followed by arguments explaining effectiveness criteria and stakeholders at each level of analysis. Finally, the article examines how effectiveness at one level of network analysis may or may not match effectiveness criteria at another level and the extent to which integration across levels may be possible.
The Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) is a mutual aid agreement and partnership that allows states to assist one another in responding to natural and man-made disasters, often in advance of federal disaster assistance. This article examines EMAC’s response to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in order to address the significant need for analysis of emergency management at the state level. A content analysis of news reports, government documents, and reports from a number of institutions was performed to determine the volume and direction of EMAC’s performance and its transactions during the response operations. The authors find a lack of EMAC training among responders, potentially reducing communication and coordination and the efficiency and effectiveness of response operations. A network analysis assessed the relationships among the responding organizations to coordinate their emergency response operations.
Crisis management (prevention, preparedness, response, and reconstruction) is a tough task for political and bureaucratic leaders. This article documents the persistent tensions between the expectations and realities of crisis leadership. It explores the popular notion that crises provide key opportunities for reform. The very occurrence of a crisis is then thought to expose the status quo as problematic, making it easier to gain momentum for alternative policies and institutions. We argue that the opportunities for reform in the wake of crisis are smaller than often thought. The prime reason is that the requisites of crisis leadership are at odds with the requirements of effective reform.
“Where do inter-organizational Networks come from?” asked Gulati and Gargiulo in an article that appeared in the American Journal of Sociology in 1999; the authors were trying to explain the formation of strategic alliances between business organizations. Their central message was that the formation of strategic alliances results from a longitudinal dynamic in which action and structure are closely intertwined. The structure of interorganizational relations is understood as a macro phenomenon emerging out of conscious micro decisions. These decisions usually have utilitarian motives (to gain access to resources). While the results of the research on policy networks presented here confirm that the development of governance systems is based on an interplay of structure and agency, it is argued that it is especially institutional factors (not only utilitarian motives) that let actors in policy networks establish multiple (horizontal) linkages. These theoretical arguments will be illustrated by data from a study on privatization networks in East Germany during the economic transformation between 1990 and 1994. The organizational center of this transformation was the privatization agency, Treu-handanstalt. The policy that Treuhandanstalt implemented was the fastprivatization of East German enterprises. Very often, however, these East German enterprises were in rather poor shape and according to strict economic standards they would have to be closed down. That, however, was politically and socially undesirable, especially in the case of large and symbolically important companies and given the negative overall development. As a conse-id quence, intensive negotiations evolved about the future of these large companies among a multitude of public and private East and West German actors. These actors determined the outcomes, which can be qualified as public policy because the decisions affected the social, economic, andultimately the political conditions of whole T regions. In this article I will use quantitative analysis to describe and analyze the policy networks that evolved during the privatization of two prominent industries, shipbuilding and steel. I will then explore the factors that contributed to the development of these Policy Networks specific governance structures. Five groups of factors can explain the development of these structures: technical necessities, comparative advantages of network forms of governance in specific situations, power and interest, contextual factors, and formal and informal institutions. I will argue that institutional factors especially played a vital role in the actors' decisions to establish multiple ties and engage in multilateral negotiations. This argument is supported by data on formal institutional structures as well as informal norms and values (cognitive assessments and attitudes of the key representatives of the corporate actors
This article investigates front-line conditions within two sectors charged with the delivery of social welfare programs public bureaucracies and private contractors. I examine two traditions of public management that operate in these organizations and focus on how each tries to direct front-line action. Drawing upon ethnographic data, I discover a disjuncture between these management frameworks and day-to-day front-line operations. A body of social theory that posits that individuals both create and are constrained by social structures is used to understand these findings. The application of this theory both suggests that there is an ongoing social process not capitalized upon by existing management approaches and offers a new explanation for the persistence of certain management challenges in these sectors. The article concludes with a discussion of research propositions and management techniques that emerge from this inductive analysis.
This article examines the governance of organizational networks and the impact of governance on network effectiveness. Three basic models, or forms, of network governance are developed focusing on their distinct structural properties. Propositions are formulated examining conditions for the effectiveness of each form. The tensions inherent in each form are then discussed, followed by the role that management may play in addressing these tensions. Finally, the evolution of governance is explored.
The incident command system (ICS) is a particular approach to assembly and control of the highly reliable temporary organizations employed by many public safety professionals to manage diverse resources at emergency scenes. Our inductive study of a fire department's use of the ICS identified three main factors enabling this distinctively bureaucratic system to produce remarkably flexible and reliable organizations for complex, volatile task environments. This research suggests the possibility of new organizational forms able to capitalize on the control and efficiency benefits of bureaucracy while avoiding or overcoming its tendencies toward inertia.
Organizations and organization policy. Metaphors and models of organizations. Governance structures. Organizational decision settings: confronting uncertainty and controversy. Responding to uncertainty and controversy: the search for appropriate governance structures. The real world of organizations. Governance networks. Organizational policies and citizenship in organizations. The challenge of organizational design.
Testimony submitted by Professors Herman B. Leonard and Arnold M. Howitt of the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, regarding ways to improve federal and state/local disaster preparedness and response. Presented on March 8, 2006 to the U.S. Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee.
This article proposes a new model for understanding leadership in the public sector. The integrative approach to leadership focuses on how leaders choose, promote, institutionalize, and use public management systems, and reform those in time. Using data from a 50-state survey, this article explores the role of integrative leadership in one of the most popular reforms of government in recent years, managing for results. The findings suggest that leadership does indeed matter to the use of performance information in decision making and offer insights into how and when leadership matters.
Collaboration is a necessary foundation for dealing with both natural and technological hazards and disasters and the consequences of terrorism. This analysis describes the structure of the American emergency management system, the charts development of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, and identifies conflicts arising from the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the attempt to impose a command and control system on a very collaborative organizational culture in a very collaborative sociopolitical and legal context. The importance of collaboration is stressed, and recommendations are offered on how to improve the amount and value of collaborative activities. New leadership strategies are recommended that derive their power from effective strategies and the transformational power of a compelling vision, rather than from hierarchy, rank, or standard operating procedures.
A synthesis of System Development Corporation's accumulated experience in the field of command and control software development is presented. Research shows that software design and imple mentation is deserving of the best professional resources, and concludes that while the software development process is complex, it has yielded to orderly description and management and that relevant knowledge and skills exist that can be used to increase our understanding, competence, and control over this critical portion of the job of creating military command and control system.
As governments search for policy tools to deliver public services, two choices—hierarchy or network—are portrayed as stark alternatives. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security has adopted a practitioner-based innovation known as the Incident Command System (ICS) that assumes that crises require a network of responders, but that these networks should be managed by a hierarchy. While the ICS illustrates the potential for mixing hierarchies and networks, it was mandated by policymakers willing to make broad assumptions about the applicability of the ICS on limited evidence. An overdependence on practitioner claims displaced careful analysis of the underlying logics vital to understanding the operation of the policy tool. A case study of the ICS in managing an exotic animal disease outbreak points to the importance of crisis characteristics and management factors as contingencies affecting the operation of the ICS.
This paper examines how four factors--personal interaction, leadership, communication, and legal structures--affect emergency management in California. The research is grounded in three literature streams: traditional management theory, organizational learning theory, and network theory, including collaboration. Traditional management structures are necessary, even though the shape and design of those relationships are increasingly less formal. As a result of this study, the interactions, regardless of how they are created, are essential for effective outcomes in emergency preparedness and response. This study ties into the current operation of emergency preparedness and adds to the literature on organizational theory and management and the newly evolving focus on homeland security/emergency management, particularly at the state, regional, and local levels.
A considerable amount of research has examined trust since our 1995 publication. We revisit some of the critical issues that we addressed and provide clarifications and extensions of the topics of levels of analysis, time, control systems, reciprocity, and measurement. We also recognize recent research in new areas of trust, such as affect, emotion, violation and repair, distrust, international and cross-cultural issues, and context-specific models, and we identify promising avenues for future research.
Collaborative public management research is flourishing. A great deal of attention is being paid to the process and impact of collaboration in the public sector, and the results are promising. This article reviews the literature on collaborative public management by synthesizing what we know from recent research and what we’ve known for quite some time. It addresses the prevalence of collaboration (both recently and historically), the components of emerging collaborative structures, the types of skills that are unique to collaborative management, and the effects of collaboration. Collaborative public management research offers a set of findings that contribute to an emerging knowledge base that supplements established public management theory.
This paper offers practical insights for public managers as they work within interorganizational networks. It is based on the author’s empirical study of 14 networks involving federal, state, and local government managers working with nongovernmental organizations. The findings suggest that networks are hardly crowding out the role of public agencies; though they are limited in their decision scope, they can add collaborative public value when approaching nettlesome policy and program problems.
Hurricane Katrina revealed a lack of preparedness in disaster management networks covering the New Orleans area. This paper focuses on the operation of networks in preparing to evacuate residents in advance of a major disaster. There are two cases: the relatively successful evacuation of residents who left by private conveyance and the widely publicized failure to provide for those who could not or would not leave on their own. We trace the actions and inactions of various players to reach conclusions about the strengths and weaknesses of networks in the special circumstances of disaster preparation.
This paper discusses the challenges of how to provide a transparent account of the use of the software programme QSR*NVIVO (QSR 2000) within a Grounded Theory framework (Glaser and Strauss 1967; Strauss and Corbin 1998). Psychology students are increasingly pursuing qualitative research projects such to the extent that the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) advise that students should have skill in the use of computer assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) (Economic and Social Research Council 2001). Unlike quantitative studies, rigid formulae do not exist for writing-up qualitative projects for doctoral theses. Most authors, however, agree that transparency is essential when communicating the findings of qualitative research. Sparkes (2001) recommends that evaluative criteria for qualitative research should be commensurable with the aims, objectives, and epistemological assumptions of the research project. Likewise, the use of CAQDAS should vary according to the research methodology followed, and thus researchers should include a discussion of how CAQDAS was used. This paper describes how the evolving process of coding data, writing memos, categorising, and theorising were integrated into the written thesis. The structure of the written document is described including considerations about restructuring and the difficulties of writing about an iterative process within a linear document.
This paper aims to draw a series of generalizable conclusions regarding the incident command system (ICS) as a management tool for structuring the activity of disaster response agencies at the site of disasters in the United States. It identifies the basic elements of the system and makes some observations regarding its range of applicability. The analysis is drawn from several sources of information regarding the use of ICS in nine different disasters in which Federal Emergency Management Agency's (FEMA) Urban Search and Rescue (US&R) Taskforces participated. Results suggest the applicability of ICS in a range of emergency response activities, but point to the importance of context as a largely un-examined precondition to effective ICS. Our findings indicate that ICS is a partial solution to the question of how to organize the societal response in the aftermath of disasters; the system is more or less effective depending on specific characteristics of the incident and the organizations in which it is used. It works best when those utilizing it are part of a community, when the demands being responded to are routine to them, and when social and cultural emergence is at a minimum. ICS does not create a universally applicable bureaucratic organization among responders but rather is a mechanism for inter-organizational coordination designed to impose order on certain dimensions of the chaotic organizational environments of disasters. We conclude by extending our observations from the USAR context to the reconstruction, recovery, and mitigation phases of disasters in order to illuminate the general limitations of the approach as an all-encompassing model for disaster-related organizational and inter-organizational functioning and coordination. Our final conclusions suggest that the present-day efforts in the National Incident Management System (NIMS) to use ICS as a comprehensive principle of disaster management probably will not succeed as intended.
As the use of networks in public management increases, more and larger questions expand this research arena. In many ways,
public network management is in search of a paradigm equivalent to the hierarchical-organizational authority paradigm of bureaucratic
management. We raise and offer preliminary answers to seven metaquestions that address the nature of network management tasks,
group process in collaboration, flexibility of networks, self-responsibility and public agency accountability, the cohesive
factor of networks, power and its effect on group problem resolution, and the results of network management. The light we
shed on these issues by examining the black box of networks is designed to contribute to building an empirically derived knowledge
base of network management.
Federal agencies are routinely confronted with requests from policymakers that they must address in some manner. These range from routine directives to cut through red tape to exceptional demands to alter policy priorities. We theorize that how attention is organized by public bureaucracies affects their responses. We draw on a variety of scholarship about public bureaucracies to develop a theory about the bureaucratic organization of attention and its consequences. In illustrating these notions, we trace federal agency attention to the threat of terrorism as it gained prominence on the national policy agenda over the 1980s to 1990s and became a prominent issue after the terrorist attacks of 2001. The consequences of the Department of Homeland Security's centralized attention to the terrorism threat suggest a paradox of issue attention. Though concentration of authority at the top of the organization holds the prospect of control over the substance and speed of policymaking, this control is highly circumscribed by the limits of attention faced by all organizations.
Recent theoretical work has applied transaction cost theories to the public sector. This article extends transaction cost theories of organization to an empirical examination of bureaucratic influences on local government development programs.
Extant research has paid little attention to the role that administrative organizations, institutions, and bureaucracies play in the local development process. Administrative organization can shape development choices in two ways. First, form of government may have direct additive effects on development because professional public managers have different orientations, values, and career interests than elected executives. Second, form of government may have nonadditive or interactive effect by influencing levels of government responsiveness to exogenous economic, political, and bureaucratic demands.
We estimate the influence economic forces and bureaucratic arrangements had on development program activity in 1989 after accounting for development programs in place five years earlier in the same cities. Our finding calls into question the causal inferences regarding the direct effects of administration on local development policy found in the literature. In addition, we find that the form of government mediates effects of administrative arrangements and economic forces on development policy. In particular, the influences of strategic planning on development policy were evident in council-manager cities, but not mayor council communities. This finding suggests that commitments to take certain actions and not others embodied in strategic plan may be less credible in the context of high power electoral incentives.
To explore whether qualitative methods are problematic and persuasive in health education research.
Explored this problem through the 3 goals of rigor, rapidity, and reliability and their special meanings in qualitative analysis.
For each, contributions of qualitative computing software are identified and their effects assessed.
Qualitative researchers are assisted by software tools in pursuit of each of these goals, but in each area there is a need for software design to address the tasks of research where rigor, rapidity, and reliability are paramount requirements.
Networks and resilience in the World Trade Center disaster Buffalo, NY: Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research. Titan Systems Corporation After action report on the response to the September 11 terrorist attacks on the Pentagon
- Tierney
- Joseph Kathleen
- Trainor
Tierney, Kathleen, and Joseph Trainor. 2004. Networks and resilience in the World Trade Center disaster. Research Progress and Accomplishments, vol. 6. Buffalo, NY: Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research. Titan Systems Corporation. 2002. After action report on the response to the September 11 terrorist attacks on the Pentagon. Report to Arlington County. http://wwwarlingtonva.us/Departments/Fire/Documents/ after_report.pdf (accessed June 12, 2006).
Implementation: Introduction. In Handbook of public administration
- Winter
- Søren
Winter, Søren C. 2003. Implementation: Introduction. In Handbook of public administration, eds. J. Pierre and B. G. Peters, 205–11.
Coordination in hierarchies and networks. In Games in hierarchies and networks: Analytical and empirical approaches to the study of governance institutions
- Springfield
- Charles C Il
- Thomas
- Scharpf
- Fritz
Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Scharpf, Fritz. 1993. Coordination in hierarchies and networks. In Games in hierarchies and networks: Analytical and empirical approaches to the study of governance institutions, ed. F. W. Scharpf, 125–66.