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Code-switching in community, regional and national repertoires
Abstract
Code-switching - the alternating use of several languages by bilingual speakers - does not usually indicate lack of competence on the part of the speaker in any of the languages concerned, but results from complex bilingual skills. The reasons why people switch their codes are as varied as the directions from which linguists approach this issue, and raise many sociological, psychological, and grammatical questions. This volume of essays by leading scholars brings together the main strands of current research in four major areas: the policy implications of code-switching in specific institutional and community settings; the perspective of social theory on code-switching as a form of speech behaviour in particular social contexts; the grammatical analysis of code-switching, including the factors that constrain switching even within a sentence; and the implications of code-switching in bilingual processing and development.
... This dominant view may relate to the fact that in the last three decades, there has been a particular focus on quantitatively distinguishing borrowing from CS (e.g., Aaron, 2014;Poplack & Meechan, 1998;Poplack, 2012). This two-way distinction has been a fundamental concern because singly occurring donor-language items (e.g., English-origin nouns in Spanish discourse, see Chapter 5) are among the most common kinds of other-language items in bilingual speech (Gardner-Chloros, 1995;Muysken, 2000;Myers-Scotton & Jake, 2013;Poplack & Meechan, 1998;Weston, 2013). Therefore, analyzing bilingual discourse data typically requires drawing a line between both phenomena if one is to study them. ...
... Instead, borrowing and CS exist on a continuum. In particular, Gardner-Chloros (1995) concurs with Haust (1995) in that borrowings begin their historical trajectory as code-switches that later become increasingly used by speakers of the borrowing language. Thus, borrowings and switches fall within a continuum and the status of an item can change depending on how speakers adopt and integrate these forms into the host lexicon. ...
... The prevailing view of CS, as the combination of two discrete grammars or lexicons that maintain their separate identities in bilingual discourse, has been previously criticized as an oversimplification (Gardner-Chloros & Edwards, 2004, p.126;Gardner-Chloros, 2010) and misrepresentation (García 2009(García , 2010 of the dynamic nature of CS. Gardner-Chloros (1995) describes this belief as the new orthodoxy, which has replaced the notion of the ideal speaker/listener in homogenous communities. Álvarez-Cáccamo (1998, p.36) adds that there is no concrete evidence to substantiate the widely held assumption that "speakers who code-switch possess two (or more) identifiable linguistic systems or languages". ...
... According to Gardner-Chloros (1995), code switching is more intense among peer groups than between different generations, and more intense within the family than outgroup interactions (p.82). This is visible in the following conversation between Peter and inspector Jende who are very close friends. ...
... According to Gardner-Chloros (1995), any mixture sooner or later is associated with a new identity (p.69). This is also seen in the novel where the diction of the gay men assumes a separate identity. ...
Code switching is a challenging problem in literary translation due to the multiplicity of codes employed in the source text. One of the challenges here is that the target audience may not know the second code used during code switching. To retain the code switching – as a stylistic element – one may need to employ multiple target languages. Furthermore, the translator faces the dilemma of either doing away with the code switching or employing a new instance of code switching, probably at the cost of adding new meanings or dimensions and connotations to the text. This paper looks at strategies to tackle code switching within a novel using the example of Jerry Pinto’s Murder in Mahim (2017). Although this novel has been written in Indian English, it has several passages where one finds use of Hindi, Marathi or Bambaiyya. These include code switched words or phrases within a sentence and complete sentences offering a wide spectrum. This paper looks at the solutions provided in the Marathi translation (2019) by Pranav Sakhadeo. A new set of challenges would arise while translating the novel from Indian English to German as the (German speaking) target readers may not be aware of the phrases used in Hindi, Marathi, and Bambaiyya. Strategies are briefly discussed to translate selected passages into German retaining the code switching followed by further generalisation of the results towards a theoretical perspective.
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... Some of the above-mentioned studies focused more on the social meaning of code-switching during interaction, and thus highlighted its value as a communicative resource in the communities and its value as power and cultural capital. Some other studies focused on the structural meaning of code-switching through investigating the structural patterns in everyday discourse (Bentahila and Davies, 1983;Berk-Seligson, 1986;Gardner-Chloros, 1995;Lu, 1991). These structural patterns are related to sociolinguistic factors. ...
... In the English classes, the most frequent switching of a single word is nouns, which account for 35.6% of the total number of word class switches, more than one-third. This finding is similar to the noun-level switching in some other studies (Gardner-Chloros, 1995;Ho-Dac, 2003). In his Spanish-English code-switching study, Poplack (1980) reported that single nouns are more likely to be switched than other word classes. ...
This paper analyses the structure patterns of code-switching quantitatively and qualitatively based on EFL classroom discourse. Through the detailed analysis, the paper finds that there are different structure patterns in which teachers often switch their codes in English classroom. These structure patterns are reflected in different language levels: words and phrases level, clausal and sentence level. The functions of code-switching are determined by those structure patterns that teachers will choose for different purposes in the process of teaching.
... Notably, another argument that has been underlined by both CS and translanguaging scholars relates to linguistic creativity. Gardner-Chloros (1995, 2010 has long contended that the mainstream view of CS downplays the linguistic creativity and innovation that CS entails. Bi/multilinguals often engage in creative "rule-breaking behavior" (Gardner-Chloros 2010, 202) that allows them to fully exploit their linguistic resources, and which can lead to the creation of innovative bilingual structures that may lack pre-existing templates in the participating languages. ...
In previous research, there has been an emphasis on differentiating and distancing translanguaging from codeswitching, partly on the basis that the latter refers to the combination of two discrete systems that correspond to named languages. While this is the mainstream view, there are codeswitching scholars who have proposed alternative views that align with some of the same observations and criticisms that have been raised by proponents of translanguaging. In this conceptual paper, I provide an overview of translanguaging alongside opposing views of codeswitching, and I underscore important similarities that have thus far been absent from present discussions regarding translanguaging versus codeswitching. Drawing on data from the understudied Spanish/English codeswitching variety spoken in Northern Belize, I discuss how bilingual compound verbs lend support to alternative views of codeswitching. Despite clear differences in their empirical goals, research conducted by both codeswitching and translanguaging scholars compels us to reexamine fundamental notions about language and linguistic competence. This reevaluation will not only contribute to theoretical advancement, but it will further elucidate our understanding of the complexity and dynamicity that characterizes bi/multilingual speech production and processing.
... Previous researchers have highlighted problems with the proposal that bilinguals maintain two discrete linguistic systems (Edwards & Gardner-Chloros, 2007;Gafaranga, 2007;Gardner-Chloros, 1995, 2009Gardner-Chloros & Edwards, 2004). One proposal that recognizes bilingual complexity and differential linguistic behavior is that bilinguals function in a 'bilingual mode' (Grosjean, 1997;2012). ...
In the editor’s introduction to the International Journal of Bilingualism’s Special Issue on New perspectives on transfer among bilinguals and L2 users, Treffers-Daller and Sakel (2012) call for a renewal in studies of bilingualism, noting that there has been a predisposition toward studying bilingualism from a monolingual perspective. In this call for renewal, they state that while studying transfer should be a priority “[i]n some cases, contact between the languages in the bilingual can lead to the emergence of unique, hybrid features that exist in neither of the two source languages” (4). This study examines an emergent hybrid feature used frequently by Spanish/English bilinguals in the Southwestern US, the bilingual compound verb hacer + V. While previous studies have examined this construction (Fuller Medina, 2005; Jenkins, 2003; Pfaff, 1982; Reyes, 1982 Toribio et al., 2012), the present study is the first to examine it from a usage-based approach in order to demonstrate that it is a case of linguistic evolution emerging from bilingual discourse practices. Examples (1 and 2) provide instances of hacer + V:
...somebody used to feed them
...(0.7) from the beginning los hacían feed. (06.La Crinolina, 1617-8)1
...(H) pero si el Ricky venía, pero el Ricky le decía smoking, ese hacía smoke. (04.PiedrasandGallinas, 2537-9)
In applying a usage-based analysis to spoken data from New Mexico, the present study demonstrates how hacer + V is a hybrid construction that is not accounted for solely through lexical deficiency. Instead, hacer + V is productive, readily expanded to new types, and is the conventional way expressing certain verbal situations. This study provides evidence that the verb hacer in this construction has undergone grammaticalization and that the input for this linguistic change comes from bilingual discourse practices. This reinforces the notion that bilinguals operate on a continuum in regards to discourse mode.
... Um programa de desinvenção tem que ser capaz de levar em conta as realidades históricas e contemporâneas que descrevemos acima como ponto de partida, em vez de aceitar suposições sobre a promoção de línguas indígenas com base na crença de que estão sendo promovidos fenômenos unitários e distintos com realidades objetivas, ao invés de construções distorcidas (GARDNER-CHLOROS, 1995). Uma visão das línguas indígenas como construtos unitários é parte de um legado da construção de línguas africanas no século XIX, que tem o efeito de reificar as línguas (ERRINGTON 2001;WILLIAMS, 1992), o que leva a uma necessidade de reformulação de estratégias ineficazes para corrigir as desigualdades existentes. ...
As práticas linguísticas têm sido vistas através de enquadramentos – como a translinguagem, mistura de códigos, superdiversidade e o metrolinguismo – motivados pela intenção de capturar algumas das diversidades sociolinguísticas contemporâneas, ou capturar as diversidades que ocorreram historicamente – entretanto perdidas por causa dos quadros analíticos usados – sublinhando a necessidade de expandir os “repertórios epistemológicos”. Este artigo segue essa lógica de busca por expandir repertórios epistemológicos analíticos para descrever as diversidades sociolinguísticas, tendo como foco contextos sócio históricos da África, analisando como as línguas indígenas, foram apropriadas como primeiras línguas por falantes africanos, bem como explora as implicações de uma perspectiva linguística humana, no planejamento linguístico.
... También hubo algunos campesinos que desarrollaban registros andinos del español, diferentes de los registros de los mestizos. Así se aumentaba la diversidad lingüística que se prestaba para reconocer y manejar diferencias sociales a través de la técnica del «code-switching» (cambios de lengua y/o registro en un contexto bi o multilingüe), tal como ha sido analizada en diferentes partes del mundo por John Gumperz (1982) y otros sociolingüistas (Gardner-Chloros, 1995). ...
Bilingualism made interpreters unnecessary in early Republican Bolivia. Citizen judges of the Peace functioned as Spanish-Aymara bilingual scribes in Chayanta Province (Potosí), while new bilingual Citizen tribute-collectors (recaudadores) replaced hereditary Aymara-speaking moiety Curacas. In Peru and Ecuador tribute was abolished in the 1850s, but in Bolivia it continued till the 21st century. By the 20th century, Quechua had become the language of the Macha Ayllu, and the moieties took back the Curacazgos. This article examines the resurgence of the moiety Curaca Recaudadores, and their persistence as tributecollectors for most of the 20th century. Macha moiety Curacas were illiterate, and monolingual in Quechua, but had Ayllu support, and could administer using bilingual mestizo scribes. They formed a Spanish-language Archive, an invaluable source for building a Republican ethnohistory of 20th century rural literacy, Ayllu organization, social movements and Ayllu-State relations. Among its 740 documents the Archive contains three Aymara-influenced circulars from La Paz, written in a Spanish-derived linguistic amalgam between 1936 and 1946. They shed light on indian political thought in a period when the Ayllu-State pact and «indian law» were being recovered, before and after the Revolution of 1952.
... Yet, "words that are quite Latin-looking and are used similarly to code- switched words" are considered, in this context, as cultural borrowings when using Carol Myers-Scotton's term (1993: 5; 2006: 212-215). 35 According to 33 There are a number of discussions about the distinction between code-switching and bor- rowing, of which the most compendious studies are written by C. Myers-Scotton (1992), S. Poplack and M. Meechan (1995) and P. Gardner-Chloros (1995), P. Gardner-Chloros (2009), and H. Schendl (2018). 34 For example, in order to distinguish between single-word code-switches and borrowings, Matras also provides a distinction, according to which single (Latin) word-forms in verna- cular contexts are classified as code-switches (2009: 110-114). ...
This doctoral dissertation focuses on the study of the academic text-units extant from the early modern Academia Dorpatensis within its both periods Academia Gustaviana (1632–1656) and Academia Gustavo-Carolina (1690–1710) from the aspects of multilingual practices. Multilingual practices is a phenomenon that is often defined as the “alternating use of at least two languages in historical writings”. It is a characteristic which enables to consider a number of different text types and topics within a single study under the same denominator.
Both contemporary studies and the extant documents contain very little information about the linguistic performance of that period, therefore there is a lack of knowledge in which language exactly the Academy was governed and communicated in.
In order to demonstrate the real linguistic situation of the Academy, all the extant material was collected, divided into 28 sub-groups, and a descriptive-qualitative statistical analysis followed.
The main objective of the thesis was either to prove or disprove the general idea of the early modern Academia Dorpatensis being Latin-centered. Two premises were stated in order to prove the Hypothesis: first, that all monolingual texts were mainly in Latin, and in cases when at least two languages were used within a text-unit, Latin was supposed to be the frame language and all the other languages (vernaculars) to be the embedded languages.
However, the analysis revealed that the development of the linguistic performance in the 17th century academic texts was not linear from the usage of Latin to multilingual texts, which then would finalize with a text-unit written exclusively in a vernacular. On the contrary, all these practices occur throughout the early modern Academia Dorpatensis, depending mostly on the text-type and its function, author, addressee as well as the medium (i.e. either printed or handwritten text). Based on the results of the thesis, the idea that the 17th century Academy was exclusively Latin-centered can be refuted, since one of the central practices used was multilingualism in which Latin was foremost used with some vernaculars and rarely with other learned languages.
... This study examines this construction so as to uncover its characteristics and the role that each part in the construction plays; the study shows what kind of formations made with kamno or ʝinome + an English language element have been found in the data, and whether they are all instances of bilingual compound verbs. It also aims to explain how their formation is possible since neither Greek nor English has this construction in monolingual discourse (Gardner-Chloros, 1995), and why BCVs arose in the first place given that Greek has another way to use verbs from other languages. Employing the work of Muysken (2000) and Backus (1996), this study shows that there are four different types of constructions in the data involving the verb kamno or ʝinome and an English element but asserts that only those with the two parts of the construction forming a single predicate should be regarded as BCVs. ...
Attested in many language contact situations and characterized as a potential “universal of codeswitching” (Edwards and Gardner-Chloros, 2007:74), bilingual compound verbs (BCVs) remain perplexing constructions for many scholars. Drawing from a dataset of 338 instances, and from a language pair that has never been studied in-depth before, this paper examines Cypriot Greek - English compound verbs. Cypriot Greek is a non-standardized Greek linguistic variety, and the native language of Greek Cypriots living on Cyprus and overseas. These bilingual verbs are comprised of the verb kamno (‘do’), or less occasionally ʝinome (‘become’), and more often than not an English non-finite verb form. This study examines this construction so as to uncover its characteristics and the role that each part in the construction plays; the study shows what kind of formations made with kamno or ʝinome + an English language element have been found in the data, and whether they are all instances of bilingual compound verbs. It also aims to explain how their formation is possible since neither Greek nor English has this construction in monolingual discourse (Gardner-Chloros, 1995), and why BCVs arose in the first place given that Greek has another way to use verbs from other languages. Employing the work of Muysken (2000) and Backus (1996), this study shows that there are four different types of constructions in the data involving the verb kamno or ʝinome and an English element but asserts that only those with the two parts of the construction forming a single predicate should be regarded as BCVs. It is argued that even though the Greek language does not have a construction with kamno or ʝinome and a Greek non-finite verb, the occurrence of BCVs is possible because of a Greek native construction which involves kamno + a Greek derived noun. The study then claims that speakers seem to find English non-finite verbs to be congruent (Sebba, 1998) with the Greek derived noun and use them in its place in the bilingual constructions.
... Several studies show that CS can be the standard code or the norm in a number of speech communities (e.g. Gardner-Chloros 1995, Franceschini 1998, Maschler 1998, Oesch Serra 1998, such that CS cannot be functioning as a cue at all times. Moyer (1998: 231) also shows that bilingual speakers in Gibraltar use CS in conjunction with additional textual resources, for example speakers" alignment, humour etc., all of which reflect these people"s ambivalent identity. ...
Starting from the observation that sluicing in Libyan Arabic (LA), a non-preposition-stranding language, seems to display optionality in stranding and/or pied-piping a preposition, the current paper addresses the apparent violation of the Preposition Stranding Generalisation (PSG) posited by Merchant (2001) and questions its robustness. The paper puts forward an account arguing that LA sluicing under preposition stranding (p-stranding) derives only from a cleft source, thus is an instance of pseudosluicing despite its appearance as sluicing. The apparent p-stranding violation follows from the fact that wh-pivots of clefts in LA cannot be headed by a
preposition. Hence, despite initial appearances, LA does not constitute a counterexample to Merchant’s generalisation. Furthermore, it is proposed that there are two independent sources of IP ellipsis in LA: sluicing and pseudosluicing, both derived by wh-movement plus IP deletion. Based on these sluicing-related facts, the paper provides new evidence for Shlonsky’s (2002) analysis of Arabic Class II wh-interrogatives as copular clauses.
... Several studies show that CS can be the standard code or the norm in a number of speech communities (e.g. Gardner-Chloros 1995, Franceschini 1998, Maschler 1998, Oesch Serra 1998, such that CS cannot be functioning as a cue at all times. Moyer (1998: 231) also shows that bilingual speakers in Gibraltar use CS in conjunction with additional textual resources, for example speakers" alignment, humour etc., all of which reflect these people"s ambivalent identity. ...
Starting from the observation that sluicing in Libyan Arabic (LA), a non-preposition-stranding language, seems to display optionality in stranding and/or pied-piping a preposition, the current paper addresses the apparent violation of the Preposition Stranding Generalisation (PSG) posited by Merchant (2001) and questions its robustness. The paper puts forward an account arguing that LA sluicing under preposition stranding (p-stranding) derives only from a cleft source, thus is an instance of pseudosluicing despite its appearance as sluicing. The apparent pstranding violation follows from the fact that wh-pivots of clefts in LA cannot be headed by a
preposition. Hence, despite initial appearances, LA does not constitute a counterexample to Merchant’s generalisation. Furthermore, it is proposed that there are two independent sources of
IP ellipsis in LA: sluicing and pseudosluicing, both derived by wh-movement plus IP deletion.
Based on these sluicing-related facts, the paper provides new evidence for Shlonsky’s (2002) analysis of Arabic Class II wh-interrogatives as copular clauses.
... Code-mixing is the alternation between two or more languages that can occur between sentences (inter-sentential), within the same utterance (intrasentential), or even inside a single token (mixing of morphemes). This phenomenon has been widely studied from the linguistic, psycholinguistic, and sociolinguistic point of view (Gardner-Chloros, 1995;Grosjean, 1995;Ho, 2007) but there is no consensus on the terminology to be adopted. In this paper code-mixing is used as an umbrella term to indicate a manifestation of language contact subsuming other expressions such as code-switching, languaging, borrowing, language crossing (Muysken, 2000). ...
Code-mixing is the alternation between two or more languages in the same text. This phenomenon is very relevant in the travel domain, since it can provide new insight in the way foreign cultures are perceived and described to the readers. In this paper, we analyse English-Italian code-mixing in historical English travel writings about Italy. We retrain and compare two existing systems for the automatic detection of code-mixing, and analyse the semantic categories mostly connected to Italian. Besides, we release the domain corpus used in our experiments and the output of the extraction.
... Este esbozo de polylanguaging ofrece una manera de estudiar el uso de otras lenguas en el habla de usuarios y considerarlo como una ocurrencia del CdC sin saber el conocimiento de la lengua utilizada por el usuario. Otros investigadores, como Auer (1999) y Gardner-Chloros (1995), han notado que un hablante puede usar el CdC sin conocer la lengua utilizada. ...
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Este estudio analiza el papel del CdC en los hashtags utilizando datos recogidos de perfiles de Valencia, España. El CdC en los hashtags ocurre en un 5% de los casos. El inglés es la lengua más utilizada en los hashtags, seguido por el valenciano. Los hashtags son una herramienta para establecer públicos ad hoc alrededor de un tema compartido (Bruns y Burgess 2014). Estas comunidades ad hoc no solo tienen que ver con un tema compartido, sino que forman comunidades de individuos con el mismo estatus social en su red social. Los usuarios demuestran este prestigio poniendo hashtags en otras lenguas en sus tweets para demostrar competencia. Este estudio corrobora el propósito del CdC en los hashtags para expandir la audiencia y para expresar afiliación con una comunidad multilingüe virtual (Jurgens et al. 2014). El uso del inglés en sus hashtags es un símbolo de su conocimiento lingüístico y sirve como marcador de prestigio. El uso del valenciano tiene una función parecida al uso del galés en Twitter para expresar afinidad regional (Johnson 2013). Tiene una función parecida en cuanto a su función de señalar que el usuario que utiliza un hashtag en valenciano es parte de la comunidad valenciana en Twitter.
... nouns, adjectives, etc.) from one of the languages or language varieties present in the linguistic repertoire. 2 From a sociolinguistic point of view, code switching can be employed in order to investigate not only the linguistic outcomes in the structure of the bilingual discourse, but also the different roles of the languages in communication. It can also demonstrate how they can reflect social and cultural changes in linguistic communities, an approach that is followed by scholars such as Gumperz (1982), Auer (1984), Heller (1988), Gardner-Chloros (1995), and others. ...
... Undoubtedly, the present study's findings support the notion that intra-sentential CS can indeed serve as a vehicle of language innovation and change, a view held by several researchers [20,72,73]. In particular, as it relates to mixed verbs, highly proficient post-adolescent and adult code-switchers are the ushers of cross-generational morphosyntactic change. ...
The present study provides a quantitative analysis of mixed verbs in the naturalistic speech of 20 Northern Belize bi/multilinguals of two different age groups (ages 14–20 and ages 21–40). I examined the relative frequency of Spanish/English mixed verbs vis-a-vis syntactic verb type and phrasal verbs in mixed verbs. Results showed that the token frequency of mixed verbs was a predictive measure of the relative frequency of ‘hacer + V’ in code-switched speech. In relation to syntactic verb type, it was found that the least productivity in terms of argument structures was attested among the youngest group of emergent bi/multilinguals. For the incorporation of phrasal verbs in mixed verbs, no marked differences were attested in the relative frequency of phrasal verbs across emergent and dynamic bi/multilinguals, but differences did emerge in the semantic nature of phrasal verbs. Findings highlight the fundamental role that adult code-switchers with higher levels of bi/multilingual proficiency play in the creation and propagation of morphosyntactic innovations.
... Studies on CS between dialect and standard language are few, especially those focusing on intergenerational differences. The best investigated cases in Europe are Holland (Giesbers 1989), West Flanders (Vandekerckhove 1998) and Italy (Alfonzetti 1992a; Berruto 1985, Giacalone Ramat 1990, 1995 Sobrero 1992a, b, c) Trumper 1984, etc.). In all of these contact situations, a process of gradual shift towards the standard language is taking place, although it proceeds at a different speed in each country and in their various internal areas: it is much more advanced in cities and towns than in small villages (Sobrero 1992a, b), in North-Western Italy than in the South, and in the Netherlands than in West Flanders (Vandekerckhove 1998). ...
This paper deals with intergenerational variation in syntactic and functional CS patterns in different contact situations: post-colonial settings, migrant communities and particularly standard language/dialect bilingualism in Italy. It is shown that the occurrence of a particular switching strategy may often be traced to the influence of factors outside the domain of syntax, as it largely depends on socio- and psycholinguistic factors interacting with age. This calls into question the assumption that there is one CS pattern per language pair and also what this assumption implies, i.e. that extralinguistic factors play only a minor auxiliary role in code switching with respect to the dominant primary role of internal linguistic properties.
... Regardless of the relative position of workers' language behavior in the context of local cultural hierarchies, the findings suggest that participants' language identities are bound to both Turkish and Kurdish. Their simultaneous exploitation of two linguistic codes to enhance meaning adheres to Gardner-Chloros's (1995) ar-gument against the discreteness of codes and identities among bilingual members of minority groups. If language is indeed a marker of identity, these data suggest a Turkish-Kurdish dual identity rather than an exclusively Turkish or Kurdish identity among participants. ...
Language choices of Kurdish workers [N=30] at Kurdish-owned eating establishments in Istanbul were observed through recordings and follow-up interviews. Particular focus was placed on Kurdish and Turkish language use in high vs. low visibility jobsites. The link between language choice and identity is established, and participants' language choices are assessed according to Somer's (2004) distinction between 'compatible' and 'rival identities.' Results indicate job visibility as a predictor of language choice. Transcript analysis provides examples in which participants exploit both Turkish and Kurdish to achieve sociolinguistic ends. These findings provide linguistic evidence of compatible identities among the selected Kurdish workers. © 2014 The Editor(s) (if applicable) and the Author(s). All rights reserved.
... There is a need to improve the quality, as well as the evaluation procedure, because textbooks are the heritage of language and culture of the people who own it. This legacy needs to be protected by the frequent insertion of outlandish words because the lifespan of every loanword, according to Mayers-Scotton (as cited in Gardner-Chloros, 1995), begins as a code-switch. There is a need to fill the gap in textbook research methodology as well as research as pointed out by Nicholls (2003). ...
Plurilinguismes Parole empruntée, parole appuyée ou la place des emprunts dans l'apprentissage d'une langue seconde Danièle Moore, Bernard Py Citer ce document / Cite this document : Moore Danièle, Py Bernard. Parole empruntée, parole appuyée ou la place des emprunts dans l'apprentissage d'une langue seconde.
Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions
The aim of this research is to critically examine the concept of linguistic discreteness in multilingual practices, responding to contemporary debates that question the existence of languages as separate entities. We present a range of empirical data to demonstrate the theoretical necessity of maintaining the concept of language as discrete system in understanding multilingual practices. The research questions focus on how linguistic discreteness manifests in multilingual repertoires and the role it plays in the production and comprehension of the complexes of nuances of social-indexical meanings.
Data, Methodology, Approach
This paper is a small-scale meta-analysis. The database comprises a diverse collection of empirical examples of code-switching drawn from documented studies, inter-personal interactions, media content, and linguistic landscapes. The research adopts a qualitative methodological approach to show creative, social-indexical uses of languages in multilingual contexts.
Data and Analysis
Drawing from a range of empirical sources, this paper provides evidence to claim that multilingual repertoires do indeed exhibit discrete linguistic-epistemic inventories that are recruited routinely in complex ways in the production and comprehension of referential and social- indexical meanings.
Findings/Conclusions
The key finding is that mobility of linguistic resources do not erase discreteness; in fact, it is precisely in the movement of various mobile resources where the discreteness of codes, or language “archives,” become significantly relevant in meaning-making.
Originality
The paper reinforces the significance of linguistic discreteness through the synthesis of diverse examples to argue for the necessity of discrete linguistic systems in multilingualism studies.
Significance/Implications
This paper underscores the persistent relevance of discrete linguistic systems in multilingual practices that facilitates complex meaning-making processes, enabling speakers to navigate and articulate social and referential meanings effectively. Methodologically, the research advocates for a nuanced analysis that recognizes the complexity and specificity of linguistic resources.
Limitations
One limitation is the analytic focus, which does not capture the emic perspective of the speakers in multilingual practices.
Data obtained from the sample of 56 Hispanic community members reveal language patterns including those who speak only Spanish, those who speak only English, and those who codeswitch (using words/morphemes from the two languages in sentences, conversations, and other oral texts) and/or mix the languages grammatically (grammatical convergence, the use of grammatical structures in the same sentence, such as word order, from more than one language but with morphemes exclusively from one of the languages). The models from Chapter 1 are used to describe and explain the data linguistically. Conversational turns exclusively in Spanish are the majority of the language data. All English turns are the second most frequent type of data. The category of all other conversational turns counted together, with any kind of mixing of the two languages, including code-switching and grammatical convergence, is less frequently encountered in the data than either the category of all Spanish or all English conversational turns. Within this third category of language mixing, the most frequent type of mixing is the insertion or embedding of single English words or content morphemes into matrix language Spanish sentences. Less frequent are conversational turns with codeswitches between multi-morpheme phrases or between sentences. Slightly less frequent are turns with grammatical convergence of Spanish and English. The least frequent type of mixing is English matrix language sentences with embedded Spanish words or morphemes.
Social (extralinguistic) and associated linguistic patterns from data from the 56 speaker sample in the Northeast Georgia Hispanic community are noted. Again, the models from Chapter 1 are used to describe and to explain the data. Age and gender correlate with language type use in that children of either gender and females of either age group use English and Spanish influenced by English (English-influenced types) more than the older group of informants of either gender or males of either age group. More speakers in the Hispanic community of non-Mexican origin are observed to use more English than speakers of Mexican origin. More non-Mexican as compared to Mexican English interaction may therefore be related to higher convergence rates, especially among South Americans and Guatemalans who showed the highest grammatical convergence rates of all regional groups. On the other hand, usage of code-switching was significantly greater by Mexicans as a group, younger informants, and by those informants who reported more preference for English. Correlations of the language data to the other social factors presented in Chapter 2 are also noted.
This study of Spanish English language contact primarily refers to Myers-Scotton’s models (Markedness model, Matrix Language-Frame model, 4-Morpheme model) with additional reference to other language models and language contact research (Poplack, Sankoff, Pfaff, Lipski, Muysken, and others). In the Markedness model the “unmarked” language is associated with the social norm or the status quo in a given conversation. Choosing to speak a “marked” language marks a shift away from the social norm or the status quo. Code-switching languages in a conversation constitutes different social statements between interlocutors, depending on the markedness of each language in the context of the conversation and in relation to the interlocutors. The Matrix Language-Frame model states that code-switching within a sentence is asymmetrical, that in each sentence using two languages there is a matrix or main language and a subordinate or embedded language. The 4-Morpheme model claims that every language has four basic types of morphemes; content or lexical morphemes such as root words carry the informational content of a sentence and three different types of grammatical or system morphemes accompany content morphemes in order to either add more information to content morphemes such as plural affixes on nouns or verb inflections which link for example subjects and predicates. In a code-switched sentence content morphemes and one type of system morphemes are those embedded from one language into a matrix language sentence of another language. These three models can together help to explain the patterns of code-switching and other forms of language mixing within sentences and conversations.
Research on code-switching (CS) has witnessed a major terminological issue, especially with regard to its relation to other concepts of language contact phenomena. CS, as a research area, is troubled with the question of terminological confusion. Sometimes, researchers use different labels to indicate the same notion; in others, they use the same term to refer to distinct notions. Hence, there is no definite consensus on the territory covered by the terms related to the CS phenomenon such as CM, borrowing, transfer and so on. This article attempts to explore and clarify these terms and examine their similarity or distinction to CS. The latter is reviewed in comparison to four close and interrelated linguistic phenomena, namely code-mixing, diglossia, borrowing, and interference. This review is based on reviewing the literature and reflecting on it.
This study explores variation in the use of English-origin verbs in Quebec French. These lexical borrowings are usually integrated grammatically into the receiving language (Poplack, 2018), as in il va crash er and elle m’a ghost é in Quebec French. However, a new lexical insertion strategy for English-origin verbs has been observed in the past few years: verbal borrowings can lack overt morphological integration, as in il va crash and elle m’a ghost . This article examines the use of English-origin verbs in Quebec French from a variationist perspective by focusing on 1) possible correlations between speakers and how they evaluate the different lexical insertion strategies, and 2) the social factors that constrain the use of morphologically unintegrated English-origin verbs. Results from quantitative analyses based on 675 participants indicate that young Quebecers from Montreal with a high level of proficiency in English are the ones who use this morphologically unintegrated form the most and evaluate it more positively. This unintegrated form poses a theoretical problem according to Poplack’s (2018) theory, for which nonce borrowings are morphologically and syntactically integrated into the receiving language.
Arabic linguistics encompasses a range of language forms and functions from formal to informal, classical to contemporary, written to spoken, all of which have vastly different research traditions. Recently however, the increasing prominence of new methodologies such as corpus linguistics and sociolinguistics have allowed Arabic linguistics to be studied from multiple perspectives, revealing key discoveries about the nature of Arabic-in-use and deeper knowledge of traditional fields of study. With contributions from internationally renowned experts on the language, this handbook provides a state-of-the-art overview of both traditional and modern topics in Arabic linguistics. Chapters are divided into six thematic areas: applied Arabic linguistics, variation and sociolinguistics, theoretical studies, computational and corpus linguistics, new media studies and Arabic linguistics in literature and translation. It is an essential resource for students and researchers wishing to explore the exciting and rapidly moving field of Arabic linguistics.
Drawing on social media context such as Facebook of international students from the Global South – Mongolia – in Australia, this article indicates that the diversity of “languaging” practices of migrants who come to settle in Australia from the Global South are better understood from the perspective of the “normativity of diversity”. The notion of “languaging” is vital in capturing the current complexity of mixed and hybrid language practices fundamentally produced by the amalgamation of linguistic and cultural resources intersecting with Global South and North social, cultural and political landscapes. However, these languaging practices in Australia are neither non-normal nor substandard linguistic productions as mostly imagined in the local monolingual ideology. Instead, languaging practices of the migrants from the Global South in Australia should be understood as part of the new settlers’ normative daily linguistic practices that cut across both online and offline settings. Consequently, it is crucial for language educators and language policy-makers in Australia to reconsider migrants’ linguistic diversity in globalisation through the eyes of the “normativity of diversity”.
В монографии исследуется функционирование русского языка в Республике
Беларусь. Демонстрируется градуальный характер различий между языками и их разновидностями, а также разрабатывается методика эмпирического исследования континуальных феноменов. В результате анализа корпусных, экспериментальных и интроспективных данных обнаружены лексические, морфологические и синтаксические особенности русского языка в Беларуси, а также установлено отношение говорящих к его характеристикам.
Portuguese-Spanish Interfaces captures the diversity of encounters that these languages have known and explores their relevance for current linguistic theories. The book focuses on dimensions along which Portuguese and Spanish can be fruitfully compared and highlights the theoretical value of exploring points of interaction between closely related varieties. It is unprecedented in its scope and unique in bringing together leading experts in a systematic study of similarities and differences between both languages. The authors explore the common boundaries of these languages within current theoretical frameworks, in an effort to combine scholarship that analyzes Portuguese and Spanish from multiple subfields of linguistics. The volume compares structures from both synchronic and diachronic points of view, addressing a range of issues pertaining to variability, acquisition, contact, and the formation of new languages. While it provides an up-to-date resource for scholars in the field, it can also be a useful companion for advanced students.
Code‐switching is one of the most striking aspects of language contact to the observer. It provides the clearest synchronic evidence that contact is occurring, both in societies and for individuals. This chapter discusses how code‐switching fits in with other manifestations and outcomes of contact, including borrowing and translanguaging on the one hand, and language change and shift on the other. Code‐switching can embody different types of significance within a contact situation, from accommodation to divergence and from language maintenance to language shift. It is found alongside pidginization and creolization/decreolization in many parts of the world, and contributes to the process of convergence of different varieties. A significant locus of language contact nowadays is that of online writing. Different varieties interact online as well as in speech, and much recent research on code‐switching focuses on its use in social media.
Objectives/research questions
We investigate two understudied bilingual compound verbs that have been attested in Spanish/English code-switching; namely, ‘ hacer + V Inf ’ and ‘ estar + V Prog ’. Specifically, we examined speakers’ intuitions vis-à-vis the acceptability and preferential use of non-canonical and canonical hacer ‘to do’ or estar ‘to be’ bilingual constructions among bilinguals from Northern Belize, New Mexico and Puerto Rico.
Methodology
Speakers from Northern Belize ( n = 44), New Mexico ( n = 32) and Puerto Rico ( n = 30) completed a two-alternative forced-choice acceptability task and a language background questionnaire.
Data and analysis
The data were examined using an analysis of variance and Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment.
Conclusions
Whereas Northern Belizean bilinguals gave the highest ratings to ‘ hacer + V Inf ’, both groups of US bilinguals gave preferential ratings to ‘ estar + V Prog ’ bilingual constructions. On the other hand, Puerto Rican bilinguals gave the highest preferential ratings to the canonical estar bilingual compound verbs (i.e. estar + an English progressive verb) but rejected hacer bilingual compound verbs. While ‘ hacer + V Inf ’ and ‘ estar + V Prog ’ may represent variants that are available to Spanish/English bilinguals, the present findings suggest a community-specific distribution, in which hacer bilingual compound verbs are consistently preferred over estar bilingual compound verbs in Northern Belize, whereas estar bilingual constructions are preferred among US bilinguals.
Originality
This is the first cross-community examination of these bilingual compound verbs in Northern Belize (Central America/Caribbean), New Mexico (Southwest US) and Puerto Rico (US/Caribbean), three contexts in the Spanish-speaking world characterized by long-standing Spanish/English language contact and the use of bilingual language practices.
Implications
Findings underscore the importance of bilingual language experience in modulating linguistic competence and the necessity to study code-switching from a language ecological perspective, as subtle context-specific patterns in code-switching varieties may be manifested not only in bilingual speakers’ oral production but in intuition as well. A more fine-grained understanding of speakers’ judgments is vital to experimental studies that seek to investigate code-switching grammars both within and across communities where code-switching varieties of the same language pair are spoken.
This paper is grounded in the evolution of our reflection on the relationship between plurilingualism, plurilingual speech and language learning. That is, it refers to research on the construction of plurilingual repertoires, over a period of more than thirty years, as documented in Lüdi and Py (1986 [2009]. “To Be or Not to Be … a Plurilingual Speaker.” International Journal of Multilingualism 6 (2): 154–167; [2013]. Etre bilingue. 4e édition ajoutée d’une postface. New York: Lang) and Lüdi et al. ([2016]. Managing Plurilingual and Intercultural Practices in the Workplace. The Case of Multilingual Switzerland. Amsterdam: John Benjamins), among others. The emphasis is placed on language use (languaging) instead of on language systems (language), based on the premise that plurilingual competences emerge from interaction where the status of translinguistic markers is mutually negotiated. In this context, the question of the adequacy of ‘additive’ or ‘integrated’ conceptions of plurilingualism constitutes an important theoretical challenge.
This chapter examines how narrative theory and translation can be combined, through the notion of written code-switching, the switch from a language into another, into a model of analysis that can be used to examine the notion of return in Italian-Canadian diasporic writing and in its Italian translation. This chapter begins by looking at the meaning of focalisation and voice in classical and poststructuralist narratology, and in narrative theory, arguing that these elements concern the visual and aural point around which our narrative subjectivities are turned into plots that make sense. It then discusses the notion of code-switching, the switch from a language to another, paying specific attention to the fictional and pragmatic aspect of written code-switching and to studies which investigate its translation. The model finally links code-switching to the narratological concepts of focalisation, voice and plot, within the framework of studies of style in translation and narrative theory, demonstrating that in diasporic writing narratives are “translational”, as they are assumed to be founded on translation.
Aims and objectives
This paper examines Cypriot Greek–English codeswitching practices by Cypriot-born Greek Cypriots and investigates its linguistic forms, functions and codeswitching types. It also assesses the frequency of English in the data.
Methodology
The data consist of authentic, informal conversations. Codeswitching is regarded as the use of two languages by one speaker in a single conversation, so established borrowings were excluded from the analysis. For assessing frequency, a word-count was conducted and for data analysis the distinction between insertions and alternations was used.
Data and analysis
Forty hours of naturally occurring conversations among Greek Cypriots were studied. Data are categorised according to codeswitching types, linguistic forms and functions of English.
Findings/conclusions
Quantitatively, English use is limited. Thus claims for excessive use of English are unfounded. Structurally, codeswitching mainly takes the form of English insertions in a Cypriot Greek grammatical structure. Most codeswitching is intra-sentential, with mostly English nouns and noun phrases used. Single-word switching is more frequent than multi-word switching.
Originality
This study, to the author’s knowledge, is the first thorough documentation of oral Cypriot Greek–English codeswitching by Greek Cypriots born and raised in Cyprus and the first study addressing the assertions for the ‘destruction of the Greek language in Cyprus’ using a large sample of empirical data.
Significance/implications
As Greek Cypriots’ native language but not the standard official language of the state, Cypriot Greek has been accused of being ‘susceptible’ to a heavy use of English because it supposedly lacks the richness of Standard Modern Greek. This work shows that such heavy use is only in the mind of purists and that claims about Cypriot Greek speakers’ linguistic deficit on the basis of purported dense codeswitching are unfounded.
This chapter looks at some of the questions raised by the fact that people know more than one language. It presents the approach that look at areas where some relationship can be found between linguistics and second language acquisition (SLA) research. A relationship between linguistics and SLA research started to emerge with the influential distinction made by Weinreich (1953) between compound and coordinate bilinguals. The European Science Foundation (ESF) project is thus a practical demonstration of the interlanguage hypothesis since it shows a common interlanguage independent of both L1 and L2. The project's aim was indeed to see “whether a learner variety is based on recognisable organisational principles, how these principles interact, and whether they also apply to fully-fledged languages”. The Universal Grammar (UG) model of language acquisition claims that the child's mind possesses universal principles that always apply to language and variable parameters that have different settings in different languages.
This dissertation explores B??i language use in Ji??nchu??n County, China. On the basis of interviews with 42 language users, transcripts of spontaneous conversation and elicited narratives, excerpts from B??i texts in an alphabetic orthography and Chinese characters, and six months of participant observation, I demonstrate how language users??? perceptions of B??i and Chinese as distinct languages emerge as the result of interactional and representational strategies that alternatively foreground and background bilingual contrast. I argue that these micro-level strategies exist in a dialectical relationship with macro-level governmental, academic, and lay discourses that represent the B??i and the H??n as essentially different, ethnicity as isomorphic with language, and, consequently, diverse B??i linguistic practices as a distinct minority nationality language.
By demonstrating that borders of communities cannot be relied upon to describe consensus about linguistic structure, use, or ideologies, this dissertation contributes to more realistic descriptions of language; relatedly, by showing that language users??? perceptions of the elements in their repertoire as ???B??i ??? or ???Chinese??? vary not only across language users, but also situations of use, it challenges synchronic theories of language contact that invoke community consensus to distinguish between ???borrowing??? and ???code switching.??? More fundamentally, both lines of analysis entail that language users??? interactional and representational strategies do not merely reproduce pre-existing contrast between languages, but also actively produce and transform it.
The paper deals with the role played by bilingual discourse in the process of linguistic erosion and language shift in the context of endangered minority languages that have been spoken within the Italian borders for at least 500 years (in some cases up to eight centuries). Because of their very long history of contact and of the great asymmetries within their linguistic repertoires, language minorities make up a perfect test to verify some crucial and problematic aspects of codeswitching theory and analysis, and to explore its explicative power. Both functional and formal features will be considered. In particular, the relationship between syntactic convergence and constraints of 'codemixing', and between 'codemixing' and borrowing and hybridisms will be dealt with. On the basis of the data commented throughout the paper, I will argue that there is none single path leading from bilingual conversation to language death. Instead, a varied range of outcomes seems to emerge, thus confirming the complex link connecting sociolinguistic context and linguistic consequences.
The research of the past forty years or so has provided considerable insights into the various aspects of codeswitching, among them the syntactic, psycholinguistic, and pragmatic aspects. This review article aims to provide a state-of-the-art report on this research. Because of space limitation, here I report only on the state of codeswitching research in the global context. A subsequent report will focus on the state of codeswitching research in Africa. The aim of the present report is to retrace the paths which codeswitching research has taken over the years; highlight the findings of this research; and underscore some of the issues with which it is likely to be concerned in the next millennium.
Bureaucracy and the public sphereBilingualism in the community: media and elitesMobility and bilingual communitiesLinguistic changes during shiftIndigeneity and the settler stateTranscending macro/microReferences
Bilingual compound verbs (BCVs) are documented in various languages and are common in codeswitching between English and South Asian languages. It has been suggested that BCVs have no monolingual equivalent, and are generated by a ‘third system’ independent of the two languages. BCVs have also been cited as evidence of language convergence, and as a strategy employed by dominant bilinguals to circumvent lexical gaps in one language. BCVs were common in narratives from four to six-year-old Panjabi-English children in Huddersfield, UK. BCVs are argued to be based on analogy with Panjabi monolingual compound verbs, and to be unrelated to language convergence or language dominance. Instead, BCV use relates to two types of codeswitching in the data: one utilising the simplest structures from both languages, the other drawing more fully on the two languages’ grammatical resources. It is suggested that BCVs enable children with limited overall bilingual competence to ‘do codeswitching’.
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