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Graphic Organizers and Students with Learning Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
This meta-analysis reviews experimental and quasiexperimental studies in which upper-elementary, intermediate, and secondary students with learning disabilities learned from graphic organizers. Following an exhaustive search for studies meeting specified design criteria, 55 standardized mean effect sizes were extracted from 16 articles involving 808 participants. Students at levels ranging from grade 4 to grade 12 used graphic organizers to learn in core-content classes (English/reading, science, social studies, mathematics). Posttests measured near and far transfer. Across several conditions, settings, and features, the use of graphic organizers was associated with increases in vocabulary knowledge, comprehension, and inferential knowledge. Mean effect sizes varied from moderate to large based on type of measure, type of graphic organizer, and subject area. Conclusions, implications for future research, and practical recommendations are presented.
... Concept Maps are semantic graph summary representations of relations between concepts in text. They are particularly beneficial for students with difficulty in reading comprehension, such as those with special educational needs and disabilities (Galletti et al., 2022;Dexter and Hughes, 2011). Currently, the field of concept map extraction from text is outdated, relying on old baselines, limited datasets, and limited performances with F1 scores below 20%. ...
... CMs are powerful tools that can improve comprehension and learning, as they provide users with a structured way to organize and visually represent knowledge, making complex content more accessible (Ausubel et al., 1968;Nesbit and Adesope, 2006;Dexter and Hughes, 2011). More specifically, grasping the meaning of entire texts can be frustrating and exhausting for students with special educational needs and disabilities, such as those diagnosed with reading comprehension disorders. ...
Concept Maps are semantic graph summary representations of relations between concepts in text. They are particularly beneficial for students with difficulty in reading comprehension, such as those with special educational needs and disabilities (Galletti et al., 2022; Dexter and Hughes, 2011). Currently, the field of concept map extraction from text is outdated, relying on old baselines, limited datasets, and limited performances with F1 scores below 20%. We propose a novel neuro-symbolic pipeline and a GPT3.5-based method for automated concept map extraction from text evaluated over the WIKI dataset. The pipeline is a robust, modu-larized, and open-source architecture, the first to use semantic and neural techniques for automatic concept map extraction while also using a preliminary summarization component to reduce processing time and optimize computational resources. Furthermore, we investigate the large language model in zero-shot, one-shot, and decomposed prompting for concept map generation. Our approaches achieve state-of-the-art results in METEOR metrics, with F1 scores of 25.7 and 28.5, respectively, and in ROUGE-2 recall, with respective scores of 24.3 and 24.3. This contribution advances the task of automated concept map extraction from text, opening doors to wider applications such as education and speech-language therapy. The code is openly available 1 .
... Based on a meta-analysis of 180 effect sizes from 23 studies, Gilmour (2019) found SWDs performed 1.17 standard deviations (more than 3.3 years reading achievement gap) below their peers without disabilities. While reading, secondary struggling readers and SWDs commonly encounter the following issues: relating new knowledge to prior knowledge, connecting meaning to words, inferring the main concept, excluding unimportant details, retaining information in short-term memory, recalling information during assessments, and actively monitoring their comprehension (Dexter & Hughes, 2011;Kaldenberg et al., 2015;Watson et al., 2012). The aforementioned challenges negatively affect those students' ability to comprehend what they read (Ciullo & Reutebuch, 2013), and ultimately their overall academic outcomes. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of digital textbooks versus traditional textbooks on comprehension performance and application in secondary inclusive classrooms. The sample comprised of 121 sixth grade students, in six science class periods, which were divided into three groups. Using a control/treatment quasi-experimental counterbalanced design, the study was conducted through two phases; in phase 1, group 1 was the treatment (received the digital textbook), while groups 2 and 3 were the control (received the traditional textbook); in phase 2, groups 1 and 2 switched, while group 3 remained in the control group. Across both phases, there was no statistically significant difference in comprehension performance between both groups. In regard to application, there was also no statistically significant difference between groups in Ecocolumn project, but there was a significant difference in regard to Food Web project. The limitations and implications of the study are discussed.
... For students with LD, these instructional components facilitate their understanding of complex mathematics concepts and organize knowledge, engaging them in practice activities that elicit frequent responses (Hughes et al., 2017). Explicit instruction also employs explicit elaboration on the concepts in clear, consistent, and concise language (Hughes et al., 2016), fosters verbal interactions between teachers and students during guided practice (Doabler & Fien, 2013), and provides visual aids and graphic organizers to enhance their conceptual knowledge (Dexter & Hughes, 2011). Explicit instruction can extend from individualized instruction to small-group and whole-group settings, effectively addressing diverse learning needs (Doabler & Fien, 2013). ...
In this chapter, we present effective and evidence-based instructional practices to improve the mathematical literacy, concepts, knowledge, and skills of students with learning disabilities through (a) explicit instruction to teach mathematics vocabulary, (b) strategies promoting mathematical communication, (c) self-regulated strategy development to teach mathematical writing, (d) use of visual representations, (e) use of mathematical manipulatives, and (f) cognitive and metacognitive strategies to teach mathematical problem-solving. Mathematical literacy characterizes the ability to comprehend, communicate, and solve real-word problems in learning mathematics. However, many students with learning disabilities often face challenges in learning these mathematics abilities. As such, instructional practices that foster the development of mathematical literacy beyond mathematical proficiency for students with learning disabilities can lead to advancing their understanding and use of mathematical concepts, knowledge, and skills. We also describe inclusive practices and assessments that could be used as instructional frameworks for all learners, including those with learning disabilities. These include Universal Design for Learning, accommodations and modifications, data-based individualization, assistive technology, and emerging technology (e.g., artificial intelligence). As a provision of appropriate support tailored to mathematics instruction, these instructional practices will extend and promote students’ active engagement in learning mathematics.
... Effective instruction should also incorporate multi-sensory strategies and interventions aimed at improving executive function and working memory (Dexter & Hughes 2011;. Tailored, evidence-based approaches are essential for helping children with ADHD and SLD achieve mathematical proficiency and long-term academic success. ...
This study aimed to conduct a comparative assessment of mathematical competence-including vocabulary, operations, and problem-solving-in children diagnosed with Specific Learning Disability (SLD) and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Individual assessments were administered to evaluate intelligence quotient (IQ), mathematical competence, reading, and written language for both groups (SLD: N = 17; ADHD: N = 17). The results revealed statistically significant differences between the groups in several WISC subtests: Verbal IQ, Information (factual knowledge, long-term memory, recall), Arithmetic (attention, concentration, numerical reasoning), Digit Span (short-term auditory memory, concentration), Picture Arrangement (planning, logical thinking, social knowledge), Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI), and Freedom from Distractibility Index (FDI), as well as in Mathematical Operations and Mathematical Problem Solving. Both groups demonstrated difficulties across all assessed domains. To explore these difficulties in greater depth, canonical correlation analyses (CCA) were conducted on three variable sets. Findings suggest that while both SLD and ADHD are associated with cognitive challenges, they present largely distinct patterns of cognitive deficits. The implications of these results are discussed in the context of educational assessment and intervention.
... Research has consistently demonstrated the efficacy of GOs in improving comprehension across various educational activities, including writing and reading. eir positive scaffolding in uence has been systematically documented across multiple meta-analytical reports (Batdi, 2014(Batdi, , 2015Dexter and Hughes, 2011;Guo et al., 2020;Kansizoglu, 2017;Moore and Readence, 1980). GOs are frequently employed in educational contexts and have been studied extensively with non-ctional texts (Bangsri and Phusawisot, 2020;Damayanti, 2019;Hernández-Chérrez et al., 2020). ...
The aesthetics of reading have received relatively little research attention, particularly in the context of foreign language readers. In this study, we investigate the impact of text mining-powered graphic organizers (GOs) on aesthetic reading experience with English as a foreign language (EFL) readers. Shusterman's framework of aesthetics was applied to measure reading comprehension, experience, and literary beauty perception. A between-group experiment design ( N = 52) was conducted, where Norwegian students enrolled in the International Baccalaureate classes of Lillestrøm High School were recruited. Participants in the experimental condition interacted with GOs before reading the first three chapters of English versions of Pride & Prejudice , while those in the control condition solely read the same texts without interacting with GOs. A statistically significant enhancement in comprehension scores across all subdomains —summarization, vocabulary, and overall comprehension—was associated with the use of GOs. However, the introduction of GOs did not improve or hinder the reading experience or the perceived literary beauty of the text. These findings highlight the efficacy of automatically extracted GOs in improving specific aspects of the aesthetic reading experience. The implications of such findings for individual domains of reading aesthetics and foreign language readers are discussed.
... For example, explicitly teaching students to generate main idea statements while reading provides them with opportunities to stop and consider chunks of text (e.g., Johnson et al., 2012;Stewart et al., 2023). In addition, using graphic organizers while reading to document main ideas about chunks of text can scaffold working memory demands associated with reading comprehension (Dexter, 2010;Dexter & Hughes, 2011). Main ideas composed during reading can then be used after reading to help summarize an entire text. ...
A large body of research documents underlying cognitive factors, many of which are shared, in students with reading disabilities (RDs), math disabilities (MDs), comorbid reading and math disabilities (RD + MD), as well as students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and students with RD and ADHD. In an effort to examine differences in reading, mathematics, and cognitive outcomes among these students, we investigated the outcomes between these groups across the published research literature by conducting a systematic review. A total of 16 studies met inclusion criteria. Data from a total of 1,910 participants across studies was used to answer our research questions. Mean effect size differences across studies highlight lower overall outcomes for students with RD + MD and students with RD + ADHD compared to students with RD, MD, or ADHD alone.
... The Frayer model, which requires students to define a term, describe its characteristics, provide examples and nonexamples, and illustrate the term, enhances comprehension and retention by engaging multiple cognitive processes (Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986). This method has shown particular promise for students with disabilities, who often benefit from explicit instruction and visual supports (Dexter & Hughes, 2011). By breaking down complex vocabulary into manageable parts, the Frayer model makes new terms more accessible, thus supporting the diverse needs of learners in inclusive settings (Dazzeo & Rao, 2020). ...
Many students entering middle school experience increased difficulty in acquiring academic content vocabulary, especially in science. Content Acquisition Podcasts for Students (CAP-S) were developed over a decade ago to help remediate this issue and provide structured multimedia instruction on academic content vocabulary to help improve the acquisition and application of terms. This study sought to expand the CAP-S research base by examining the impact of three different formats of CAP-S on the understanding, retention, and application of science vocabulary terms in rural inclusive middle school classrooms. Participants included 271 students, 11% of whom had Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), served in rural settings. The CAP-S formats included increasingly intensive levels of instructional components. One-way ANOVAs with corrected post-hoc comparisons to probe significant findings were completed. Findings underscore the general effectiveness of CAP-S in improving science vocabulary knowledge for students in rural settings and highlight the need for further research into specific instructional components that may be used to continue to improve upon the CAP-S format. Implications for educators include leveraging multimedia tools to support rural and other diverse learners and considering classroom context when implementing vocabulary instruction are discussed.
Cornell method and guided note are all structured note taking methods that each have their own reinforcing benefits to students learning. This study sought to find out the significant difference between pre-test and post-test score among students when using Cornell Method and Guided Note. The study used the Quasi-experimental research design that served as foundation in determining and knowing the performance of students in Mathematics using Cornell Method and Guided Note. There were 32 grade 8 students of Mahayahay Integrated School, Manticao, Misamis Oriental. The pre-test and post-test questionnaires were adapted from DepEd Mathematics 8 modules. This study utilized percentage, frequency, and Wilcox on test to analysed the results. Wilcox on test analysis revealed a significant difference as shown in their p-value of pre-test and post-test with1.11 x 〖10〗^(-8)which is less than 0.05 level of significancethat leads to the rejection of the null hypothesis. This study concluded that Cornell Method and Guided Note can better improve the student’s performance in mathematics.Note taking is an essential part for student success in the classroom. Students that struggle recording notes benefit from having a note taking method with a set format or design.
Conventional reviews of research on the efficacy of psychological, educational, and behavioral treatments often find considerable variation in outcome among studies and, as a consequence, fail to reach firm conclusions about the overall effectiveness of the interventions in question. In contrast meta-analytic reviews show a strong, dramatic pattern of positive overall effects that cannot readily be explained as artifacts of meta-analytic technique or generalized placebo effects. Moreover, the effects are not so small that they can be dismissed as lacking practical or clinical significance. Although meta-analysis has limitations, there are good reasons to believe that its results are more credible than those of conventional reviews and to conclude that well-developed psychological, educational, and behavioral treatment is generally efficacious.
Notetaking is the primary method used by secondary and postsecondary students with learning disabilities (LD) to acquire lecture information. The literature on notetaking was reviewed to obtain an empirical base for designing effective notetaking programming and identifying critical areas for future research. Results include the benefits of recording and reviewing notes as well as identification of listener- and lecturer-controlled variables that influence effective notetaking. Findings are discussed in relation to the learner characteristics of secondary and postsecondary LD students.
Many students with learning disabilities (LD) experience difficulties with extracting relationships from expository text, especially if they are implicit. Results from studies with K-12 participants have been inconclusive regarding the potency of the graphic organizer (GO) as a comprehension tool. This study attempted to address some of the concerns with GO research by examining the effects of using GOs with middle school students with LD to convey and cue relational knowledge, using a longer intervention and using written essays to assess the students' attainment of relational knowledge. The results lend support for using GOs with students with LD to gain relational knowledge from expository textbooks. When factual knowledge was assessed via multiple choice tests and quizzes, no differences were found between treatment and control conditions. As in other GO studies, both groups demonstrated attainment of facts and concepts. But when relational knowledge was assessed, the two groups responded differentially. On essays that required application, the GO group provided significantly more relational knowledge statements than students in the No GO group did.
