No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The impact of processing location and growing environment on flavor in cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) - Implications for "terroir" and certification - Processing location study
Abstract
The influence of different processing locations on the flavour and other quality attributes of cocoa investigated over three growing seasons are presented in this paper. Experiments were set up to examine the possible influence of three different processing locations for box fermentations with sun drying, on the flavour of six different cocoa accessions, each harvested from the same field. Processing location effects on the flavour attributes of selected cacao genotypes were also demonstrated with supporting near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) results. Additionally, the strong contribution of cacao genotype to flavour, especially in floral flavour attributes, was demonstrated. This superseded the effects of the processing environments in some instances. The sensory evaluation results further supported the successful application of an optimised assessment protocol for training a sensory panel to systematically investigate how processing location can affect final flavour and quality in cocoa. The relative contribution of all elements of the growing and processing environment to final flavour in cocoa permits consideration of applying the concept "terroir", already well-established for wines, to cocoa and also provides a scientific basis for cocoa quality certification programmes.
... In the course of this work, roasting led to a reduction in water and protein contents and total acidity, but also to an increase in pH and mineral and total carbohydrate contents. These effects of roasting on cocoa were consistent with the literature [44,45]. Indeed, during roasting, higher temperatures lead to water evaporation, sugars are transformed into dehydrated products (such as hydroxymethylfurfural, hydroxyacetylfurane, and isomaltol) and amino acids into aldehydes [46][47][48]. ...
... Furthermore, it is worth noting that the pH values of roasted cocoa were higher than those of raw cocoa. The increase in pH during roasting is expected to be mainly related to the removal of citric acid [37,41,45,[55][56][57][58]. However, other organic acids, such as acetic, lactic, and tartaric acids, may also be removed or undergo transformations during this process [19]. ...
... Cocoa lipids represent 45-55% of the weight of cocoa bean [45], making cocoa a good source of lipids. Raw and roasted cocoa samples from all the varieties had similar lipid contents ranging from 50.30 to 53.45% (w/w) on dry basis, meeting values reported in the literature [40,45,[62][63][64]. ...
Cocoa, a widely cultivated crop in tropical countries, is a crucial raw material in the food industry, particularly in chocolate production. Its quality is influenced by various factors, including variety, cultivation practices, fermentation, and drying. The aim of this work was to investigate the impact of the cocoa variety on the merchant quality and the physicochemical properties of raw cocoa beans and roasted cocoa mass produced in the urban commune of Pokola (Republic of the Congo) . Cocoa pods were sorted into three varieties (Criollo, Forastero, and Trinitario) according to the physical identification criteria given in the literature. Cocoa samples were prepared according to the same process: each variety was separated into three 50-kg samples placed in cubic crates with 40 cm edges covered with banana leaves for 6 days of fermentation, then sun-dried at 28–32 °C for 7 days, leading to dried cocoa beans. Roasted cocoa masses were obtained by roasting at 140 °C followed by grinding. Merchant quality analyses were carried out on raw cocoa beans and physicochemical analyses were performed on raw cocoa beans and roasted cocoa masses. Cocoa variety had the greatest impact on graining, Villtrop swelling index, proportion of brown beans, pH, total acidity, and protein content. The beans of all cocoa varieties were of intermediate merchant quality (grade II). Roasting resulted in an increase in pH and total carbohydrate content, and a decrease in water content, total acidity, protein content, and colorimetric parameters. Overall, the cocoa variety had a weaker influence on the quality and physicochemical properties of raw and roasted cocoa than roasting.
... It has been suggested as potential starter culture by several authors (Pereira et al., 2012(Pereira et al., , 2017Ho et al., 2018;Ooi et al., 2020). However, to have an impact on the flavor quality of the cured cocoa beans and, possibly, of the chocolates produced therefrom, the VOCs produced in the cocoa pulp-bean mass have to diffuse into the beans during the fermentation process and remain there during the drying step (Kadow et al., 2013;Ho et al., 2014Ho et al., , 2018Sukha et al., 2014;Chetschik et al., 2018;Castro-Alayo et al., 2019;Rottiers et al., 2019;De Vuyst and Leroy, 2020). Hence, distinction has to be made between endogenous and microbially produced metabolites in both pulp and beans, an underrepresented approach (De Vuyst and Leroy, 2020). ...
... Fifth, the dynamics and concentrations of the VOCs in the cocoa pulp differed from those in the cocoa beans, which could be ascribed to production in either the pulp (microbial activities, such as higher aldehydes, higher alcohols, organic acids, and esters) or the beans (endogenous plant metabolism, such as certain ketones and terpenes) or diffusion from the pulp into the beans, mainly higher alcohols, organic acids, and esters (Rodriguez-Campos et al., 2011Kadow et al., 2013;Ho et al., 2014Ho et al., , 2018Sukha et al., 2014;Cevallos-Cevallos et al., 2018;Chetschik et al., 2018;Assi-Clair et al., 2019;Castro-Alayo et al., 2019;Mota-Gutierrez et al., 2019;Rottiers et al., 2019). Consequently, higher aldehydes, higher alcohols, and esters produced by yeasts and LAB were the main contributors to the cocoa flavor potential (chocolate, floral, and fruity notes), the concentrations of which were usually higher toward the end of the fermentation processes, in particular for the starter culture-initiated ones. ...
... Alternatively, the production of VOCs by P. kudriavzevii is strain-dependent (Pereira et al., 2017). Yet, the production of VOCs may also depend on different process factors, such as the fermentation method and cocoa variety, besides temperature and acidity (Kadow et al., 2013;Crafack et al., 2014;Sukha et al., 2014;Kongor et al., 2016;Meersman et al., 2016;Chetschik et al., 2018;Mota-Gutierrez et al., 2018;Castro-Alayo et al., 2019;Rottiers et al., 2019). Indeed, high temperatures and high acidity during the late stages of cocoa fermentation processes are desired for the production of VOCs in the cocoa pulp and their migration and retention in the beans (Kadow et al., 2013;Ho et al., 2014Ho et al., , 2018Chetschik et al., 2018;Castro-Alayo et al., 2019). ...
Starter culture-initiated cocoa fermentation processes can be applied to improve the quality of cured cocoa beans. However, an accurate monitoring of the microbial strains inoculated in fresh cocoa pulp-bean mass to assess their contribution to the cocoa bean curing process is still lacking. In the present study, eight different cocoa fermentation processes were carried out with Trinitario cocoa in vessels in Costa Rica to assess the contribution of two candidate yeast starter culture strains, namely Saccharomyces cerevisiae IMDO 050523 and Pichia kudriavzevii IMDO 020508, inoculated in combination with Limosilactobacillus fermentum IMDO 0611222 and Acetobacter pasteurianus IMDO 0506386. A multiphasic approach, consisting of culture-dependent selective plating and incubation, rRNA-PCR-DGGE community profiling of agar plate washes, and culture-independent high-throughput amplicon sequencing, combined with a metabolite target analysis of non-volatile and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), was performed on samples from the fermentation and/or drying steps. The different starter culture mixtures applied effectively steered the cocoa fermentation processes performed. Moreover, the use of an amplicon sequence variant (ASV) approach, aligning these ASVs to the whole-genome sequences of the inoculated strains, allowed the monitoring of these inoculated strains and their differentiation from very closely related variants naturally present in the background or spontaneous fermentation processes. Further, traits such as malolactic fermentation during the fermentation step and acetoin and tetramethylpyrazine formation during the drying step could be unraveled. Finally, the yeast strains inoculated influenced the substrate consumption and metabolite production during all starter culture-initiated fermentation processes. This had an impact on the VOC profiles of the cured cocoa beans. Whereas the P. kudriavzevii strain produced a wide range of VOCs in the cocoa pulp, the S. cerevisiae strain mostly influenced the VOC composition of the cured cocoa beans.
... The objective of the present study was therefore to investigate whether xenia effects exist for the various flavor attributes of cocoa over a range of crosses as part of a broader investigation examining factors possibly contributing to terroir in cocoa (Guittard, 2005;Nesto, 2010;Sukha et al., 2014). ...
... Fruity flavor notes did not have a strong genotypic effect (either male or female parent effects). The results and other studies (Sukha et al., 2014) suggest that fruity flavor and other ancillary flavors may be affected by the local growing environment and postharvest processing contributing to a sense of place or terroir for flavor development in cocoa (Guittard, 2005;Nesto, 2010;Sukha et al., 2014). Terroir is concerned with the relationship between the characteristics of an agricultural product (quality, taste, style) and its geographic origin, which Significance (P # 0.001 to 0.05) of these values, as well as, magnitude of these effects (given by the t statistic) determine whether the average flavor score for each cacao cultivar across nine flavor attributes was related to the score of the actual pollination cross. ...
... Fruity flavor notes did not have a strong genotypic effect (either male or female parent effects). The results and other studies (Sukha et al., 2014) suggest that fruity flavor and other ancillary flavors may be affected by the local growing environment and postharvest processing contributing to a sense of place or terroir for flavor development in cocoa (Guittard, 2005;Nesto, 2010;Sukha et al., 2014). Terroir is concerned with the relationship between the characteristics of an agricultural product (quality, taste, style) and its geographic origin, which Significance (P # 0.001 to 0.05) of these values, as well as, magnitude of these effects (given by the t statistic) determine whether the average flavor score for each cacao cultivar across nine flavor attributes was related to the score of the actual pollination cross. ...
The flavor attributes of cacao (Theobroma cacao) is becoming an important consideration in trade specifically for fine or flavor cocoa. In this market segment, flavor along with other physical attributes, not only contributes to the quality of a cocoa lot but also the price premium obtained. Past studies have shown evidence of pollen parent effects on yield, bean size, and pod characteristics, but its effect on flavor attributes is not clearly understood.An incomplete diallel mating design involving five cacao cultivars [West African Amelonado (WAA), Imperial College Selection (ICS) 1, Iquitos Mixed Calabacillo (IMC) 67, and two Trinidad Selected Hybrids (TSH) coded as CCL 200 and CCL 201] with widely differing flavor attributes were used to investigate the magnitude of female and male parent effects on key intrinsic flavor attributes. The seeds derived from pods arising fromthese pollinations were fermented, dried, andmade into cocoa liquor according to standardized methods. Flavor evaluations were carried out by a trained sensory panel for nine flavor attributes with five repetitions and hidden flavor reference controls. The studywas conducted over two cocoa crop years. The results failed to detect dominant xenia effects for important ancillary flavor attributes (i.e., cocoa flavor, acidity, fruitiness, and floral flavors), but showed significant female parent effects for cocoa and floral flavors. Small but inconsistent male parent effects were seen for astringency. Lack of xenia effect for the major flavor attributes implies that the flavor quality of cocoa beans is determined principally by the genotype of the female parent. © 2017, American Society for Horticultural Science. All rights reserved.
... While this performance is satisfactory overall, there is room for improvement, particularly in terms of bean quality (Tafuri et al., 2004). Some countries, such as Ghana and Cameroon, have their cocoa labelled on the international market, which is not the case for Côte d'Ivoire, whose cocoa is considered to be of lower quality (Sukha et al., 2014). It should be noted that the majority of this production is destined for export to European and American countries, which are major chocolate producers. ...
To evaluate the quality of chocolate produced with Ivorian cocoa beans, the study was carried out in the country's three main production areas (East, Centre-West, and South-West). The project involved collecting data on fermentation times and sourcing samples of cocoa beans from which chocolate had been produced and tasted. The findings of this study indicate that the average fermentation time for cocoa beans is identical across all regions. The observed values (5.30 days in the East, 5.0 days in the Center-West, and 5.04 days in the South-West) are below the recommended 6-day threshold for optimal fermentation. The chocolate produced from the collected beans has been found to have favourable organoleptic characteristics, as evidenced by the low bitterness ratings revealed in the tasting tests. Acidity and astringency are very low and aroma is average. The correlation study between fermentation time and organoleptic characteristics demonstrated that only bitterness (y = -0.2926x + 4.0115; r = 0.62; p < 0.01) and aroma (y = 0.1619x + 2.1324; r = 0.5139; p < 0.01) of chocolate were significantly influenced by fermentation time. Therefore, cocoa from Côte d'Ivoire is suitable for use in the production of high-quality chocolate. However, fermenting the beans for 6 days would be beneficial to achieve a superior quality chocolate product. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 14(2): 53-61, December 2024
... La diversidad de aromas del cacao especial se debe, además de los antecedentes genéticos y de las prácticas de post-cosecha, al clima, la altitud y el suelo donde se cultiva. La influencia del lugar de procesamiento puede dar lugar al denominado efecto "terroir" que se utiliza en la comercialización de los vinos y que se asocia con características aromáticas especiales (Sukha et al., 2014). Esto se considera importante para poder distinguir los cacaos finos y de aroma y conferir una justa retribución económica a los agricultores que lo producen, que en su mayoría son pequeños productores de países de Latinoamérica, que poseen fincas de 0,5 a 1 ha en zonas rurales (Arvelo et al., 2016). ...
Introducción. Las variedades de cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) que se catalogan en el mercado mundial como finas y de aroma, representan un 6 % y se comercializan a un precio diferenciado. Estas variedades poseen características únicas determinadas por su genotipo, su complejidad de aromas es un factor fundamental que las distingue. Objetivo. Integrar información actualizada que proporcione evidencia científica sobre el cacao fino y de aroma, identificar los compuestos clave que le confieren esta denominación y describir su comportamiento durante las etapas de fermentación, secado y tostado. Desarrollo. El cacao fino y de aroma es muy apreciado en el mercado por su sabor y aromas únicos, es valorado en la elaboración de productos de tipo gourmet. El cacao de esta categoría es cultivado por pequeños productores de la región mesoamericana, que emplean sistemas de producción familiar, orgánicos y sostenibles. Esta región, la principal productora de cacao fino y de aroma, enfrenta el riesgo de perder su valiosa biodiversidad. Es crucial conservar la diversidad genética del cacao y comprender sus componentes fisicoquímicos, especialmente los volátiles responsables de sus atributos sensoriales. Conclusión. El procesamiento primario del cacao, en particular las etapas de fermentación y secado, influye significativamente en su perfil aromático. Controlarlo y estandarizarlo es esencial para que los productores obtengan su grano de cacao con una calidad diferenciada y así sea valorizado en el mercado por sus características sensoriales únicas. Futuros estudios deberían enfocarse en desarrollar métodos estandarizados para la fermentación y el secado, así como en la conservación de la diversidad genética del cacao fino y de aroma.
... From the results obtained, it was demonstrated that, in addition to the clone, edaphoclimatic conditions, as well as crop management, affect the sensory profile and quality of chocolate [5, [97][98][99]. Therefore, it is important to establish areas with special characteristics for the production of high-quality cocoa or the so-called "terroir", as established for other types of foods, such as coffee, wines, and, thus managing to obtain quality certificates [100,101]. ...
Cocoa quality is affected by genetic variability and conditions in the region of origin that impact the physicochemical, functional and sensory characteristics of the cocoa bean. For the purpose of this study, the spatial distribution was analyzed using a cocoa quality indicator that related physicochemical, functional variables (phenolic and antioxidant content) and sensory attributes (organoleptic qualities and sensory notes) of cocoa samples from different cocoa clones in the municipalities of Mesetas and Vista Hermosa in the department of Meta, Colombia. In 83 sampling plots distributed in 22 farms with agroforestry cocoa arrangements, 50 pods of the main clone were selected in each plot. Subsequently, the cocoa bean samples were subjected to fermentation and drying processes using a uniform process, then each of the samples was subjected to physicochemical, functional and sensory properties. A medium quality level was found in the cocoa beans that depended on genetic variability, whose properties ranged between protein levels of 10.312%, sugars of 2.7–3.7 °Brix, and fat contents of 51.5–52.2%, with 178.4–235.2 mg GAE g⁻¹ in total phenol content and 1208.1–3464.1 μmol AAE g⁻¹ in antioxidant capacity. Clones TSH-565 and FEAR-5 showed respectively higher and lower grain quality. Within the sensory profile, complementary aromatic notes such as floral, fruity, nutty, malty, with high correlations between acidity and fresh fruit, astringency and cocoa, and astringency and bitterness, were found. At the clone level, ICS-95 and TSH-565 presented the best sensory attributes (floral, sweet, acidity, fresh fruit). According to the physicochemical, functional and sensory variables of the cocoa beans, it was found that only 13% of the samples presented values higher than 0.8 in the cocoa quality index, with notes of banana, melon, peach, plum, and fresh fruit related to clones such as TSH-565 and ICS-95, whose notes are considered high-quality; these cocoa plantations are located in the Palestina village in the municipality of Vistahermosa and in the Las Mercedes village in the municipality of Mesetas.
... La absorción de amonio representa un ahorro energético en la planta frente al nitrato; esto permite al SA ser más eficiente mediante un mejor aprovechamiento del nitrógeno. Además, la composición de ácidos grasos de la manteca de cacao está influenciada por el genotipo, las condiciones climáticas o características del microclima y época de cosecha (Spangenberg and Diosini, 2001, Sukha et al., 2014, Vázquez-Ovando et al., 2015. Así, la variedad CCN-51 podría haberse adaptado a las condiciones del ambiente, reaccionando de mejor manera a pH ácidos como el que provee el SA, dado que la evolución del cacao en general se ha desarrollado en suelos con condiciones de pH ácidos (Prabhakaran, 2010, Zhang andMotilal, 2016). ...
Antecedentes. El cacao constituye un rubro importante en la economía mundial con grandes vacíos aún en aspectos de nutrición. El nitrógeno es el nutriente más importante en la producción de cultivos y los fertilizantes nitrogenados minerales los más utilizados por los agricultores. Mejorar la eficiencia de absorción y utilización del nitrógeno podría aumentar potencialmente el rendimiento y calidad de los cultivos, así como reducir la fertilización nitrogenada y la contaminación ambiental. Objetivo. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el efecto de tres fuentes nitrogenadas sobre características morfológicas, productivas y de calidad de cacao CCN-51, y, su
efecto en las características químicas del suelo en la Amazonía ecuatoriana. Metodología. Se estableció un diseño completamente al azar con 4 tratamientos con una misma dosis de N, pero variando la fuente (amida: urea, nitrato de calcio, NC y sulfato de amonio, SA), más un control sin aplicación de N. Se evaluaron características químicas del suelo, crecimiento de brotes, morfología de frutos, características químicas de la semilla, estimaciones de producción y rendimiento y eficiencia agronómica de las fuentes. Resultados. El NC mantuvo el pH del suelo en 5.29 puntos en comparación al SA y la urea que acidificaron en mayor proporción (4.32 y 3.96), trayendo consigo un incremento de N y disminución de Ca en el suelo. Además, el uso de SA elevó el contenido de grasa en la semilla de cacao (54.1 %), contando también con un mayor número de frutos por planta (16.7) y por ende mejor rendimiento (0.799 t/ha). Implicaciones. Los resultados proveen información básica sobre el efecto de las fuentes nitrogenadas y la nutrición del cacao a considerar para futuras investigaciones. Conclusión. Se sugiere que, aunque el NC conserve mejor el pH del suelo, el SA incrementa la producción y contenido de grasa en la semilla, considerándolo más eficiente que las demás fuentes.
... La absorción de amonio representa un ahorro energético en la planta frente al nitrato; esto permite al SA ser más eficiente mediante un mejor aprovechamiento del nitrógeno. Además, la composición de ácidos grasos de la manteca de cacao está influenciada por el genotipo, las condiciones climáticas o características del microclima y época de cosecha (Spangenberg and Diosini, 2001, Sukha et al., 2014, Vázquez-Ovando et al., 2015. Así, la variedad CCN-51 podría haberse adaptado a las condiciones del ambiente, reaccionando de mejor manera a pH ácidos como el que provee el SA, dado que la evolución del cacao en general se ha desarrollado en suelos con condiciones de pH ácidos (Prabhakaran, 2010, Zhang andMotilal, 2016). ...
p> Background . In the new global economy, cocoa is an important crop. However, far too little attention has been paid to the nutritional aspects. On the other hand, nitrogen is the most important nutrient in crop production, and mineral nitrogen fertilizers are the most widely used by farmers. Improving the efficiency of nitrogen uptake and utilization could potentially increase crop yields and quality, as well as reduce nitrogen fertilization and environmental pollution. Objective. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of three nitrogen sources on morphological characteristics, yield and quality of CCN-51 cocoa, and soil chemical characteristics in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Methodology. A randomized design was established with 4 treatments with the same N dose, but varying the source (amide: urea, calcium nitrate, NC, and ammonium sulfate, SA), plus a control without N application. The investigated variables are soil chemical characteristics, shoot growth, fruit morphology, seed chemical characteristics, production and yield estimates, and agronomic efficiency of the sources. Results. NC maintained soil pH at 5.29 points compared to SA and urea, which acidified at a higher rate (4.32 and 3.96), leading to an increase of N and a decrease Ca in the soil. SA increased the fat content in the cocoa seed (54.1 %), with a higher number of fruits per plant (16.7) and, therefore, a better yield (0.799 t/ha). Implications. These results provide basic information on the nitrogen source effects and cocoa nutrition to be considered for future research. Conclusion. The findings suggested that NC conserves soil pH better than the other sources. SA increases production and fat content, so it can be considered the most efficient. </p
... After enzymatic reactions inside the seeds, they also support the production of flavour precursor and flavour-active molecules as well as colour compounds in the cured beans, which are necessary for their further processing into cocoa and chocolate products. Some flavour compounds originate from the cocoa bean variety, which is determined by cultivar, genotype, environmental growth conditions (growth location, weather and soil conditions) and agricultural practices, such as agroforestry management, fertilization, pruning and phytosanitary management (Counet et al. 2004;Aculey et al. 2010;Cruz et al. 2013;Kadow et al. 2013;Moreira et al. 2013Moreira et al. , 2016Moreira et al. , 2018Trognitz et al. 2013;Ali et al. 2014;Ramos et al. 2014;Sukha et al. 2014 From cocoa fruit to chocolate. The first steps of the cocoa processing chain take place at farms in the cocoa-producing countries around the equator. ...
Cured cocoa beans are obtained through a post-harvest, batchwise process of fermentation and drying carried out on farms in the equatorial zone. Fermentation of cocoa pulp-bean mass is performed mainly in heaps or boxes. It is made possible by a succession of yeast, lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and acetic acid bacteria (AAB) activities. Yeasts ferment the glucose of the cocoa pulp into ethanol, perform pectinolysis, and produce flavour compounds, such as (higher) alcohols, aldehydes, organic acids, and esters. LAB ferment the glucose, fructose, and citric acid of the cocoa pulp into lactic acid, acetic acid, mannitol, and pyruvate, generate a microbiologically stable fermentation environment, provide lactate as carbon source for the indispensable growth of AAB, and contribute to the cocoa and chocolate flavours by the production of sugar alcohols, organic acids, (higher) alcohols, and aldehydes. AAB oxidize the ethanol into acetic acid, which penetrates into the bean cotyledons to prevent seed germination. Destruction of the subcellular seed structure in turn initiates enzymatic and non-enzymatic conversions inside the cocoa beans, which provides the necessary colour and flavour precursor molecules (hydrophilic peptides, hydrophobic amino acids, and reducing sugars) for later roasting of the cured cocoa beans, the first step of the chocolate-making.
... The International Cocoa Organization (ICCO) considers the following tasting notes to differentiate beans into the "flavor" category: "fruit (fresh and browned, mature fruits), floral, herbal, and wood notes, nut and caramelic notes as well as rich and balanced chocolate bases" (International Cocoa Organization 2016). Fermentation, genetics, and terroir all make flavor contributions to specialty cacao (Sukha et al. 2014). Chocolate makers are willing to pay up five times the bulk cacao price, from about $3,000 to $10,000 per ton (Nieburg 2016). ...
... This phenomenon may have several explanations: (1) either the characteristics of the microclimate in our study are not sufficiently decisive regarding the chemical composition, (2) the accessions have a strong genetic association (highly related individuals) as demonstrated in genetic studies using molecular markers [15] or (3) or trees in adaptive process to the environmental conditions of the Soconusco, Mexico, which could be promoting the particular flavor and other characteristics as demonstrated occurs in other places. It has suggested using the term "terroir" to differentiate the distinctive characteristic of regional cocoas [39]. Even with the above, the classification proposed here is undoubtedly critical for the sensory quality which accessions must exhibit, given that chemical variables are related directly with the sensorial character, and several studies have even proposed the use of chemometric approach with a large number of tools to try to predict the sensory quality [40]. ...
Consulta gratis online
Watch free online
http://em.rdcu.be/wf/click?upn=KP7O1RED-2BlD0F9LDqGVeSEhjpztacRx7-2Bde7DPaWKKQ-3D_GYMPMa5e-2FDgKfLHszm4w4aRdmTmcS6wMKDR9NwR2B-2BOgXV-2FS8ognS6UL5W0lh7dwji-2FybSvZOjk-2Bue-2BuAnsGIv2B3AxxPXqtfbk8mHPejqzbC9f-2B-2FQKmrHxHilsla00al8NuTtSvZwdXkG8VMAibjiy5KtPMGiqCqg4jpxv8e7s0-2Bj6xp-2FKn-2FU3RJcz0zpgAjuxUlJPDSJtZ3qS7jyBeMs6bnZrkKB-2Bvc67HK6dUgIk-3D
... The first steps in cocoa bean processing (e.g. fermentation and drying) generally take place in the country of origin, where traditional local processes and specific climatic conditions can influence the final chemical composition and flavour of cocoa, also considerably (Roelofsen, 1958), although the cacao genotype can also play a role (Sukha, Butler, Comissiong, & Umaharan, 2014). ...
Cocoa is a high-value commodity that appeals to the consumer's taste, but it is also renowned for its antioxidant and healthy properties. Many of these characteristics as well as flavour and its economic value depend on the geographic origin.
This work reports the content of 56 macro-, micro- and trace-elements of 61 cocoa beans produced in 23 countries of East and West Africa, Asia and Central and South America using ICP-MS and tests the efficacy and robustness of a new chemometric approach of geographic traceability developed on the base of elemental profiles. The model based on the 29 elements (Ag, As, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, Ga, Hg, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, P, Rb, Se, Sr, Th, Tl, U, Y and Zn) indicated as the more predictive by the Discriminant Analysis provided an optimal discrimination among the 5 subcontinental origins, achieving 100% of correct re-classification. The model was cross-validated with satisfactory results (>85% correct reclassification). Finally, interesting opportunities were pointed out by the satisfactory application of this model in tracing back the subcontinental origin of 13 commercial samples of dark chocolate (77% correct reclassification).
The specialty cacao industry is unique in that it is thought to offer higher price premiums and claims to provide cacao farmers with considerably more sustainable resources than traditional cacao systems, prioritizing farmer welfare and environmental resource conservation. However, with poor coherency of industry definition, quality quantifiers, and standardization, specialty cacao buyers can set prices and quality requirements without clear definitions that are easily externalized. Poorly defined standards put farmers at a disadvantage, allowing buyers to wield more bargaining power over producers, often assessing beans with independent or internal quality requirements. This research identified current industry definitions, and prices paid to farmers were collected and compared to world market prices, fair trade prices, and commodity producer prices. Five primary pathways were found to define characteristics for specialty cacao: (1) quality, (2) genetics, (3) origin, (4) certification, and (5) direct trade. This research shows for the first time, variability in farm gate prices for specialty cacao, as well as an average price 95.13% higher than commodity cacao, demonstrating the critical role that specialty cacao can play in developing a more sustainable chocolate industry. Ultimately, cacao farmers are agricultural entrepreneurs managing complex businesses that require reasonable access to independent, unbiased, and objective farmer-driven information on price transparency, market averages, and quality grading systems. This research reveals the need for systems-level definitions to quantify quality parameters to help farmers gain access to higher prices offered by buyers and provide incentives for economic opportunities and support for environmental conservation within specialty cacao markets.
The cocoa botanical and geographical origin and the primary processing steps applied by cocoa farmers at the beginning of the supply chain influence the chemical compositional traits of the cocoa beans. These features are carried along the supply chain as intrinsic markers up to the final products. These intrinsic markers could be used for tracking and tracing purposes. In this study, we examined the retention and loss of compositional signatures from cocoa beans to chocolates. Volatile, elemental and stable isotope signatures of cocoa beans of 10 different origins and 11 corresponding chocolates were determined by high sensitivity-proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (HS-PTR-MS), inductively coupled plasma-MS (ICP-MS) and isotope ratio-MS (IR-MS), respectively. The volatile fingerprints provided mostly information on the origin and primary processing traits of the raw cocoa beans in the chocolates. Volatile compounds that are relevant markers include: acetic acid (m/z 61), benzene (m/z 79), pyridine (m/z 80), 2-phenylethanol (m/z 123), and maltol (m/z 127). On the other hand, the elemental and stable isotope characteristics are more indicative of the cocoa content and added ingredients. Possible elemental markers for cocoa origin include Fe, Cr, and Cd. VOCs appear to be the most robust markers carried from cocoa beans to chocolates of the groups examined. This provides the potential for track and trace of cocoa beans from farm to chocolates.
Fermentation of Theobroma cacao L. seeds has been considered to be the most important factor influencing cocoa flavour and has accordingly received most attention. Development of a test procedure in which small amounts of wet cocoa seeds in net bags are inserted in fermentations of wet seeds from single or mixed genotypes has allowed the flavour potential of a wide range of genotypes to be examined. Flavour profiles of cocoa liquors from genotypes grown at BAL Plantations Sdn Bhd, Malaysia differed consistently for various replicate preparations indicating a strong genetic contribution to flavour. In the present study, similar flavour profiles were developed from cocoa from the same genotypes grown in Brazil and Malaysia and subjected to the same conditions of post-harvest processing. Genetic fingerprinting by Rapid Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis confirmed that most of the genotypes tested for flavour in Brazil and Malaysia were the same, although there were also a few erroneous identifications. The results confirmed the contribution of genotype to cocoa flavour. There appeared to be a minor effect of environment on cocoa flavour development. Mis-identification of genotypes might be more common than is currently realized, and represent a problem for transferring results between various research programmes.
A comprehensive, but simple-to-use software package for executing a range of standard numerical analysis and operations used in quantitative paleontology has been developed. The program, called PAST (PAleontological STatistics), runs on standard Windows computers and is available free of charge. PAST integrates spreadsheettype data entry with univariate and multivariate statistics, curve fitting, time-series analysis, data plotting, and simple phylogenetic analysis. Many of the functions are specific to paleontology and ecology, and these functions are not found in standard, more extensive, statistical packages. PAST also includes fourteen case studies (data files and exercises) illustrating use of the program for paleontological problems, making it a complete educational package for courses in quantitative methods.
Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs des Tàchniques d,es Ind,ustries Agricoles et Alimentaires, Chaire de Mathûnatique (M.Q.), Rue de la Géraudière,44072 Nantes, Cedex 03, France A method for extracting NIR discriminant spechal patterns without any reference to chemical values is suggested. First, groups of samples have to be defined apriori. Second, this method involves two procedures: the application of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on spectral data and Factorial Discriminant Analysis (FDÀ) on the PC scores. Discrim-inant spectral pâtterns are assessed as linear combinations of PCA ei' genvectors with weights determined by FDA. This method was applied on an illustrative collection of wheat semolina conditioned at 3 levels of water concentration. Three groups were made on the basis ofthe 3 water levels. Two discriminant spectral patterns representative of water con-cenhation were extracted. They showed the commonly known bands of rvater at 1940 and 1450 nm. The band at 1450 nm was resolved into two bands at l4l0 and 1460 nm, which could be assigned to free and bound OH, respectively. The discriminant spectral patterns therefore rnodeled the relative proportion of free and bound water. Suitability of the method for other applications is discussed.
An optimised protocol for organoleptic assessment of cocoa liquors was developed and used to determine what were the flavour
attributes and sensory differences between samples of Ghana beans (normally classified as ‘bulk’) and bean samples from local
commercial clones and estates in Trinidad (normally classified as ‘fine or flavour’ cocoa). The optimised protocol was validated
by independent sensory assessment carried out at Masterfoods, UK. Trinitario samples from four local commercial clones and
five commercial estates from Trinidad were investigated for their liquor quality, over three crop years using the optimised
sensory panel and an appropriate sensory design with replications. The optimised protocol was not only able to consistently
differentiate between the ‘bulk’ and ‘fine or flavour’ cocoa types but also able to consistently quantify the level of each
attribute in genotypes, over replication and season. This method was used to delineate quantitative differences in flavour
attributes among cocoa genotypes as well as to determine the influence of environment on cocoa flavour profiles. The optimised
organoleptic protocol involves a detailed description of primary and secondary processing of beans, preparation of liquor,
panellist selection, training, sensory design and data analysis methods. The optimised organoleptic protocol provides a robust
methodology to improve cocoa quality by selection of genotype and environment.
In order to isolate, identify and characterize the microflora of cacao beans before, during and after fermentation and locate possible sources contributing to microbial contamination, cacao beans from the Centeno and San Louis Estates in Trinidad were investigated. Prior to fermentation, the interior and exterior of the pods, hands of employees, utensils, dried pulp material of the sweatboxes and finally fruitflies (Drosophila melanogaster) were studied microbiologically. At Centeno Estate, beans were sampled at 5, 45 and 90 cm depths at 8-hr intervals for the first 72 hr and every 12 hr thereafter for 7 days. Sampling at San Louis Estate was carried out at 24 hr intervals for the same period. The changes in microbial population of the beans sampled at Centeno Estate ranged from 1.48 × 105/g at 0 hr to 4.1 × 105/g at the completion of the fermentation, whereas, at San Louis Estate they ranged from 6.8 × 105/g to 9.2 × 105/g during the same period. Taxonomical studies of isolates obtained during the fermentation period revealed the identification of 44 microorganisms at both Estates. Yeasts Zymomonas mobilis and several species of lactic acid organisms dominated the flora during the early stages of fermentation. As the fermentation progressed, these and other isolates were taken over by several species of genus Bacillus. Microbiological examination of dried and polished beans resulted in the identification of 22 organisms at Centeno Estate and 15 organisms at San Louis Estate
A -eld comparison of solar drying and open-air sun-drying of cocoa (T heobroma cocoa L) beans was carried out in St Lucia. Four methods of drying (indirect solar drier, direct solar drier, open air/perforated steel surface and open air/non-perforated wooden surface) were examined at three loading rates: 13É7, 26É9 and 40É 4k g m~2. Beans from the open air had a higher incidence of exter- nal mould and poorer external appearance, though di†erences were minor. Beans dried at the lower rate of 13 kg m~2 showed the best colour, but the highest titratable acidity. Conversely, beans dried at the higher loading rate of 40É 4k g m~2 showed signi-cantly lower titratable acidity, but poorer colour. Dif- ferences in cut-test score, colour, pH and titratable acidity between the open air and closed driers were small or not signi-cant. While not signi-cant, the indirect drier did show the highest cut-test score and the direct drier the poorest. Beans from the indirect drier were darker and more purple, while those from the direct drier were lighter coloured and less purple. The beans from the direct drier, dried to 6% moisture (WB) were, though not signi-cantly so, more brittle and higher in titratable acidity than those from either the open air or indirect drier. Overall the beans from the indirect drier showed the highest quality and those from the direct drier the poorest. Whether the modest improvement of the indirect drier over the open air driers is sufficient to warrant investment in such a drier is unclear. 1998 SCI. (
In an earlier publication1 reference was made to a noticeable difference between the temperatures at the top and centre of heaps of fermenting cocoa. A study of this phenomenon has been extended to a detailed investigation of the lack of uniformity in the rates at which some of the chemical and physical changes, associated with fermentation, occur at different levels in the cocoa mass. A method is described for rapid fermentation of Amelonado cocoa.
A numerical analysis is given of the average microflora of fermenting cocoa beans in Trinidad sweat boxes. Both the viable count of all micro-organisms and the relative numbers of the main groups involved were estimated.
The influence of the prevailing temperature and pH of the environment on the sequence of microbial development is considered, and the main chemical changes taking place are noted.
The influence of atmospheric conditions is discussed and the desirability of a thorough microbiological analysis of the fermentation process in relation to cocoa quality is stressed.
The objectives of the study were to evaluate the effect of drying on the pH, titratable acidity and volatile fatty acids (VTA), ie acetic, propionic, butyric, isobutyric and isovaleric acids content of cocoa beans, and on the flavour of the resultant chocolate. Freshly harvested cocoa pods from clones of PBC 123 and 128 (1 :1 ratio) were stored for 9 days and fermented for 5 days with a single turning at 48 h. Four drying treatments, ie oven-drying at 60°C, air-blow drying, shade-drying and sun-drying were carried out. Samples were taken periodically for pH, titratable acidity, and VFA analysis. Physical characteristics were also recorded. The resultant beans were made into dark chocolate for flavour evaluation. The results showed that wet beans held in shady areas for 120 h will not dry quickly enough to inhibit mould and yeast and other putrefactive activities; rapid oven-drying of these still wet beans did not improve their flavour profile. There were no significant differences (P ⩾ 0.05) between samples that have undergone sun-drying and air-blow drying in the acidity and C3-C5 VFA content; both were evaluated favourably by taste panellists. Oven-dried beans contain a high concentration of VFA and produced chocolates with a high intensity of off-flavour.
Thirty-nine fermented and dried cocoa bean samples from 13 countries were evaluated for pH, titratable acidity and concentrations of volatile and nonvolatile acids. The correlation coefficient between pH and log10 titratable acidity was -0.94. Cocoa beans from Brazil and Far Eastern countries were highly acidic while those from Central American and South American countries were low in acidity. Samples from West African countries were intermediate with titratable acidity values from 0.12 to 0.15 meq NaOH/g sample and pH values from 5.20 to 5.49. Highly acidic beans were characterized by high concentrations of acetic and lactic acids. The high correlation between acetic acid and both pH (r=0.86) and titratable acidity (r = 0.91) indicated that this acid could be primarily responsible for high acidity in cocoa beans.
Cocoa fermentations were performed in wooden boxes under the following four experimental regimens: beans naturally fermented with wild microflora; aseptically prepared beans with no inoculum; and beans inoculated with a defined cocktail containing microorganisms at a suitable concentration either at zero time or by using phased additions at appropriate times. The cocktail used consisted of a yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. chevalieri, two lactic acid bacterial species, Lactobacillus lactis and Lactobacillus plantarum, and two acetic acid bacterial species, Acetobacter aceti and Gluconobacter oxydans subsp. suboxydans. The parameters measured were cell counts (for yeasts, filamentous fungi, lactic acid bacteria, acetic acid bacteria, and spore formers, including reisolation and identification of all residual cell types), sugar, ethanol, acetic acid, and lactic acid contents (and contents of other organic acids), pH, and temperature. A cut test for bean quality and a sensorial analysis of chocolate made from the beans were also performed. The natural fermentation mimicked exactly the conditions in 800-kg boxes on farms. The aseptic box remained largely free of microflora throughout the study, and no significant biochemical changes occurred. With the zero-time inoculum the fermentation was almost identical to the natural fermentation. The fermentation with the phased-addition inoculum was similar, but many changes in parameters were slower and less pronounced, which led to a slightly poorer end product. The data show that the nearly 50 common species of microorganisms found in natural fermentations can be replaced by a judicious selection and concentration of members of each physiological group. This is the first report of successful use of a defined, mixed starter culture in such a complex fermentation, and it should lead to chocolate of more reliable and better quality.
IntroductionChocolate FlavorBiochemistry of the Unfermented SeedThe Curing ProcessFactors Affecting QualityNeeded Research
Cocoa fermentation was monitored at the IDIAF (Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales) "Mata Larga" experimental station, in San Francisco de Macoris, Dominican Republic. The maximum average fermentation temperature reached 51 degrees C after 48 h and the pH reached 4.5 after 144 h of fermentation. A significant decrease in glucose, fructose and citric acid was seen in the pulp over the first 48 h. There was a delay of 24 h between maximum microbial growth and maximum concentrations of the respective metabolites, which occurred after 48 h for ethanol and after 72 h for acetic acid. A maximum concentration in lactic acid was found after around 120 h of fermentation. The aerobic mesophilic flora increased from 6.1x10(6) to a maximum of 4.2x10(7) CFU g(-1) of dry matter after 48 h of fermentation. Yeasts displayed maximum development after 24 h (6.1x10(7) CFU g(-1) of dry matter), whilst for lactic and acetic acid bacteria it occurred after 48 h (7.3x10(7) and 1.5x10(8) CFU g(-1) of dry matter respectively). The yeasts isolated belonged to the genera Hanseniaspora and Candida, the lactic acid bacteria to the genus Lactobacillus, and the acetic acid bacteria to the genus Acetobacter. The differences compared to other fermentation trials concerned the micropopulation from a qualitative point of view.
Influence of genetic factors and agroclimatic conditions on the quality of cocoa
- J N Wintgens
Wintgens, J.N. (1991) Influence of genetic factors and agroclimatic conditions on the quality of
cocoa. Agricultural Services, Nestec Ltd. Nestlé:Switzerland, pp. 13-55.
The influence of fermentation and drying on the flavour and quality of selected cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) genotypes. M.Sc. Research Project. Department of Chemical Engineering
- D A Sukha
Sukha, D.A. (1997) The influence of fermentation and drying on the flavour and quality of
selected cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) genotypes. M.Sc. Research Project. Department of
Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine
185p.
Characterisation and Utilisation of Cocoa Genetic Resources in the 21 st Century. University of the West Indies
- G A Enriquez
Enriquez, G.A. (1993) Characteristics of Cacao "Nacional" of Ecuador, in Proc. of International
Workshop on Conservation, Characterisation and Utilisation of Cocoa Genetic Resources in the
21 st Century. University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, September, 1992. Trinidad and
Tobago: Cocoa Research Unit, pp. 269-278.
Cacao Fermentation -A Critical Survey of its Scientific Aspects. London: Bale and Curnow
- A W Knapp
- A Churchman
Knapp, A.W. and Churchman, A. (1937) Cacao Fermentation -A Critical Survey of its Scientific
Aspects. London: Bale and Curnow, 171 p.
Fine or flavour cocoas: Current position and prospects
- M Fowler
Fowler, M. (1994) Fine or flavour cocoas: Current position and prospects. Cocoa Growers'
Bulletin 48:17-23.
The effect of cocoa genotypes on flavour
- J Hammerstone
Hammerstone, J. (1994b) The effect of cocoa genotypes on flavour, in Proc. International Cocoa
Conference, Challenges in the 1990's. Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia, 1991. Malaysia: Malaysian
Cocoa Board, pp. 478-486.