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The Experience of Flotation-REST as a Function of Setting and Previous Experience of Altered State of Consciousness
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate if experiences induced by flotation-REST (in flotation-tank) are affected by settings or subjects earlier experiences of altered states of consciousness (ASC). No such significant differences were found. Significant effects owing to flotation-REST were found regarding reduction in experienced pain and enhancement of mood. Flotation-REST was considered a pleasurable technique. Different kinds of visual and acoustic effects, altered time perception, and a sense of weightlessness have been reported. Also, deep transpersonal experiences were quite common, and could be distinguished into three types: experiences of one's own childbirth/delivery; feeling of cosmic unity; and experiences of losing contact with the body or out-of-body experiences. Flotation-REST must be regarded as a consciousness-altering method with promising potential for clinical and therapeutic use.
... Thus, the results indicate positive effects, such as an increased well-being and relaxation [8], mild euphoria [9], greater production of ideas [10,11], an increased originality [12,13], improved sleep at night [14], reduced stress, tension and anxiety [6, 9,15 -17], reduced pain [18 -19], reduced headache [20], lowered blood pressure [15], less muscle tension [21] as well as a suitable complement to psychotherapy [8,22]. It ought to be indicated that the method is experienced as pleasant and subjects are always prepared to endorse it on further occasions [23]. Flotation-REST, creativity and realism 4 Flotation-REST is a form of sensory deprivation that readily induces a state of altered consciousness. ...
... In research with psychoactive drugs is known that expectancy factors is of importance and greatly influence the participants experience [33 -34]. One study dedicated to expectancy factors and flotation REST by Norlander, Kjellgren and Archer [23] showed that different expectancies or earlier experiences did not exert any particular effect upon the subjects' experiences in the flotation tank. Despite this, systematic experiments are required that compare varying numbers of tank flotations not merely to study experiential factors but also to explore the areas of potential benefit. ...
... deterioration), i.e. through any possible extinction-like effect. These results may be associated with an earlier study [23] wherein it was found that earlier experience of an altered Flotation-REST, creativity and realism 20 state of consciousness or the instruction "strict" or "fantasy" to subject had negligible effect upon their experience of sensory isolation in the tank. Thus, the present results stand in contrast to drug-related studies [34] where it was shown that experience and expectancies often play a critical role in the expression of drug-induced effects. ...
Two studies examining different aspects of the Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique (REST) were carried out. In the first study, 38 participants were assigned randomly to either a group that floated on one occasion or a group that was given floating on three occasions. Following this, the subjects performed a test of divergent creativity and a test of logic. In the second study, 32 participants were assigned randomly first to two groups, Flotation-REST or Chamber-REST groups, and then randomly assigned to two more groups, namely to either a Stress-group or to a Non-stress group. The most inportant dependent variables of this second study were derived from essay-writing which was adjudged on the basis of elaboration, liveliness, originality, and realism. The results did not indicate any differences deriving from one or three flotations; both groups performed worse on the test of logic but tended to be better on the test of creativity. Both REST groups were similarly relaxed after treatment although the Flotation-REST group showed altered states of consciousness to a greater degree. The Flotation-REST group showed more originality whereas the Chamber-REST group showed more elaboration and realism. The results are discussed from the standpoint of fluctuations within the primary-secondary process continuum.
... Metzner (1992) defined an ASC as a change in thinking, feeling, and perception that has a beginning, duration, and end. Other changes that can occur during flotation tank therapy are a disturbed time sense (acceleration of time or " time standing still " ) (Kjellgren, 2003; Ludwig, 1990; Raab & Gruzelier, 1994), perceptual changes (visual, acoustic), body image changes like sensations of floating/flying or experiencing body-boundaries dissolved (Kjellgren; Norlander et al., 2001) alterations in thinking (e.g., multiple associations, a sense of increased creativity, or " magical thinking " ). These latter cognitive alterations are commonly referred to as a shift to a more primary-process thinking at the expense of secondary-process thinking (Neisser, 1967; Norlander, Bergman, & Archer, 1998). ...
... In connection with floating, an increase of primary process thinking has been shown to persist for at least an hour following treatment (Norlander et al., 1998). The ASC is often considered a pleasant event (e.g., Norlander et al., 2001). Furthermore, it appears as though the state induced in the flotation tank is independent of the individual's expectations and prior experiences with ASC (set), as well as the setting and circumstances surrounding the flotation session (Bood et al., 2005; Norlander et al., 2001). ...
... The ASC is often considered a pleasant event (e.g., Norlander et al., 2001). Furthermore, it appears as though the state induced in the flotation tank is independent of the individual's expectations and prior experiences with ASC (set), as well as the setting and circumstances surrounding the flotation session (Bood et al., 2005; Norlander et al., 2001). Sometimes, during an ASC, transpersonal experiences occur. ...
A qualitative analysis (The Empirical Phenomenological Psychological method) of interviews involving eight patients (depression, burn-out syndrome, and chronic pain) was carried out in order to obtain knowledge regarding the effects of flotation tank therapy. This knowledge might be helpful for both professionals and potential floaters. The analysis resulted in 21 categories, which were summarized as four themes: (a) experiences during flotation, (b) perceived effects afterwards, (c) technical details, and finally (d) the participantsackground, motivation, and expectations. Floating was perceived as pleasant. An altered state of consciousness was induced, varying from a milder state including profound relaxation and altered time perception, to more powerful with perceptual changes and profound sensations such as out-of-body experiences and perinatal experiences.
... The technique has also been shown to be a suitable complement to psychotherapy (8,14). The experience is pleasant, and subjects always endorse it on further occasions (15). ...
... Alleviation of premenstrual pain was noted by Goldstein and Jessen (18). Other studies showing analgesic effects associated with flotation-REST have been reported by Fine and Turner (19), and Norlander et al (15). Attempts have been made to identify the physiological markers for the subjectively experienced pain alleviation that is often reported with flotation-REST. ...
... Lilly (5) accumulated a comprehensive literature on mental experiences in the floating tank. Norlander et al (15) reported that flotation-REST can induce intense transpersonal experiences that generally occur with altered states of consciousness, despite the type of induction, but are perhaps strongest in drug-induced states (26,27). ...
The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether the floating form of the restricted environmental stimulation technique (REST) may be applied within the field of pain relief. Flotation-REST consists of a procedure whereby an individual is immersed in a tank filled with water of an extremely high salt concentration. Thirty-seven patients (14 men and 23 women) suffering from chronic pain consisting of aching muscles in the neck and back area participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to either a control group (17 participants) or an experimental group (20 participants). The experimental group received nine opportunities to use the flotation-REST technique in the water tank over a three-week period. The results indicated that the most severe perceived pain intensity was significantly reduced, whereas low perceived pain intensity was not influenced by the floating technique. Further, the results indicated that circulating levels of the noradrenaline metabolite 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethyleneglycol were reduced significantly in the experimental group but not in the control group following treatment, whereas endorphin levels were not affected by flotation. Flotation-REST treatment also elevated the participants' optimism and reduced the degree of anxiety or depression; at nighttime, patients who underwent flotation fell asleep more easily. The present findings describe possible changes, for the better, in patients presenting with chronic pain complaints.
... Such results include increased well-being and relaxation (13), mild euphoria (14), greater production of ideas (15,16), increased originality (17,18), improved sleep at night (19,20), reduced stress, tension and anxiety (12,14,(21)(22)(23), reduced pain (20,24), fewer headaches (25), lowered blood pressure (21) and decreased muscle tension (26). It also constitutes a suitable complement to psychotherapy (13,27); the method is described as pleasant and subjects eagerly endorse it on later occasions (28). ...
... Given that the expectancy-placebo technique used in alcohol and drug experiments is basically impossible with flotation-REST, Norlander et al (28) conducted an experiment including two conditions: one with a group of former drug addicts, who had used hallucinogenic drugs, and a matched group of 'ordinary' people; and another with a 'strict setting' (the experimenter wore a white coat, the walls were barren and the instructions to lie down in the tank were without comments) and a 'fantasy setting' (the experimenter wore a sweatshirt with a suggestive picture on it, there were fantasy pictures on the walls and there was a suggestive depiction of what could be expected while lying in the tank). Despite these manipulations, no significant differences were found between the conditions. ...
... For means and SDs, see Table 2. Systolic blood pressure: The analyses yielded no significant effects for treatment, attention, diagnosis or their interactions (P>0.05). Diastolic blood pressure: The analyses yielded a significant difference for treatment (F [1,28]=5.85, P=0.022, Eta 2 =0.17, power=0.65), and a descriptive analysis showed that the diastolic blood pressure diminished from 83.25 mmHg (SD=10.47) to 80.03 mmHg (SD=8.72) ...
The purpose of the present study was to examine the potential effects of attention-placebo on flotation tank therapy. Flotation-restricted environmental stimulation technique is a method whereby an individual lies in a floating tank and all stimuli are reduced to a minimum.
Thirty-two patients were diagnosed as having stress-related muscular pain. In addition, 16 of the participants had received the diagnosis of burnout depression. The patients were treated with flotation-restricted environmental stimulation technique for six weeks. One-half of the patients were also given special attention for 12 weeks (high attention), while the remainder received attention for only six weeks (normal attention).
The participants exhibited lowered blood pressure, reduced pain, anxiety, depression, stress and negative affectivity, as well as increased optimism, energy and positive affectivity. The results were largely unaffected by the degree of attention-placebo or diagnosis.
It was concluded that flotation therapy is an effective, noninvasive method for treating stress-related pain, and that the method is not more affected by placebo than by other methods currently used in pain treatment. The treatment of both burnout depression and pain related to muscle tension constitutes a major challenge for the patient as well as the care provider, an area in which great gains can be made if the treatment is effective. Flotation therapy may constitute an integral part of such treatment.
... However, little is known about how the float environment can induce ASC. Seminal work showing how this technique leads to more relaxation, improved mood, and sometimes strong altered states of consciousness has been performed by a group of researchers at Karlstad University in Sweden over the last two decades [32][33][34] . This research found that Floatation-REST did induce ASC, including out-of-body experiences and altered time perception. ...
... Especially in certain peak experiences of altered states such as in meditation or under the influence of psychedelic substances, time and self are experienced as radically changed 6,9 . Qualitative studies point to disruptions in the sense of time in a majority of individuals exposed to Floatation-REST 32,60 . Although subjects reported a disruption of subjective time during Floatation-REST, they nevertheless on average overestimated the duration of the floating session relative to the waterbed session (in fact they were on average accurate relative to clock time). ...
Floatation-REST (Reduced Environmental Stimulation Therapy) minimizes stimulation of the nervous system by immersing subjects in an environment without sound or light while they effortlessly float in thermoneutral water supersaturated with Epsom salt. Here we investigated the relationship between altered states of consciousness (ASC) and its association with the affective changes induced by Floatation-REST. Using a within-subject crossover design, 50 healthy subjects were randomized to 60 min of Floatation-REST or 60 min of Bed-REST (an active control condition that entailed lying supine on a warm waterbed in a dark and quiet room). Following Floatation-REST, subjects felt significantly more relaxed, less anxious, and less tired than after Bed-REST. Floatation-REST also induced significantly more pronounced ASC characterized by the dissolution of body boundaries and the distortion of subjective time. The loss of body boundaries mediated the loss of anxiety, revealing a novel mechanism by which Floatation-REST exerts its anxiolytic effect.
... However, little is known about how the oat environment can induce ASC. Seminal work showing how this technique leads to more relaxation, improved mood, and sometimes strong altered states of consciousness has been performed by a group of researchers at Karlstad University in Sweden over the last two decades [30][31][32] . This research found that Floatation-REST did induce ASCs, including out-of-body experiences and altered time perception. ...
... Especially in certain peak experiences of altered states such as in meditation or under the in uence of psychedelic substances, time and self are experienced as radically changed 6,9 . Qualitative studies point to disruptions in the sense of time in a majority of individuals exposed to Floatation-REST30,55 . Although subjects reported a disruption of subjective time during Floatation-REST, they nevertheless on average overestimated the duration of the oating session relative to the waterbed session (in fact they were on average accurate). ...
Floatation-REST (Reduced Environmental Stimulation Therapy) is a sensory isolation technique where subjects are immersed in an environment without sound or light while they float in thermoneutral water that is supersaturated with Epsom salt. Here we investigated the relationship between altered states of consciousness (ASC) and its association with the affective changes induced by Floatation-REST. Using a within-subject crossover design, 50 subjects were randomized to either 60 minutes of Floatation-REST or 60 minutes of Bed-REST. ASC was assessed using the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI), the Perceived Body Boundaries Scale (PBBS), and visual analogue scales targeting time perception. Emotional changes were assessed both before and after each REST session. Compared to Bed-REST, Floatation-REST significantly reduced perceived body boundaries and distorted time perception. Two subscales of the PCI showed stronger ASC during Floatation-REST versus Bed-REST. Subjects felt more relaxed, less anxious, and less tired after Floatation-REST. Dissolution of body boundaries mediates anxiety reduction, revealing a novel anxiolytic mechanism.
... In some cases, patients may fall asleep during this phase. Professor Kjellgren has shown in her research that it is restful and psychologically beneficial to experience recurring episodes of just "being in the present weightlessness state" induced by a flotation tank [51]. ...
... Burnout affects productivity within the workplace and directly affects company presenteeism rates [5]. Low productivity rates can also be correlated with employee defense routines [13,51]. ...
Background:
Burnout is a hidden productivity killer in organizations. Finding a solution to efficiently measure and proactively prevent or rehabilitate employees with burnout is a challenge. To meet this unabated demand, companies and caregivers can focus on proactive measures to prevent "Burnout as an Occupational Phenomenon."
Objective:
We aimed to address effectiveness, reliability, and validity of the empowerment for participation (EFP) batch of assessments to measure burnout risk in relation to the efficacy of web-based interventions using cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and floating to improve mental health and well-being. We introduced three risk assessments: risk for burnout, risk of anxiety, and risk for depression.
Methods:
We used an interventional, empirical, and parallel design using raw EFP psychometric data to measure the effectiveness of web-based therapy to reduce the risk of burnout between a control group and web-based therapy group. A total of 50 participants were selected. The rehabilitation and control groups consisted of 25 normally distributed employees each. The rehabilitation group received therapy, whereas the control group had not yet received any form of therapy. IBM SPSS was used to analyze the data collected, and a repeated measures ANOVA, an analysis of covariance, a discriminant analysis, and a construct validity analysis were used to test for reliability and validity. The group was selected from a list of employees within the My-E-Health ecosystem who showed a moderate or high risk for burnout. All assessments and mixed-method CBT were web-based, and floating was conducted at designated locations. The complete EFP assessment was integrated into a digital ecosystem designed for this purpose and therapy, offering a secure and encrypted ecosystem.
Results:
There was a statistically significant difference between pre- and postassessment scores for burnout. The reliability of the burnout measure was good (Cronbach α=.858; mean 1.826, SD 3.008; Cohen d=0.607; P<.001) with a high validity of 0.9420. A paired samples 2-tailed test showed a good t score of 4.292 and P<.001, with a good effect size, Cohen d=0.607. Web-based therapy reduced the risk for burnout in participants compared with the control group. Tests of between-subject effects show F=16.964, a significant difference between the control group and the web-based therapy group: P<.001, with movement between the group variables of 0.261 or 26.1% for the dependent variable.
Conclusions:
This study suggests good reliability and validity of using web-based interventional mixed methods CBT to reduce the risk of burnout. The EFP batch of web-based assessments could reliably identify morbidity risk levels and successfully measure clinical interventions and rehabilitation with consistently reliable results to serve as both a diagnostic and therapeutic tool worthy of major research in the future.
Trial registration:
ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05343208; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05343208.
... Further, there was a slight increase in salience network activity for all chair floaters. The neuroimaging supports earlier research that expectation, prior experience of altered states (Norlander et al., 2000) and attention (Bood et. al, 2005) have no mitigating effect on the Floatation-REST experience. ...
... The use of Floatation-REST with athletes has shown great self-reported improvement, coach ratings (Suedfeld & Bruno, 1990) and athletic performance (McAleney, 1990;Norlander, Kjellgren & Archer, 2000). Evidently Floatation-REST positively impacts well-being, measured on scales of mindfulness, life orientation, sleep quality, stress and energy. ...
This study examines the phenomena that occurs inside a Floatation-REST tank as described by a non-clinical, English-speaking population, based in Hong Kong. The research project was conducted through semi-structured interviews to understand the essence of the Floating-REST experience inside the tank. To date of publication, much of the prior research regarding Floatation-REST has focused on the after-effects of floating.
The interviews found the experience to be a meditative and reflective hour that allows participants to escape current demands and provides clarity of thought.While in the tank, participants were able to slow down their thoughts and gain transferable insight to their daily life after the floating experience was over.
... The extent to which the occurrence of visual content during OBEs is facilitated by a generalized loosening of associative processing warrants attention (see Ramachandran and Hubbard, 2001). Individuals reporting visual OBEs are expected to experience a greater influx of visual representations of the body under conditions of altered kinaesthetic , somatic, and vestibular feedback (e.g., Norlander et al., 2000 Norlander et al., –2001; see also McCreery and Claridge, 1996a; Wackermann et al., 2008). OBEs with visual content may be more likely to exhibit spatial biases in the visual representation of one's body (see Girard et al., 2007) than those that lack visual content. ...
... The extent to which the occurrence of visual content during OBEs is facilitated by a generalized loosening of associative processing warrants attention (see Ramachandran and Hubbard, 2001). Individuals reporting visual OBEs are expected to experience a greater influx of visual representations of the body under conditions of altered kinaesthetic , somatic, and vestibular feedback (e.g., Norlander et al., 2000 Norlander et al., –2001; see also McCreery and Claridge, 1996a; Wackermann et al., 2008). OBEs with visual content may be more likely to exhibit spatial biases in the visual representation of one's body (see Girard et al., 2007) than those that lack visual content. ...
The visual content of out-of-body experiences (OBEs) has received little attention but a number of theories of OBEs include implicit predictions regarding the determinants of this phenomenological feature. Hypnagogic imagery and unusual sleep experiences, weak synaesthesia and preference for employing object and spatial visual imagic cognitive styles were psychometrically measured along with the incidence of self-reported OBEs and the absence or presence of visual content therein, in a sample of individuals drawn from the general population. Seventy percent of individuals who had experienced an OBE reported that the experience included some form of visual content. These individuals exhibited greater scores on the measures of preference for object visual imagic cognition and weak synaesthesia than those who reported an absence of visual content during their OBE. Subsequent analysis revealed that the measure of weak synaesthesia was the stronger discriminator of the two cohorts. The results are discussed within the context of the synaesthetic model of visual phenomenology during OBEs (Brugger, 2000; Irwin, 2000). This account proposes that visual content appears during these experiences through a process of cognitive dedifferentiation in which visual hallucinations are derived from available non-visual sensory cues and that such dedifferentiation is made possible through an underlying characteristic hyperconnectivity of cortical structures regulating vestibular and visual representations of the body and those responsible for the rotation of environmental objects. Predictions derived from this account and suggestions for future research are proffered.
... It is important to note that there have been several deaths reported with the use of floatation tanks at recreational float centers associated with concurrent drug (i.e., ketamine) or alcohol use [25], suggesting the need for inclusion of substance use screening. There have also been reports of auditory and visual hallucinations during floatation-REST [26]. However, these are generally described in a positive light, and are infrequent [10,27]. ...
Background
Reduced Environmental Stimulation Therapy via floatation (floatation-REST) is a behavioral intervention designed to attenuate exteroceptive sensory input to the nervous system. Prior studies in anxious and depressed individuals demonstrated that single sessions of floatation-REST are safe, well-tolerated, and associated with an acute anxiolytic and antidepressant effect that persists for over 48 hours. However, the feasibility of using floatation-REST as a repeated intervention in anxious and depressed populations has not been well-investigated.
Methods
In this single-blind safety and feasibility trial, 75 individuals with anxiety and depression were randomized to complete six sessions of floatation-REST in different formats: pool-REST (weekly 1-hour float sessions), pool-REST preferred (float sessions with flexibility of duration and frequency), or an active comparator (chair-REST; weekly 1-hour sessions in a Zero Gravity chair). Feasibility (primary outcome) was assessed via an 80% rate of adherence to the assigned intervention; tolerability via study dropout and duration/frequency of REST utilization; and safety via incidence of adverse events and ratings about the effects of REST.
Results
Of 1,715 individuals initially screened, 75 participants were ultimately randomized. Six-session adherence was 85% for pool-REST (mean, M = 5.1 sessions; standard deviation, SD = 1.8), 89% for pool-REST preferred (M = 5.3 sessions; SD = 1.6), and 74% for chair-REST (M = 4.4 sessions; SD = 2.5). Dropout rates at the end of the intervention did not differ significantly between the treatment conditions. Mean session durations were 53.0 minutes (SD = 12.3) for pool-REST, 75.4 minutes (SD = 29.4) for pool-REST preferred, and 58.4 minutes (SD = 4.3) for chair-REST. There were no serious adverse events associated with any intervention. Positive experiences were endorsed more commonly than negative ones and were also rated at higher levels of intensity.
Conclusions
Six sessions of floatation-REST appear feasible, well-tolerated, and safe in anxious and depressed individuals. Floatation-REST induces positively-valenced experiences with few negative effects. Larger randomized controlled trials evaluating markers of clinical efficacy are warranted.
Clinical Trial Registration Identifier
NCT03899090.
... Reports abound from meditation, sensory deprivation, and drug-induced states that all bodily sensations can be lost (e.g. Millière et al., 2018;Norlander, Kjellgren and Archer, 2000). When bodily awareness is lost, other minimal aspects of self are usually intact. ...
In this study, we investigate the phenomenology of selftranscendent experiences, in which the usual sense of self is lost. Based on a taxonomy of nine aspects of self and three types of content of consciousness, we compare ten accounts of such experiences acquired through in-depth interviews. Sense of separateness and identification with body and narrative self were reported as lost in all of these. However, bodily awareness, spatial self-location, sense of agency, perspectival ownership of experience, thoughts, emotions, sensory impressions, metacognition, and personal identity were variously reported as lost or retained. Individual participants emphasized the absence of either of these 'optional' aspects as crucial for their judgment that the experience was without self. We conclude that there is a large variety in what is felt as being lost in self-transcendent experiences, and we recommend that research and theory avoid general terms such as 'ego-dissolution' and instead probe more precisely the different aspects of self.
... Cognitive experiences during stage I sleep have been described as a dream-like or half-awake, half-asleep state and may include random visual images, thoughts, or feelings; a decrease in awareness of the surrounding environment; and an alteration in time awareness [40,48]. Qualitatively comparable hypnagogic mental phenomena have also been found during flotation-REST, suggesting that the two states have similar experiential features [49,50]. Vivid and detailed written documentations [51] and results from comprehensive questionnaires [49] of persons immediately following emersion from the flotation-REST tank indicate that some degree of awareness is present during floating. ...
Objective
To determine whether Bispectral Index™ values obtained during flotation-restricted environment stimulation technique have a similar profile in a single observation compared to literature-derived results found during sleep and other relaxation-induction interventions.
Results
Bispectral Index™ values were as follows: awake-state, 96.6; float session-1, 84.3; float session-2, 82.3; relaxation-induction, 82.8; stage I sleep, 86.0; stage II sleep, 66.2; and stages III–IV sleep, 45.1. Awake-state values differed from float session-1 (%difference 12.7%; Cohen’s d = 3.6) and float session-2 (%difference 14.8%; Cohen’s d = 4.6). Relaxation-induction values were similar to float session-1 (%difference 1.8%; Cohen’s d = 0.3) and float session-2 (%difference 0.5%; Cohen’s d = 0.1). Stage I sleep values were similar to float session-1 (%difference 1.9%; Cohen’s d = 0.4) and float session-2 (%difference 4.3%; Cohen’s d = 1.0). Stage II sleep values differed from float session-1 (%difference 21.5%; Cohen’s d = 4.3) and float session-2 (%difference 19.6%; Cohen’s d = 4.0). Stages III–IV sleep values differed from float session-1 (%difference 46.5%; Cohen’s d = 5.6) and float session-2 (%difference 45.2%; Cohen’s d = 5.4). Bispectral Index™ values during flotation were comparable to those found in stage I sleep and nadir values described with other relaxation-induction techniques.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-017-2947-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
... Moreover, a possibility to use this technique in thera-peutic environment adequate to produce relaxation, associated with beneficial physiological and behavioral changes. Although the floatation-REST technique is not strongly influenced by expectancy-placebo [28] or by attention-placebo [11], future studies should include control groups, different populations and follow-up reassessments. ...
Background : Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) promotes physiological and behavioral changes that reduce the deleterious effects of stress. However, it requires expensive equipment and is accessible to a limited number of professionals and patients. We aimed to evaluate the physiological and behavioral effects of modified REST (mREST) in healthy young women. Method: Twenty-one healthy young women (20-25 yrs) participated. mREST consists of positioning the patient floating in the pool with 32 o C for about 15 minutes, for twelve sessions, with blindfolded and wearing earplugs. The evaluation was performed before and after the intervention. The analysis of the state of relaxation was investigated by a questionnaire and the self-reports were categorized. Measures of heart rate and blood pressure were used as indicators of the cardiovascular response. Flexibility, measured by the finger-to-floor test, was used as an indicator of muscle relaxation. Results : Heart rate and blood pressure significantly decreased while flexibility and relaxation increased after the sessions (p<0.001 for all comparisons). Self-reports of relaxation were consistent with the blood pressure measures and indicated that the participants showed states of relaxation associated with the decrease of blood pressure and the increase of flexibility (p<0.001 for all comparisons). Conclusion : Healthy women undergoing mREST reported relaxation, with effects on muscular and cardiovascular systems. mREST is a simple, practical and affordable option for therapy in the aquatic environment.
... Moreover, a possibility to use this technique in thera-peutic environment adequate to produce relaxation, associated with beneficial physiological and behavioral changes. Although the floatation-REST technique is not strongly influenced by expectancy-placebo [28] or by attention-placebo [11], future studies should include control groups, different populations and follow-up reassessments. ...
... Several of these characteristics of ASC have been confirmed in flotation tank research, as well as various spiritual experiences (e.g. insight into the nature of reality, being reborn anew or expansion of consciousness) that were said to be possible to reach by floating [29,30,67,68], although these experiences are relatively rare. ASC were presented as sought after effects in the advertisement, but have in the early research on sensory deprivation [42] sometimes been associated with stress and anxiety, which points to potential adverse reactions from flotation-REST, especially if treatment sessions is longer than 45 min. ...
Introduction
Flotation-REST (Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique) is a complementary and alternative medicine therapy with evidence-based beneficial effects like pain and stress reduction. During flotation-REST a person is lying in a supine position inside a quiet and dark tank, filled with salt water maintained at skin temperature. The water is high in buoyancy, which makes it possible to float comfortably on the back. The method induces deep relaxation through minimization of sensory input. Contemporary scientific findings about beneficial effects resulting from floating have increased the number of private owned floating centers. The aim of this study was to investigate how these centers advertise the benefits of flotation to the public and compare these claims with published scientific evidence.
Method
The Google search engine was used to localize web-sites hosting private floating center entrepreneurs. Described effects resulting from floating on these sites were systematically gathered and analyzed thematically. In addition, advertisements were compared to scientific studies on flotation-REST.
Results
The analysis resulted in five overarching themes: (1) Physiological changes, (2) Alleviation of medical conditions, (3) Relaxation, (4) Personal growth and enhancement, and (5) Altered states of consciousness. Advertisements seemed to target four different interest groups: the inner explorers; the sick; the supermen; and the stressed out. Various effects of flotation were highlighted for the different groups and some limited scientific evidence identified.
Conclusions
Although the advertisements described many evidence-based effects resulting from floating, information tended to be exaggerated, could be misleading to consumers, and was not always substantiated by published scientific studies.
... Efforts have been made to explain theoretically how flotation acts [26,27,28] and especially the capacity of REST to elicit the relaxation response has been highlighted [19]. Such a framework bears strong similarities with the postulated model offered by McLean and colleagues [29] concerning shared bio-psycho-social etiological causes for pain and psychological distress in WAD, fibromyalgia and posttraumatic stress disorder. ...
Pain is a major public health problem and the needs for more differentiated and flexible treatment options are
obvious. The purpose of the present study was to examine, for the first time, experiences from long-term flotation Restricted
Environmental Stimulation Technique (REST) made by a patient with chronic Whiplash Associated Disorder (WAD), grade
IV. The patient of the present study was a middle aged native-born Caucasian male from Sweden who had been diagnosed
with chronic WAD IV by a licensed physician. The patient performed regular flotation during one and a half year and wrote
about his experiences in a diary. A semi-structured interview was conducted at the end of therapy. Both the diary and the
interviews were analyzed with help of the empirical phenomenological psychological method and results describe
experiences of relaxation, pain relief, sleep and deep rest, mental coping, increased energy, wellbeing and behavioral changes
as a result of flotation. A model describes the rehabilitative circuit of chronic whiplash during flotation and is in line with the
potential role of a stress response system for development and management of chronic whiplash. The study provides
qualitative insights into the experiences of flotation as a pain- and stress- management system for chronic whiplash. Results
are encouraging for future research and even suggest that interested clinics may use flotation-REST in order to relieve chronic
pain and enhance the quality of life for a more comprehensive group of patients with whiplash associated disorders.
Background: Reduced Environmental Stimulation Therapy via floatation (floatation-REST) is a behavioral intervention designed to attenuate exteroceptive sensory input to the nervous system. Pilot studies in anxious and depressed individuals demonstrated that single sessions of floatation-REST are safe, well-tolerated, and associated with acute anxiolysis. However, there is not sufficient evidence of the feasibility of floatation-REST as a repeated intervention.
Methods: We randomized 75 individuals with anxiety and depression to six sessions of floatation-REST in different formats (pool-REST or pool-REST preferred) or an active comparator (chair-REST). Feasibility was assessed via adherence rate to the assigned intervention, tolerability via duration of REST utilization and overall study dropout rate, and safety via incidence of serious or non-serious adverse events.
Results: Six-session adherence was 85% for pool-REST, 89% for pool-REST preferred, and 74% for chair-REST. Dropout rates did not differ significantly between the treatment conditions. Mean session durations were consistently above 50 minutes, and when allowed to choose the duration and frequency, participants opted to float for an average of 75 minutes. There were no serious adverse events associated with any intervention. Positive experiences were endorsed more commonly than negative ones and were also rated at higher levels of intensity.
Conclusions: Taken together, six sessions of floatation-REST appear feasible, well-tolerated, and safe in anxious and depressed individuals. Floatation-REST induces positively-valenced experiences with few negative effects. warrant further investigation of clinical efficacy. Larger randomized controlled trials evaluating markers of clinical efficacy are warranted.
Clinical Trial Registration Identifier: NCT03899090
Background:
Research with hallucinogens suggests that non-ordinary states of consciousness (NOSCs), particularly mystical-type experiences, predict improvements in various affective disorders and substance use disorders (SUDs). Little is known, however, about the therapeutic potential of NOSCs induced by mind-body practices such as meditation, yoga and breathwork.
Methods:
We conducted a literature review in online databases (PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar) and preprint databases (SSRN, bioRxiv) to identify studies of NOSCs induced by mind-body practices and their effects in affective disorders and SUDs.
Results:
A wide variety of mind-body practices involving physical movement (i.e., shamanic drumming, yoga) and hyper-focused immersive mental experiences (i.e., meditation, breathwork) have been reported in the literature. Preliminary evidence, mostly from qualitative studies and open label studies, suggest that mind-body practices produce NOSCs. Such experiences have been associated with short-term reduced levels of anxiety and depression, increased motivation to quit addictive behaviors, and enhanced self-awareness and spiritual well-being.
Limitations:
Findings are limited by the scarcity of literature in this field. Further rigorous and methodologically sound empirical research is needed, including comparative studies of NOSCs occasioned by different methods.
Conclusions:
Mind-body practices may represent a promising approach for treating mental health disorders. The NOSCs induced by such practices may lead to beneficial shifts in perceptions, values, beliefs, and behaviors. Given the challenges with hallucinogen-based therapies, mind-body practices may represent a more accessible and acceptable way of eliciting potentially helpful NOSCs in clinical practice.
In this paper we present an exploratory study on the understanding of reality among scientists. The nature of reality has been a conundrum for generations of theologians, philosophers and scientists as well as the lay public. It also appears as a scientific problem in various disciplines, from physics to psychiatry and neuroscience. For the purpose of our study, we employed Chamber REST (Restricted Environmental Stimulation), which has been known to produce substantial perceptual effects such as visual or auditory pseudo-hallucinations. We hypothesized that such experiences could alter basic underlying metaphysical beliefs which our subjects-scientists hold about reality. We conclude that the technique showed the potential to induce such changes, but the outcome is also probably dependent on their pre-existing views gained through previous experiences, such as for example Altered States of Consciousness. Also, the effects of Chamber REST seem to be in this respect comparable to psychedelic sessions. 5 The paper is organized as follows. First, we briefly introduce the contexts in which investigations into the nature of reality have appeared in philosophy and science. Next, we present the research background of our study together with an account of the history of Chamber REST research and its parallels with psychedelic research within the broader framework of Altered States of Consciousness (ASCs). In the methodology section, we lay out the exact course and circumstances of our experiment and the measurements we performed. Subsequently, we discuss the results obtained and their wider consequences with suggestions for further research.
Our aim was to investigate whether or not highly sensitive persons experienced more nonordinary/altered states of consciousness (ASC) during 45 minutes of sensory isolation in a flotation tank, than did less sensitive persons. Psychology students (N = 57) were allocated to 1
of 2 groups (high and low levels of sensitivity) depending on their score on the Highly Sensitive Person Scale. Prior to the flotation session participants completed questionnaires to assess their degree of depression, anxiety, optimism, absorption, and how often they had experienced a mystical
state. After the flotation session we assessed degree of ASC. The main finding was that the highly sensitive individuals experienced significantly more ASC during flotation than did the individuals in the low sensitivity group. Further, the highly sensitive participants had significantly more
absorption and anxiety, and had experienced mystical states more frequently prior to flotation, in comparison to individuals with low-level sensitivity.
Twenty-three sportsmen were given one 45-minute exposure to flotation-REST and one exposure to chamber-REST on two occasions, incorporating random assignment to either flotation-REST followed by chamber-REST or vice versa. On each occasion, the Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique (REST) procedure was followed immediately by testing experimentally induced pain to one arm using a blood pressure cuff. It was found that flotation-REST induced a significantly higher degree of altered states of consciousness (ASC), as measured with an instrument assessing experienced deviation from normal state (EDN), than did chamber-REST. Participants experiencing High EDN in the flotation-REST condition reported higher levels of both “experienced pain” and “experienced stress” than did those experiencing Low EDN. These results suggest that the particular distinguishing features of flotation-REST and chamber-REST may cause selective deviations from normal levels of consciousness, under experimental conditions, that may underlie the subjective experience of pain and stress thresholds.
The aim of the study was to investigate whether or not 33 flotation sessions were more effective for stress-related ailments than 12 sessions. Participants were 37 patients, 29 women and 8 men, all diagnosed as having stress-related pain of a muscle tension type. The patients were randomized to one of two conditions: 12 flotation-REST treatments or 33 flotation-REST treatments. Analyses for subjective pain typically indicated that 12 sessions were enough to get considerable improvements and no further improvements were noticed after 33 sessions. A similar pattern was observed concerning the stress-related psychological variables: experienced stress, anxiety, depression, negative affectivity, dispositional optimism, and sleep quality. For blood pressure no effects were observed after 12 sessions, but there was a significant lower level for diastolic blood pressure after 33 sessions. The present study highlighted the importance of finding suitable complementary treatments in order to make further progress after the initial 12 sessions.
This study aimed to investigate long-term effects of the flotation-REST (restricted environmental stimulation technique) 4 months after treatment. Seventy patients, 54 women and 16 men, participated, diagnosed as having stress-related pain. Twenty-six participants had also the diagnosis of burnout depression. Participants were randomly assigned in equal numbers to either a control group or a flotation-REST group and participated in a total of 12 flotation-REST or control sessions. Results indicated that pain areas, stress, anxiety, and depression decreased, whereas sleep quality, optimism, and prolactin increased. Positive effects generally maintained 4 months after treatment, but prolactin returned to initial levels. It was concluded that flotation tank therapy is an effective method for the treatment of stress-related pain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive brew used by the indigenous populations of the Amazon. The aim of this qualitative study was to gain insight into the experiences of western users of ayahuasca, as well as to ascertain the experienced meaning that participants felt by their participation. Twenty-five people from Northern Europe with experiences of group sessions with ayahuasca wrote anonymous descriptions of their experiences. The Empirical Phenomenological Psychological method was used for this analysis. The analysis resulted in 33 categories which were assembled into six general themes: (a) motivation and aim, (b) contractile frightening state (c) sudden transformation of the experience, (d) limitless expansive states with transcendental experiences, (f) reflections, and (g) changed worldview and new orientation to life. These themes provided a new structure, called the transcendental circle. Participants reported many positive psychological and physical improvements that indicate that ayahuasca could be of potential interest in the development of new medicines and therapies.
The aim of the present study was to explore, for the first time, sex differences among patients diagnosed with stress-related pain before and after flotation restricted environmental stimulation technique (REST) treatment, delivered 12 times during seven weeks. The present study included 88 patients (69 women, 19 men) from three different studies (post hoc analysis). They had been diagnosed by a physician as having chronic stress-related muscle tension pain. The analyses indicated that the flotation- REST treatment had beneficial effects on stress, anxiety, depression, sleep quality and pain and that there were few sex differences. Women were more depressed than men before treatment, but after treatment there was no difference between sexes. However, there was a sex difference in the ability to endure experimentally induced pain, suggesting that men exhibited greater endurance both before and after the flotation-REST treatment. The results also showed, for the first time, that both sexes improved their ability to endure experimentally induced pain (higher scores for upper pain threshold) following the successful flotation-REST pain treatment.
In this study, we investigated for the first time whether flotation-REST might be used for treating chronic whiplash-associated disorders (WAD). Six women and one man, all diagnosed by licensed physicians as having chronic whiplash-associated disorder, participated. Two of the participants were beginners with regard to flotation-REST (2 or 3 treatments), and five of them had experienced between 7 and 15 treatments. The method for data collection was the semistructured qualitative interview. The empirical phenomenological psychological method devised by Karlsson was used for the analyses. Two qualitative models explaining the participants' experiences of flotation-REST emerged. The models describe the participants' experiences of flotation-REST, as well as the short-term effects of the treatment in terms of five phases: (a) intensification, (b) vitalization, (c) transcendation, (d) defocusation, and (e) reorientation. Results indicated that flotation-REST is a meaningful alternative for treating chronic whiplash-associated disorder.
The study investigated the effects of flotation Restricted Environmental Stimulation (REST) with an imagery message on the competitive performance of intercollegiate tennis players (10 men, 10 women). Pre- and posttreatment athletic performance was measured during intercollegiate competition. Posttreatment results indicated that subjects exposed to flotation REST with an imagery message performed significantly better than subjects exposed to imagery only on a measure of first service accuracy. Findings suggest that flotation REST can be used to enhance the performance of a well learned skill by athletes of high ability.
22 expert collegiate basketball players were exposed to either imagery training only or restricted environmental stimulation (REST) with imagery training. The REST group showed significantly better performance on both objective game performance and coaches' blind ratings.
This study tested effects of acute alcohol intoxication on elaboration and revision in the verification phase of Wallas's (1926/1970) four stage model of creativity. Forty-two male and female participants were randomly assigned to three groups of equal size - a control group, a placebo group, and an alcohol group. The alcohol dose was 1 ml 100% alcohol/kg body weight. Participants were instructed to read a poem and to draw a picture using the poem. These pictures were judged by 2 separate panels of judges. Panel A was comprised of 3 professional artists. Panel B was comprised of 3 college art instructors. No group differences were apparent in ratings given by Panel A, but Panel B gave the work of the alcohol group low handicraft ratings. Results were interpreted as an indication that a moderate dose of alcohol inhibits certain relevant abilities during the verification phase of the creative process.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether or nor the floating form of Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique (REST) may be exploited within the field of competitive archery to reinforce primary process (inner-directed) orientation and thereby enhance the quality of coaching and training. Floatation REST consists of a procedure whereby an individual is immersed in a water-tank filled with saltwater of an extremely high salt concentration. The experiment was performed over the course of two weekends with a 6-week interval. Twenty participating archers, 13 male and 7 female, were recruited. The between-group factor was “adjudged skill.” The within-group factor was provided by an Armchair condition in which the participants sat in an armchair for 45 min after which they were required to shoot four salvo series of three shots each, as a comparison to the Flotation-Rest condition whereby the participants were required to lie in a floating-tank for 45 min just prior to shooting. Results indicated that: (a) the participants experienced less perceived exertion during marksmanship in the floating condition, (b) the elite archers performed more consistently in the Flotation-REST condition, (c) the least and most proficient archers had lower muscle tension in the Extensor Digitorum in the Flotation REST condition.
Explored whether or not flotation restricted environmental technique (REST) facilitates the creative problem-solving ability and originality. Sample 1 consisted of 40 Ss (aged 19–31 yrs), 20 men and 20 women, randomly assigned in equal numbers to either a nonREST group (armchair-sitting) or to a floating REST group. Both groups worked on a "chain puzzle" for 5 min and were then interrupted with 45 min of sitting or floating. The Ss were then given the task of continuing with the creative problem-solving test. Sample 2 consisted of 54 Ss (aged 19–33 yrs), 27 men and 27 women, randomly assigned in equal numbers to either a nonREST group (armchair-sitting), a dryREST group (lying on a couch in a dark room) or a flotation REST group. The groups then had to fill in a couple of paper-and-pen tests and were given scores on fluency, obvious answers, original answers, elegance and deductive thinking. The results (impaired creative problem-solving ability and higher originality for the floating group) were interpreted as an indication of cognitive function where the primary process still dominates over the secondary process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of restricted environmental stimulation using a flotation tank (Flotation REST) to the effects of a normal sensory environment on relaxation. All of the subjects were first introduced to a simple relaxation program to be used during the experimental sessions. The program consisted of guided point-to-point relaxation, breathing techniques, and visual imagery techniques. Subjects were then pre-tested on measurements of electromyogram (EMG), galvanic skin response (GSR), peripheral skin temperature, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The experimental group experienced ten 45-minute sessions practicing the relaxation program in a Flotation REST environment. The control subjects practiced the same relaxation program in a similar body position for 45 minutes in a normal sensory environment. All subjects answered a five-question Subjective Relaxation Questionnaire on trials five through ten and were then post-tested on EMG, GSR, skin temperature, and blood pressure. The results indicated significant differences between groups from pre-test to post-test on systolic and diastolic blood pressure; the experimental group showed greater reductions. Significant differences also were observed on three of five questions on the Subjective Relaxation Questionnaire; the experimental group reported greater subjective relaxation and trends in a similar direction on the remaining two questions. The results of this study indicate that flotation REST enhances point-to-point relaxation, breathing techniques, and visual imagery techniques and, when combined with these techniques, can be an effective means of teaching normal subjects to lower systolic and diastolic pressure and heighten their subjective perception of relaxation.
This pilot project investigated the effects of controlled frequent brief REST relaxation sessions on the blood pressure of three subjects with borderline essential hypertension. A flotation REST system was used, and subjects had 2 or 3 sessions weekly for 2 months. All three subjects had blood-pressure reductions of a clinically significant magnitude across the treatment and follow-up periods.
Synopsis
Two groups of 16 subjects, 8 of each gender, were examined on two occasions, one group before and after restricted environmental stimulation with floatation, and the other group without floatation was the control group. They were examined with a tactile object discrimination task carried out with each hand separately while blindfolded, and with a recognition memory test for words and unfamiliar faces, a test validated on neurological patients with left and right hemispheric lesions respectively. Consistent with both tasks the floatation group showed a significantly greater enhancement of right hemispheric processing after floatation than was found when retesting the controls. The results were distinguished from previous research on hypnosis where the same relative state of hemispheric imbalance was achieved with the same tasks, but largely through inhibitory influences on the left hemisphere.
Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique (REST) has been found to be somewhat difficult to classify in terms of any one theoretical model (Suedfeld, 1980). Yet the usefulness of a given procedure is enhanced by its inclusion within the context of a model that fairly well describes the phenomenon. In the last 15 or so years a model of the brain based in part on the work of Roger Sperry and his associates has evolved to the point where one might attempt to apply it to REST.
The purpose of this study was to provide information about experiences obtained by illegal drug users and evaluate if these are consistent with Stanislav Grof's expanded model of the human unconscious. Sixteen anonymous former drug users answered a questionnaire about use, experiences, circumstances, and influences of their life. All of them have had some experiences similar to Grof's descriptions. Transpersonal experiences were more reported by those who used to be “heavy” users. Such experiences were also more likely to be reported by those who described themselves as spiritual seekers and by those who made some form of ritual or mental preparation part of their experience. This study also provides general information about Grof's model and some about psychedelic research worldwide.
There is a conception that a uniquely positive correlation prevails between the intake of alcohol and creativity, but only a few experimental studies address this subject. Existing studies together with recent experiments are reviewed. This later series of experiments explored whether or not moderate alcohol intoxication (1.0 ml of 100% alcohol/kg body weight) facilitated different phasesof the creative process, i.e. preparation, incubation, illumination, verification, and restitution. A hypothesis is derived which postulates that modest alcohol consumption inhibits aspects of creativity based mainly on the secondary process (preparation, certain parts of illumination, and verification), and disinhibits those based mainly on the primary process (incubation, certain parts of illumination, and restitution).
Research over the last 25 years on the contribution of aloneness to creativity enhancement has had mixed results. Early studies of sensory deprivation generally found negative effects while more recent research on flotation isolation has reported positive influence. Sports performance, for example, has been improved by means of directed imagery and flotation aloneness. However, there has been only one study which has attempted to enhance creativity through the flotation method and while this study reported positive results, it lacked several control features and was based on a very small sample of highly selected subjects.The present study was designed to evaluate directly the potential contribution of floating to creativity enhancement as measured by the Guilford fluency test and other measures. Subjects were male and female university students, half of whom spent one hour in a float environment and the other half in a darkened room. Each was tested before and after experimental trial on the Guilford and other creativity measures and on two personality/affect scales. Float subjects showed significant increases on the Guilford test from the pre- to post-float and meaningful increases on other thinking measures as compared to non-floating control subjects. Floating was associated with a decrease in anxiety/tension, depression, hostility, and fatigue, but with an increase in vigor and a maintenance of curiosity scores, and it is speculated that the creativity benefits may be a result of these state changes.
In spite of much historical interest in the phenomenon of placebo there remains a paucity of theoretically and mechanistically aimed investigations. Indeed, most treatises have assigned the role of placebo responses a more ancillary interest that is secondary to the major purpose of the particular study in question. Notwithstanding this drawback, the effects of situational and contextual cues in placebo effects were early postulated. Several examples of conditioning placebo effects in the laboratory exist: poly I:C-induced hypothermia in mice paired with odour cues, apomorphine-induced climbing behaviour in mice paired with a distinctive environment, and antigen-induced release of protease II from the mast cells of rats paired with an audiovisual cue, whereas in the clinical setting cyclophosphamide has been paired with taste and odour cues in the treatment of lupus erythematosus. The major contributions to the search for an underlying mechanism have been derived from studying the relative merits of the conditioning model and the expectancy model of placebo effects. Certain placebo effects are not in the same direction as the drug used, thereby producing drug-like and/or drug-opposite placebo responses. Finally, some experiments demonstrating the involvement of contextual cues in taste-aversion conditioning and extinction are described as adverse placebo effects (nocebo) of drugs. Utilizing this procedure, it was found that depletions of noradrenaline in the forebrain could either attenuate or abolish the contextual effects controlling the saccharin aversions. The consensus from both preclinical and clinical observations would appear to require further stringently designed studies to elucidate specific mechanisms modulating placebo responses.
Basic research has documented reliable changes in emotional. cognitive, behavioral, and psychophysiological functioning as the effects of two related techniques that drastically reduce the level of environmental stimulation: chamber and flotation restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST). Studies applying these findings in medical. psychotherapeutic, and behavioral health contexts have shown reductions in stress and inappropriate behavior among patients suffering from drug-induced mania. agitation, autism, and Alzheimer's syndrome; reduced phobic symptoms; Significantly lower relapse in habit modification interventions (e.g., smoking, alcohol intake, and weight loss); improved stress management and the amelioration of tension headaches, insomnia, and other stress-related symptoms; reduction of chronic pain; and better muscle control among cerebral palsy patients and others. The broad benefits of chamber and flotation REST. used alone or in combination with other intervention techniques, warrant further investigation and clinical use.
This study examined whether or not acute alcohol intoxication inhibits or facilitates fluency and its different components in the illumination phase of Wallas's (1926/1970) 4-stage model of creativity. Twenty-one authors with 21 matched nonauthors were randomly assigned to three groups of equal size: a control group, a placebo group, and an alcohol group (alcohol dose: 1 ml 100% alcohol/kg body weight). They received a divergent figurai fluency test that was evaluated in terms of fluency, flexibility, obvious answers, and original answers. The experiment produced three main results: (a) the alcohol group scored lower on flexibility compared to the placebo group, (b) scored higher on originality compared to the control group, and (c) the authors and nonauthors reacted in the same fashion to a moderate dose of alcohol. These results were interpreted as an indication that a moderate dose of alcohol may exert a dual control during the illumination phase of the creative process, by inhibiting or facilitating different components.
What determines the evolution of styles in poetry, painting, music, and architecture? Are there universal laws of art history to which even Shakespeare, Beethoven, and Picasso were subject? In this highly original and provocative book, cognitive psychologist Colin Martindale challenges conventional theories that seek to explain changes in the arts as the results of political, religious, or social forces. "Social forces do not cause change in art: they distort it," he writes. Martindale argues that it is the pressure for novelty that shapes individual artistic careers and trends, whether in literature, music, or the visual arts.
This sweeping survey of such diverse art forms as modern French poetry, American short stories, classic Greek vases, Japanese prints, Italian operas, and Gothic cathedrals reveals how the need for novelty—the rule that rules must be broken—exerts a relentless, measurable pressure that drives the arts in new directions. Through the use of computer models and experimental simulations, Martindale explores the psychological factors involved in producing novel responses and he traces stylistic changes that derive from this need for novelty. For example, he details the movement from the simple and classic to the complex and grotesque found in a variety of artistic disciplines and he charts the increasing reliance on the unpredictable in most artistic domains. While focusing on objective evidence for the theory, the book encompasses everything from experiments with naive observers (for example, nursery school children) to the work of critic Harold Bloom. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The relative impacts on smoking behavior of restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST), behavioral self-management, and the combination were compared. Fifteen smokers from the community were treated in each of the three conditions and followed over a 12-month period. The combined treatment was very successful compared to standard smoking interventions (a mean of 66% reduction from baseline smoking rate and 53% of subjects completely abstinent on the 1-year follow-up), and subjects in this group smoked significantly less than those in either the REST or behavioral self-management only condition. Furthermore, subjects receiving REST, alone or in combination, were significantly less likely to relapse following treatment. The results were taken to support the importance of addressing multiple change objectives in smoking cessation programs.
The present study was an attempt to evaluate the relaxation potential of the flotation environment, employing both subjective and objective measures. The subjects were 20 male and 20 female adult volunteers who were floated in a commercially produced tank for up to 150 minutes for each of three runs at intervals of one week. Phsyiological monitoring of heart rate was done just before and just after each run and during all the flotation periods. Most subjects remained for about 2/3rds of possible time in tank. Heart rate appears to follow a general trend across and within floats starting at a higher value, proceeding to a lower value, and then increasing again. Post-run differences in subjective indices of well-being, relaxation, or anxiety appear to be associated with the age and sex of subjects. Thus, while this environment does seem generally to be a relaxing one, the degree of relaxation potential is related to individual subject differences.
Potential creativity as measured by the Alternate Uses Test, remoteness of word associations, and rated creativity of fantasy stories was found to be related to primary process content in written fantasy stories. Psychoticism and openness to experience have been found to be related to creativity. There are theoretical reasons to think that they might also be related to use of primary process cognition. However, neither potential creativity nor primary process content were significantly correlated with either psychoticism or openness to experience. An exploratory factor analysis, though, suggests that creativity, primary process cognition, extraversion, and psychoticism are interrelated. The common train linking them together may be disinhibition.
Five psychology faculty members each spent six 90-min sessions sitting alone in their office and six 1-hour sessions floating in a restricted environmental stimulation tank (REST) (warm saline solution, darkness and silence). The order of environments was counterbalanced. During the office sessions and for 30 min after each REST session, subjects dictated ideas concerning their research into a tape recorder. Subsequent self-ratings showed that novel ideas generated after REST were ‘better’ (more creative) than those developed in office sessions. Interview reports identified experiences compatible with the hypothesis that REST induces a ‘twilight state’. Mood ratings showed that REST was associated with trends towards a higher level of vigor and lower levels of tension, anger, depression, fatigue and confusion. These findings support the prediction that REST would facilitate high-level creative behavior and positive affect.
Thesis (doctoral)--Göteborg University, 1997.
The hypothesis that psilocybin induced primary process thinking was assessed. On four separate occasions, a subject was asked to write before, during, and after the hallucinogenic experience induced by doses ranging between 80 and 200 microgram/kg of psilocybin. Texts produced at the drug peak contained significantly more primary process content and were significantly more stereotyped on several measures than those written before or after the drug peak.
Seventy-two normal adult male subjects wrote TAT stories under baseline and either placebo- or marijuana-ingestion conditions. Marijuana subjects received 20 mg. doses of delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol. The stories were keypunched and content analyzed with the Regressive Imagery Dictionary, which yields a score for primary process content. Results indicate that marijuana, relative to placebo, caused subjects to write stories with a higher proportion of primary process content than they had included in baseline stories.
This study was conducted to evaluate the positive effect of flotation REST on the production of random sequences, employing both behavioral and physiological measures. The subjects were 7 student volunteers who spent a 40-min. session lying alone on a bed in an isolation box and two 40-min. sessions floating in a commercially produced tank. Polygraph recordings (EEG, EOG, ECG and respiration) were made continuously. Randomness of orally generated sequences was measured by RIP scores based on the Pólya-Eggenberger distribution in three test sessions, e.g., pre-, during, and post-REST period. Randomness increased in the floating condition, while those parameters decreased in the bed condition. Sleep-stage analysis and EEG spectral analysis showed that the flotation REST induced a more hypnagogic state and light sleep than did in-bed REST. It is speculated that the hypnagogic state and light sleep induced by floating enhanced random generation.
The restricted environmental stimulation technique or REST is a method of relaxation where the level of environmental sensory inputs is kept very low. A particular REST technique called tank flotation, or flotation REST, consists of 1 h sessions in a tank containing water with a high salt content and maintained at 35.5 degrees C. In this protocol, five normal subjects were studied before and during 2 h after a 60 min flotation REST session and a control session of 60 min in a supine position on a bed. Cortisol, thyreostimulating hormone (TSH), thyroxine (T4), prolactin, melatonin, luteinizing hormone (LH), growth hormone (GH), beta-endorphin, vasopressin (ADH), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and homovanillic acid (HVA) were measured in plasma. HVA, 5-hydroxy-indoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) and vanylmandelic acid (VMA) were measured in urine. There were no changes in hormones concentrations that could be attributed to flotation REST. The urinary excretion of VMA was lower after the flotation REST session. The psychological consequences of flotation REST were more easily demonstrated than the neuroendocrine changes that are assumed to reflect the state of relaxation. Flotation REST increased subjective levels of sedation and euphoria. The possible mechanisms by which flotation REST induces relaxation are discussed.
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Direct reprint requests to:
Psychological Theories of Drinking and Alcoholism
- M S Goldman
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- B A Christiansen