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Technical Foundations of Neurofeedback
Abstract
Technical Foundations of Neurofeedback provides, for the first time, an authoritative and complete account of the scientific and technical basis of EEG biofeedback. Beginning with the physiological origins of EEG rhythms, Collura describes the basis of measuring brain activity from the scalp and how brain rhythms reflect key brain regulatory processes. He then develops the theory as well as the practice of measuring, processing, and feeding back brain activity information for biofeedback training. Combining both a “top down” and a “bottom up” approach, Collura describes the core scientific principles, as well as current clinical experience and practical aspects of neurofeedback assessment and treatment therapy. Whether the reader has a technical need to understand neurofeedback, is a current or future neurofeedback practitioner, or only wants to understand the scientific basis of this important new field, this concise and authoritative book will be a key source of information.
... Not all neural characteristics are suitable as NFT characteristics, and the training difficulty of each characteristic is different. For example, the training difficulty of regulating the ratio of different frequency band power may be greater than that of the frequency band power of a single-brain region, and the training difficulty of regulating multiple rhythm may be greater than that of regulating a single rhythm (Collura, 2013;Nan et al., 2015). ...
... This scheme's principle is to train participants' attention in order to enhance their attention level and enable them more focused in the course of exercise for a longer time, so that they can achieve a relaxed yet focused, alert, and ready state. The researchers believe that this state is beneficial to participants' behavioral control, and if it can be achieved in conditions of actual sport performance, sport performance will be improved (Ros et al., 2009;Collura, 2013). ...
... Just as people with strong self-control are more likely to succeed, those who have mastered the ability to regulate their own mental state may be more likely to achieve excellence than those who cannot. In addition, learning to self-regulate mental state cannot only support participants in sport but also in other aspects of their lives as well (Collura, 2013). ...
Neurofeedback training (NFT) is a non-invasive, safe, and effective method of regulating the nerve state of the brain. Presently, NFT is widely used to prevent and rehabilitate brain diseases and improve an individual’s external performance. Among the various NFT methods, NFT to improve sport performance (SP-NFT) has become an important research and application focus worldwide. Several studies have shown that the method is effective in improving brain function and motor control performance. However, appropriate reviews and prospective directions for this technology are lacking. This paper proposes an SP-NFT classification method based on user experience, classifies and discusses various SP-NFT research schemes reported in the existing literature, and reviews the technical principles, application scenarios, and usage characteristics of different SP-NFT schemes. Several key issues in SP-NFT development, including the factors involved in neural mechanisms, scheme selection, learning basis, and experimental implementation, are discussed. Finally, directions for the future development of SP-NFT, including SP-NFT based on other electroencephalograph characteristics, SP-NFT integrated with other technologies, and SP-NFT commercialization, are suggested. These discussions are expected to provide some valuable ideas to researchers in related fields.
... LZT-NF is an NF approach based on EEG quantification (QEEG) and the concept of standard deviation (Collura, 2014). Using LZT, the raw QEEG scores are to standardized scores (i.e., z-scores) using the distribution of the waves in a reference population, and can thus be incorporated as an element in a contingency system (Collura, 2014;Collura et al., 2010). ...
... LZT-NF is an NF approach based on EEG quantification (QEEG) and the concept of standard deviation (Collura, 2014). Using LZT, the raw QEEG scores are to standardized scores (i.e., z-scores) using the distribution of the waves in a reference population, and can thus be incorporated as an element in a contingency system (Collura, 2014;Collura et al., 2010). It is a live mix of QEEG and NF. ...
... This selfadjustment is based on the percentage of z-scores that fall within the set deviation range, with an upper threshold (positive z-scores) and a lower threshold (negative z-scores), and the percentage of reinforcement that the patient is achieving. In order to avoid that the movements from inside to outside the normal range could not be identified, due to a wide range for the z-score window (Collura, 2014;Collura et al., 2010), z-scores equal to or more extreme than ±1.5 were categorized as out of range. Considering the above, 28 values were obtained for each subject in z-scores, four (F3, F4, P3 and P4) for each wave. ...
Children with learning disabilities (LD) can have difficulties in reading at word level, text comprehension, writing or arithmetic. Several studies have shown the efficacy of neurofeedback (NF) in improving learning skills through brainwave operant conditioning in children with LD. The aim of this work was to show the efficacy of live z-score NF training (LZT) for quantitative electroencephalogram (QEEG) normalization in school children with LD. Twenty-eight children aged 10-15 years with LD participated. Ten 30-min sessions of QEEG-guided LZT using patient’s highly preferred feedback were applied. After 10 sessions of QEEG-guided LZT, participants showed statistically significant improvements in QEEG normalization and a statistically significant small to medium improvement in the Cognitive and Emotional Checklist. The results suggest that LZT-NF produces a tendency towards normalization of brain waves in children with LD, and might be advised as a therapeutic alternative or coadjuvant along with cognitive interventions.
... There is a vast and strong literature validating QEEG as an indicator of brain function with relevance to conditions and disorders including psychiatric disorders, aging, epilepsy, and autism. 9 Neurofeedback had its beginnings as early as the 1960s with work ...
... However, QEEG has demonstrated value as an assist to diagnosis and treatment planning and in the prediction of medication response, as a guide to optimal pharmaceutical use. 8,9 Indeed there was a problem, and something needed to be done. Inspecting maps of metrics, z-scores, etc. is limited in scope, and is not reliable in the absence of understanding of the underlying EEG and clinical situation. ...
... There is a vast and strong literature validating QEEG as an indicator of brain function with relevance to conditions and disorders including psychiatric disorders, aging, epilepsy, and autism. 9 Neurofeedback had its beginnings as early as the 1960s with work by Joe Kamiya, Barry Sterman, Margaret Ayers, Joel Lubar, and Les Fehmi, and has experienced growth in the has developed its own "legs" and has progressed at times in combination with EEG or QEEG, and at other times on its own basis. I have heard leading practitioners of EEG and QEEG express incredulity that the brain could change in response to visual or auditory feedback, believing strongly that such changes could simply not happen. ...
... Postoji niz metoda za kontroliranje vizualnog feedbacka, a neke od njih su: zaustavljanje ili pokretanje objekta u igrici, smanjivanje ili povećavanje kontrasta i svjetline, te reguliranje veličine ekrana. 3 Kako se klijent uči da kontrolira i postiže očekivani intenzitet moždanih valova, tako se istovremeno postižu bolji rezultati na video-igrici. 9 Za razliku od neurofeedback uređaja, u okviru primjene kvantitativnog elektroencefalografa (qEEG), računalo analizira i EEG zapis, pri čemu se dobiva velik broj kvantitativnih podataka poput amplitude, jakosti, omjera, faza, koherencije i slično. ...
... 9 Za razliku od neurofeedback uređaja, u okviru primjene kvantitativnog elektroencefalografa (qEEG), računalo analizira i EEG zapis, pri čemu se dobiva velik broj kvantitativnih podataka poput amplitude, jakosti, omjera, faza, koherencije i slično. 3 U zadnjem desetljeću došlo je do velikog napretka u terapijskoj primjeni neurofeedbacka. Naime, kako navodi Huić, 1 različiti neurološki i mentalni poremećaji praćeni su abnormalnim obrascima kortikalne aktivnosti, a neurofeedback omogućuje osobama mijenjati abnormalne obrasce putem normaliziranja i optimatiziranja aktivnosti mozga. ...
... Broj od 20 neurofeedback treninga smatra se dovoljnim brojem za postizanje željenih efekata, te se rijetko u planiranju programa preporučuje manji broj treninga. 3 Terapijski program provodio se 3 puta tjedno u trajanju od 30 minuta po seansi. Trening se u početku sastojao u treniranju T4-P4 regije prema sustavu 10-20. ...
Neurofeedback is one of the non-invasive methods of self-regulation with the aim of achieving changes in the area of cortical activity by using process operative conditioning. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of neurofeedback training in children with Asperger's syndrome. In this study, neurofeedback training was developed using the Infra Low Frequency method on a sample of one boy with Asperger's syndrome (age 11). Neurofeedback training consisted of 20 sessions of which 15 were one-channel training on areas responsible for the control of impulse, stability, physical relaxation, attention and emotional reactivity. Within the next 5 sessions two-channel training was used focused on the prefrontal region in charge of emotional processes. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the applied therapy program, parents completed EEG Expert and Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC) questionnaires in three assessment points: before, during and after the therapy program. Results at EEG Experts have shown a reduction in symptoms on all variables and statistically significant changes in the area of emotion, whereas ATEC results indicate a tendency to reduce symptoms but without statistical significance. The data obtained in the area of emotions can be considered valuable since neurofeedback training was aimed at alleviating specific difficulties such as sleeping difficulties, nail scratching, shame, fear, anger, impulsiveness, etc.
... College counselors use neurofeedback, also known as neurotherapy and EEG biofeedback, to monitor, measure, and provide feedback of electrical activity found in the brain (Collura, 2014). During neurofeedback, college counselors place external electrodes on students' scalps to gather physiological data about their brains and to provide feedback to the students, allowing them to achieve a desired brain activity pattern. ...
... College counselors should attach the noninvasive electrodes to the scalp using conductance paste, which heightens the clarity of the brain's electrical activity. Electrodes are placed in one or all areas of the scalp using individual electrodes or a full-cap placement system (Collura, 2014). ...
... College counselors use quantitative EEG, or brain mapping, to record baseline brain wave patterns and to assess activity in specific locations. Quantitative EEG is a full-cap EEG system with embedded electrodes that gathers physiological data from all areas of the brain (Collura, 2014). To capture natural patterns of brain wave activity during various tasks, college counselors measure baseline brain wave activity with eyes open and eyes closed. ...
The authors present a biofeedback training model and explore 4 specific biofeedback modalities—electromyography, electrodermal activity, thermal, and neurofeedback—that can be integrated into the clinical setting by college counselors. In addition, the authors provide information about how college counselors can become board certified in biofeedback and neurofeedback. Clinical implications and applications for college counselors are also discussed.
... Furthermore, we opted for the central zero (Cz) electrode position during training. This position has proven effective for comprehensive brain training and is known to minimize the occurrence of abnormal signals [9,26]. Among the available the brainwave training software programs, two specific programs, the Boat Race Game, and Coin Game brainwave training programs, were combined to comprise one session. ...
... Especially for brainwave changefocused biofeedback, dead skin cells that could interfere with EEG signals were removed from the Cz of the scalp and from ears, and action leads were attached. We monitored the impedance of these leads, ensuring that they stayed below 5 to enhance measurement accuracy, minimizing the occurrence of artifacts [9,26]. For the second step, 20 minutes were allocated to each training session. ...
Purpose: To investigate effects of a stepwise combined biofeedback training program (SCBT) including physiological response-focused training and brainwave change-focused training based on the Reflection and Reflexion model on attention and self-control of male high school students.Methods: This research employed a non-equivalent control group pretest-posttest design. A total of 54 students from two cities in South Korea were divided into experimental, comparison, and control groups. The training consisted of ten sessions over five weeks. The experimental group participated in the SCBT, while the comparison group only engaged in physiological response-focused training. Physiological attention rate and span were used in this study to quantify attention. These measures were calculated using physiological responses. Self-control was assessed using a self-report questionnaire and changes of brainwaves in the experimental group. Data were analyzed using the statistical software SPSS/WIN 25.0.Results: Physiological attention rate, physiological attention span, and self-control scores were significantly different across the three groups. Furthermore, in the experimental group, there was a significant increase in the mean amplitude of the alpha and SMR wave while high-beta waves exhibited a notable drop.Conclusion: The present study reveals that the SCBT can serve as a distinct nursing intervention to enhance attention and self-control among high school students.
... Moreover, Gadea et al. (2020) reported increases in the SMR band after SMR NF training, parallel to decreases in anxiety after only one session of SMR up and theta down NF training (Gadea et al. 2020). Regarding the balancing effect on executive functions and behavior, a recent meta-analysis highlighted SMR NF training as one of the three standard NF training protocols for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (Enriquez-Geppert et al. 2019) with large effect sizes for inattention, impulsivity, and sleep onset latency (Arns et al. 2009, 2014, Van Doren et al. 2019, while some other studies could not attribute the findings of decreased impulsivity and craving directly to the SMR NF (Fielenbach et al. 2018(Fielenbach et al. , 2019. Based on several clinical findings of comorbid ADHD in patients with substance use disorder, the Peniston Protocol was further modified by Scott-Kaiser, who combined the EEG beta band and the SMR with the established AT training (Scott and Kaiser 1998;Scott et al. 2005). ...
... band power in rsEEG). This is in line with conclusions that the regulation of a specific EEG frequency over a specific EEG electrode could lead to the non-specific "entrainment" effect (Collura 2014), i.e. a general change of the EEG power of other nearby frequency bands and the cerebral cortex (Cheng et al. 2015, Gong et al. 2020, Kober et al. 2020). ...
Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is defined as the impaired ability to stop or control alcohol use despite adverse social, occupational or health consequences and still represents one of the biggest challenges for society regarding health conditions, social consequences, and financial costs, including the high relapse rates after traditional alcohol rehabilitation treatment. Especially the deficient emotional competence in AUD is said to play a key role in the development of AUD and hinders to interrupt the substance compulsion, often leading in a viscous circle of relapse. Although the empirical evidence of a neurophysiological basis of alcohol use disorder is solid and increases even further, clinical interventions based on neurophysiology are still rare for individuals with AUD. This randomized, controlled trial investigates changes in emotional competences and alcohol-related cognitions and drinking behavior before and after an established alcohol rehabilitation treatment (control group, nCG = 29) compared to before and after an optimized, add-on neurofeedback training (experimental group: nEG = 27).
Improvements on the clinical-psychological level, i.e., increases in emotional competences as well as life satisfaction were found after the experimental EEG-neurofeedback training. Neurophysiological measurements via resting state EEG indicate decreases in low beta frequency band, while alpha and theta band remained unaffected.
... NFT addresses di erent goals with di erent neurofeedback protocols, each with specifically designed mappings between classified brain data and control parameters. For instance, alert, focus and peak protocols are commonly used when treating attention deficit disorders, a relax protocol when addressing anxiety and a deep protocol for personal exploration (Collura, 2017). Most NFT systems extract the frequency spectrum from the raw EEG signal with either digital filters or FFT, then classify characteristics of selected frequency bands in line with the training goals and then map this classified data to the control parameters (e.g. ...
... Also, a lower-pitched short sound is triggered when Meditation goes above its TH and a higher-pitched short sound when Attention goes above its TH. Out of the three islets, islet_0 follows Collura's (2017) suggestion most closely regarding how to best use audio feedback: the protocol uses discrete/short sounds to reward and constant sounds to provide a continuous indication of relevant changes. In general, the soundscape's slow and synchronised pulsations achieved by increasing both eSenses aim to help induce and maintain a deep meditative state characterised by low brainwave frequencies. ...
This practice research developed two prototype brain-computer music interfacing (BCMI) systems to support meditation practices. The second, more advanced system, BCMI-2, was tested to help induce and maintain a specific meditative state, the shamanic state of consciousness (SSC), first with two trainees in a non-clinical neurofeedback training (NFT) setting and then with my own brain signals in an artistic performance setting. In both settings, the system generated soundscapes with two entrainment methods to support the meditation: (1) auditory rhythmic entrainment (ARE) generating drumming gradually decreasing in tempo and rhythmic complexity and (2) a neurofeedback protocol rewarding increased theta brainwaves at Fz with a reward sound embedded as an integral element within the computer-generated drumming. In addition to these techniques, the performance setting also mapped hemispheric coherence measurements to surround sound spatialisation to help increase my and the meditating audience's feeling of immersion. The main contribution of this research is the creation of the BCMI-2 system and recommendations based on the knowledge gained while developing and testing its suitability to support meditation practices in NFT and artistic performance settings. BCMI-2 is fully open-source, affordable and uses the research-grade OpenBCI Cyton electroencephalograph to record multi-channel brain signals. The project contributes practical knowledge to the field. It could be of interest to NFT practitioners wishing to design immersive soundscapes for neurofeedback protocols, artists wishing to express themselves with physiological computing and meditation practitioners wishing to understand meditation from a scientific perspective.
... The EEG beta band (14 Hz-30 Hz) can be divided into two types of beta activity: (1) low/slow beta (12 Hz-15 Hz) activity, indicating a state of concentration and alertness, and (2) high/fast beta (22 Hz-38 Hz) activity, indicating a state of anxiety and stress (Collura, 2014;Hoffmann, 2005). The high-beta reduction protocol, also called the high-beta down-training EEG-NF protocol, was developed to reduce arousal and manage anxiety, stress, and rumination (Collura, 2014). ...
... The EEG beta band (14 Hz-30 Hz) can be divided into two types of beta activity: (1) low/slow beta (12 Hz-15 Hz) activity, indicating a state of concentration and alertness, and (2) high/fast beta (22 Hz-38 Hz) activity, indicating a state of anxiety and stress (Collura, 2014;Hoffmann, 2005). The high-beta reduction protocol, also called the high-beta down-training EEG-NF protocol, was developed to reduce arousal and manage anxiety, stress, and rumination (Collura, 2014). Various applications of this protocol have been used to improve stress management in athletes (Dupee and Werthner, 2011), people with post-traumatic stress disorder (Walker, 2009), and children with autism (Thompson et al., 2010). ...
Depression, or major depressive disorder, is a common mental disorder that affects individuals’ behavior, mood, and physical health, and its prevalence has increased during the lockdowns implemented to curb the COVID-19 pandemic. There is an urgent need to update the treatment recommendations for mental disorders during such crises. Conventional interventions to treat depression include long-term pharmacotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy. Electroencephalogram-neurofeedback (EEG-NF) training has been suggested as a non-invasive option to treat depression with minimal side effects. In this systematic review, we summarize the recent literature on EEG-NF training for treating depression. The 12 studies included in our final sample reported that despite several issues related to EEG-NF practices, patients with depression showed significant cognitive, clinical, and neural improvements following EEG-NF training. Given its low cost and the low risk of side effects due to its non-invasive nature, we suggest that EEG-NF is worth exploring as an augmented tool for patients who already receive standard medications but remain symptomatic, and that EEG-NF training may be an effective intervention tool that can be utilized as a supplementary treatment for depression. We conclude by providing some suggestions related to experimental designs and standards to improve current EEG-NF training practices for treating depression.
... It tells us whether a particular requency band at a particular site is overpowering other vital requency bands at other sites. It is expressed as the percentage o total power at each site or each requency band (Collura, 2014;Warner, 2013). ...
... There is also low Alpha activity in the posterior o the brain. That is because an increase in Theta indicates an increase in cognitive control over those locations (Collura, 2014), both unctions being antagonistic with the unctions supported by Alpha brain waves, which are inversely related to cortical activity (Allen et al., 2004;Cook et al., 1998;Oakes et al., 2004). ...
Background: Published research shows that grounding the human body to Earth (also called “earthing”) produces multiple health benefits. An earlier study documented immediate and abrupt changes in the left hemisphere of the brain upon grounding, an indication of improved brain function (Chevalier et al., 2006). The findings suggest that grounding might improve the practice of meditation, an activity that has gained widespread popularity throughout the world. Objective: To explore possible added benefits from meditating indoors while grounded, an experiment was set up involving 10 longtime meditators. Methods: : Brain mapping with electroencephalographic (EEG) electrodes applied to the head was used to measure brain function during grounding vs. non-grounding periods of the meditation. The participants were monitored separately while meditating in a special conductive recliner chair. They were grounded for 40 minutes in the middle of their meditation session. Grounding was accomplished by using conductive cords to connect the chair, as well as patches applied to the palms of the hands, to the grounding system of the building. For the first 15 minutes of the meditation and the last 10 minutes, participants were disconnected, that is, not grounded. They were blind to when they were and were not grounded. Results: Both objectively and participatively, a deeper meditation was documented during the period of the meditation when participants were grounded compared to when they were not grounded. About half of the participants showed evidence through brain mapping of improvements in brain function. The principal characteristics of the meditation improvements during grounding were: (a) high Alpha in the frontal lobes (increased top-down control regulation and emotional control), (b) high Theta (increase in internal focus, spiritual awareness, and meditation), and (c) tendencies toward brain disorders disappeared during grounding. Conclusion: This small pilot project presents evidence that meditating indoors while grounded offers benefits beyond the meditation itself and replicates traditional practices in which individuals meditated while sitting on the ground. These results warrant more research with more participants and a control group.
... Neurofeedback-based moral enhancements can avoid these problems because they have unique features, including noninvasiveness, the requirement of a participant's effort, and flexibility in targeted moral faculties (Collura 2014). By virtue of these features, neurofeed-Endowing Moral Reasons through Existing Education Networks 287 back-based moral enhancements can save morality and, accordingly, harmonize with existing moral education networks, being part of such networks (Tachibana 2017(Tachibana , 2018. ...
... A person who listens to and remembers a virtuous person's rational advice is said to be "good (esthlos)" though not "far best (panaristos)." Furthermore, just before this quote, Aristotle even declares that such a good person "will not need the reason as well" (NE I4, 1095b6-7 [Aristotle 1998, [4][5]). Therefore, as Burnyeat (1980, 71) puts it, "Aristotle quotes the Hesiodic verses in all seriousness." ...
... The Z-score LZT-NF technique trained the oscillatory activity of the studied subjects by comparing their metrics (power, amplitude, coherence, and phase) with a normative database used as a reference. The reference is based on a repository of QEEG data from healthy persons age-matched with the trained subjects [31][32][33][34][35][36]. The Z-scores for any of the computed metrics were directly related to the numbers of standard deviations the values of the studied parameters were from the mean values for a subject's reference groups [24]. ...
... This self-adjustment was based on the percentage of Z-scores for all the bands receiving treatment that fell within the set deviation range, with an upper threshold (positive Z-scores) and a lower threshold (negative Z-scores), and the percentage of reinforcement that the patient was achieving. The waves with Z-scores higher than ±1.5 SD were categorized as out of the range and were further analyzed in terms of absolute values [31,33]. According to the number of NF training sessions and session duration reported in previous works [24,39], including some of our own group [58,59], the patients underwent 10 30 min sessions delivered twice a week without interruption. ...
Learning disabilities (LDs) have an estimated prevalence between 5% and 9% in the pediatric population and are associated with difficulties in reading, arithmetic, and writing. Previous electroencephalography (EEG) research has reported a lag in alpha-band development in specific LD phenotypes, which seems to offer a possible explanation for differences in EEG maturation. In this study, 40 adolescents aged 10–15 years with LDs underwent 10 sessions of Live Z-Score Training Neurofeedback (LZT-NF) Training to improve their cognition and behavior. Based on the individual alpha peak frequency (i-APF) values from the spectrogram, a group with normal i-APF (ni-APF) and a group with low i-APF (li-APF) were compared in a pre-and-post-LZT-NF intervention. There were no statistical differences in age, gender, or the distribution of LDs between the groups. The li-APF group showed a higher theta absolute power in P4 (p = 0.016) at baseline and higher Hi-Beta absolute power in F3 (p = 0.007) post-treatment compared with the ni-APF group. In both groups, extreme waves (absolute Z-score of ≥1.5) were more likely to move toward the normative values, with better results in the ni-APF group. Conversely, the waves within the normal range at baseline were more likely to move out of the range after treatment in the li-APF group. Our results provide evidence of a viable biomarker for identifying optimal responders for the LZT-NF technique based on the i-APF metric reflecting the patient’s neurophysiological individuality.
... The feedback feature of the Alpha group was characterized by the alpha power difference between T3 and T4, and the participants were given positive feedback when the feedback feature increased. That is, the participants got positive feedback irrespective of the increase in alpha power of T3 or a decrease in the alpha power of T4. Collura (2013) pointed out that in neurofeedback experiments, the training aimed at reducing activity may be a kind of ''squeeze'' enhancement training. Enhancing or reducing EEG activity in a brain region may lead to increased activity in that region (Plotkin and Rice, 1981). ...
... However, from the brain topographic map, we find that in addition to the trained target channels and frequency bands, the adjacent channels and frequency bands have also undergone trend changes, which are a non-specific change. Collura (2013) suggest this could be a kind of influence of the ''entrainment'' effect: in addition to the frequency bands and channels involved in feedback, the EEG power of other nearby frequency bands and the cerebral cortex also showed a certain degree of change. Other neurofeedback also has reported similar phenomena (Cheng et al., 2015a). ...
Previous literature on shooting performance neurofeedback training (SP-NFT) to enhance performance usually focused on changes in behavioral indicators, but research on the physiological features of SP-NFT is lacking. To explore the effects of SP-NFT on trainability and neuroplasticity, we conducted a study in which 45 healthy participants were randomly divided into three groups: based on sensory-motor rhythm of C3, Cz and C4 (SMR group), based on alpha rhythm of T3 and T4 (Alpha group), and no NFT (control group). The training was performed for six sessions for 3 weeks. Before and after the SP-NFT, we evaluated changes in shooting performance and resting electroencephalography (EEG) frequency power, participant’s subjective task appraisal, neurofeedback trainability score, and EEG feature. Statistical analysis showed that the shooting performance of the participants in the SMR group improved significantly, the participants in the Alpha group decreased, and that of participants in the control group have no change. Meanwhile, the resting EEG power features of the two NFT groups changed specifically after training. The training process data showed that the training difficulty was significantly lower in the SMR group than in the Alpha group. Both NFT groups could improve the neurofeedback trainability scores and change the feedback features by means of their mind strategy. These results may provide evidence of trainability and neuroplasticity for SP-NFT, suggesting that the SP-NFT is effective in brain regulation and thus provide a potential method to improve shooting performance.
... 1 Neurofeedback is an innovative complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) therapy that is scientifically based. 4 It allows the brain to learn and relearn selfregulation skills, 5 which have clinical relevance, because brain wave modulation leads to symptomatic changes. 4 Biofeedback, by which NF is included, works as a psychophysiological intervention through the mediation of cognitive changes, 6 such as the improvement of self-efficacy 7 and coping skills. ...
... 18,21 For example, Haenschel et al could show that an increase in central frontal beta band (13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30) can be related to an increase in arousal. 22 An increase in central frontal theta (4)(5)(6)(7)(8) band is related to a decrease in arousal with subjective sleepiness 23 and an increase in occipital alpha (8)(9)(10)(11)(12) can be related to a relaxed state. 24 Emotional valence has been related to EEG power asymmetry in frontal lobes. ...
Introduction:
Neurofeedback (NF) or electroencephalogram (EEG)-Biofeedback is a drug-free form of brain training to directly alter the underlying neural mechanisms of cognition and behavior. It is a technique that measures a subject's EEG signal, processes it in real time, with the goal to enable a behavioral modification by modulating brain activity. The most common application of the NF technology is in epilepsies, migraine, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, affective disorders, and psychotic disorders. Few studies have investigated the use of NF in context of psychosomatic illnesses. Little is known about the use in cancer patients or postcancer survivors despite the high number of this patient group.
Objectives:
We here provide a systematic review of the use and effect of NF on symptoms and burden in cancer patients and long-term cancer survivors.
Methods:
In conducting this systematic review, we followed the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) Statement.
Results:
Our search resulted in only 3 experimental studies, 1 observational study, and 2 case reports. Given the heterogeneity of the intervention systems and protocols, no meta-analysis was conducted.
Conclusion:
Altogether, there is initial evidence that NF is a complementary, drug-free, and noninvasive therapy that has the potential to ameliorate symptoms in this patient group, such as pain, fatigue, depression, and sleep. Further studies are highly needed.
... Prema Collura (2014), za provođenje neurofeedbacka moraju biti zadovoljene određene pretpostavke, odnosno prisutne određene komponente. Mora postojati generiranje moždanih valova kako bi se oni onda mogli i snimiti. ...
Neurofeedback (NFB) tretman - neinvazivna je metoda, zasnovana na elektroencefalografiji i praćenju električne aktivnosti mozga (EEG). To je računalno potpomognuta metoda treninga, koja prikazuje frekvencije moždanih valova, time se poboljšava samoregulacija mozga, odnosno moždanih funkcija. Neurofeedback je relativno mlada metoda s burnijim razvojem unatrag dvadesetak godina, čineći njegovu primjenu dostupnijom u terapijske svrhe. Sigfried i Susan Othmer razvili su Infra Low Frequency (ILF) metodu neurofeedbacka, koja osigurava visoko personaliziran NFB trening oblikovan s ciljem pronalaska individualne trening frekvencije i protokola specifičnog za svakog pojedinca, što omogućava bolju samoregulaciju mozga, poboljšava mentalnu stabilnost, a posljedično poboljšava manifestno funkcioniranje osobe. U Poliklinici za rehabilitaciju slušanja i govora SUVAG Karlovac, ILF neurofeedback trening dio je multidisciplinarnog pristupa od 2017. godine. Klinička iskustva potvrđuju ga kao dobru support terapiju logopedskom tretmanu i ostalim tretmanima koje ustanova pruža u radu s osobama s različitim poremećajima, primarno jezično govornim i komunikacijskim teškoćama različite etiologije.
... If a certain BCI technology is used to induce neuroplasticity, it can be considered a form of neuromodulation. For instance, neurofeedback training systems can promote neuroplasticity, which is essentially a type of BCI (Collura, 2014;Jeunet et al., 2019). Some researchers believe that BCIs are suitable for a wide range of adaptive neurotechnologies that optimize new interactions and often induce adaptive plasticity in the CNS, which also helps to optimize interactions. ...
Brain-computer interface (BCI) is a revolutionizing human-computer interaction with potential applications in both medical and non-medical fields, emerging as a cutting-edge and trending research direction. Increasing numbers of groups are engaging in BCI research and development. However, in recent years, there has been some confusion regarding BCI, including misleading and hyped propaganda about BCI, and even non-BCI technologies being labeled as BCI. Therefore, a clear definition and a definite scope for BCI are thoroughly considered and discussed in the paper, based on the existing definitions of BCI, including the six key or essential components of BCI. In the review, different from previous definitions of BCI, BCI paradigms and neural coding are explicitly included in the clear definition of BCI provided, and the BCI user (the brain) is clearly identified as a key component of the BCI system. Different people may have different viewpoints on the definition and scope of BCI, as well as some related issues, which are discussed in the article. This review argues that a clear definition and definite scope of BCI will benefit future research and commercial applications. It is hoped that this review will reduce some of the confusion surrounding BCI and promote sustainable development in this field.
... EEG helps identify dysfunctional brain regions, guiding further research and intervention, and illuminating areas needing reorganization for ideal cognitive and behavioral performance. Neurofeedback can manage various speech and language disorders arising from acquired or developmental aphasia, including those related to neuropragmatics (Budzynski et al., 2009;Collura, 2014;Demos, 2005;Stoeckel et al., 2014;Thompson & Thompson, 2003). Summaka et al. (2021) studied CT data as early indicators of long-term language impairment in traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients. ...
Neuropragmatics investigates brain functions and neural activities responsible for pragmatic language abilities, often impaired in disorders such as hemisphere damage, autism, schizophrenia, and neurode-generative disorders. This study examined the development of neuropragmatics and existing neuroi-maging evidence using bibliometric and scientometric indicators, analyzing 4,247 documents published between 1967 and 2022 with CiteSpace and VOSviewer. Our cluster analysis revealed key themes. 1) Language comprehension loss due to brain injury: Studies exploring the impact of brain injuries on language comprehension and underlying neural mechanisms. 2) Right hemisphere damage and pragmatic language skills: Research focusing on the relationship between right hemisphere damage and pragmatic language abilities, investigating impairments in social language use and potential neural correlates. 3) Traumatic brain injury and social communication assessment: Research on traumatic brain injury effects on social communication skills, using various assessment tools to evaluate communication effectiveness in social situations. These clusters provide valuable insights into the neuropragmatics field and serve as a framework for future investigations. By building upon existing knowledge, researchers can improve our understanding of brain functions, language behavior , and enhance rehabilitation for individuals with pragmatic language impairments.
... In the current study, a PZOKUL (i.e., Percentage of Z-score Ok Upper and Lower thresholds) protocol from BrainMaster Technologies Inc. was employed. Real-time Z-scores were computed by comparing the treatment metrics (absolute power, relative power, phase, and coherence) at each electrode site with the "qEEG Pro" normative database [31][32][33]. The database consists of 1482 (955 males and 527 females) and 1232 (799 males and 432 females) participants in eyes-open and eyes-closed conditions, respectively [33]. ...
Individuals with traumatic experiences may develop symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and co-morbid disorders, such as anxiety disorders, major depression, and substance use disorder. Although exposure therapy is considered the "gold standard" for the treatment of PTSD, dropout rates and patient distress are relatively high. One promising approach is live Z-score neurofeedback (ZNF) training, but clinical evidence is sparse. Thus, the current study aimed to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of ZNF training among individuals with PTSD. After undergoing a diagnostic interview utilizing the MINI Neuropsychiatric Interview, nine patients with PTSD (7 females; mean age = 20.75 [SD = 2.38]) completed ten ZNF sessions, lasting 20 min each, and the PCL-5 at pre-and post-treatment. Over the course of the study, only a few minor study disruptions, adverse events, and patient complaints were reported, and participants rated high on feasibility and acceptability. Results from repeated measures ANOVAs suggest significant improvements in overall PTSD symptoms. Although these findings need to be replicated in larger samples with active control groups, the current study provides support that ZNF is a safe, acceptable, and potentially effective treatment for PTSD.
... Also, based on operant conditioning, neurofeedback training (NFT) reinforces desirable self-regulated changes in brain activity and physiological functioning; these changes correspond with improved self-regulation. [29][30][31][32][33][34] NFT showed potential in reducing neurobehavioral symptoms and improved QOL measures. 35,36 The study design included 6 quasiexperimental studies 14,37-41 and seven 2-group experimental studies, of which 3 are RCTs. ...
Objective:
To examine the evidence levels, study characteristics, and outcomes of nonpharmacologic complementary and integrative medicine (CIM) interventions in rehabilitation for individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI).
Data sources:
MEDLINE (OvidSP), PubMed (NLM), EMBASE (Embase.com), CINAHL (EBSCO), PsycINFO (OvidSP), Cochrane Library (Wiley), and National Guidelines Clearinghouse databases were evaluated using PRISMA guidelines. The protocol was registered in INPLASY (protocol registration: INPLASY202160071).
Data extraction:
Quantitative studies published between 1992 and 2020 investigating the efficacy of CIM for individuals with TBI of any severity, age, and outcome were included. Special diets, herbal and dietary supplements, and counseling/psychological interventions were excluded, as were studies with mixed samples if TBI data could not be extracted. A 2-level review comprised title/abstract screening, followed by full-text assessment by 2 independent reviewers.
Data synthesis:
In total, 90 studies were included, with 57 001 patients in total. This total includes 2 retrospective studies with 17 475 and 37 045 patients. Of the 90 studies, 18 (20%) were randomized controlled trials (RCTs). The remainder included 20 quasi-experimental studies (2-group or 1-group pre/posttreatment comparison), 9 retrospective studies, 1 single-subject study design, 2 mixed-methods designs, and 40 case study/case reports. Guided by the American Academy of Neurology evidence levels, class II criteria were met by 61% of the RCTs. Included studies examined biofeedback/neurofeedback (40%), acupuncture (22%), yoga/tai chi (11%), meditation/mindfulness/relaxation (11%), and chiropractic/osteopathic manipulation (11%). The clinical outcomes evaluated across studies included physical impairments (62%), mental health (49%), cognitive impairments (39%), pain (31%), and activities of daily living/quality of life (28%). Additional descriptive statistics were summarized using narrative synthesis. Of the studies included for analyses, 97% reported overall positive benefits of CIM.
Conclusion:
Rigorous and well experimentally designed studies (including RCTs) are needed to confirm the initial evidence supporting the use of CIM found in the existing literature.
... With aberrations in the brain's electrical activity well documented in IDs (Pizzagalli et al., 2002;Jokić-Begić and Begić, 2003;Alhaj et al., 2010;Iosifescu, 2011;Buzsáki and Watson, 2012;Wahbeh and Oken, 2013), closed-loop brain training of electrophysiological signals, also known as electroencephalography neurofeedback (EEG-NFB), has been touted as a possible solution. EEG-NFB is non-invasive form of biofeedback that teaches the brain to modify its function via a closed-loop brain-computer interface whereby an exogenous sensory stimulus (e.g., audible tone) is fed back to the participant in real-time following some pre-determined electrical activity recorded from the scalp (Collura, 2013;Marzbani et al., 2016;Sitaram et al., 2016;Arns et al., 2017;Orndorff-Plunkett et al., 2017). EEG-NFB is widely believed to work predominantly through a form of associative learning known as operant conditioning whereby the probability of some given (neural) behavior is modified via a temporally associated reinforcing stimulus (Enriquez-Geppert et al., 2017;Orndorff-Plunkett et al., 2017;Alkoby et al., 2018). ...
Introduction
Internalizing disorders (IDs), e.g., major depressive disorder (MDD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are the most prevalent psychopathologies experienced worldwide. Current first-line therapies (i.e., pharmacotherapy and/or psychotherapy) offer high failure rates, limited accessibility, and substantial side-effects. Electroencephalography (EEG) guided closed-loop brain training, also known as EEG-neurofeedback (EEG-NFB), is believed to be a safe and effective alternative, however, there is much debate in the field regarding the existence of specificity [i.e., clinical effects specific to the modulation of the targeted EEG variable(s)]. This review was undertaken to determine if there is evidence for EEG-NFB specificity in the treatment of IDs.
Methods
We considered only randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trials. Outcomes of interest included self/parent/teacher reports and clinician ratings of ID-related symptomatology.
Results
Of the four reports (total participant number = 152) meeting our eligibility criteria, three had point estimates suggesting small to moderate effect sizes favoring genuine therapy over sham, however, due to small sample sizes, all 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were wide and spanned the null. The fourth trial had yet to post results as of the submission date of this review. The limited overall number of eligible reports (and participants), large degree of inter-trial heterogeneity, and restricted span of ID populations with published/posted outcome data (i.e., PTSD and OCD) precluded a quantitative synthesis.
Discussion
The current literature suggests that EEG-NFB may induce specific effects in the treatment of some forms of IDs, however, the evidence is very limited. Ultimately, more randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trials encompassing a wider array of ID populations are needed to determine the existence and, if present, degree of EEG-NFB specificity in the treatment of IDs.
Systematic Review Registration
[https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero], identifier [CRD42020159702].
... Cada uma é congruente para certo local, momento ou tarefa. O que evidencia a eficiência do cérebro é a flexibilidade de mudança de uma faixa de frequência para outra mais rapidamente em função da tarefa demandada (Collura, 2014;Thompson & Thompson, 2015). Dificuldades da Aprendizagem (Linden et al., 1996), entre outros. ...
This book is a reader on gifted students under interdisciplinary perspective. It focuses on psychologic issues, education, society, law health, sport and other areas.
... Cada uma é congruente para certo local, momento ou tarefa. O que evidencia a eficiência do cérebro é a flexibilidade de mudança de uma faixa de frequência para outra mais rapidamente em função da tarefa demandada (Collura, 2014;Thompson & Thompson, 2015). Dificuldades da Aprendizagem (Linden et al., 1996), entre outros. ...
... Cada uma é congruente para certo local, momento ou tarefa. O que evidencia a eficiência do cérebro é a flexibilidade de mudança de uma faixa de frequência para outra mais rapidamente em função da tarefa demandada (Collura, 2014;Thompson & Thompson, 2015). Dificuldades da Aprendizagem (Linden et al., 1996), entre outros. ...
... With aberrations in the brain's electrical activity well recognized in IDs (Alhaj, Wisniewski, & McAllister-Williams, 2010;Buzsáki & Watson, 2012;Iosifescu, 2011;Jokić-Begić & Begić, 2003;Pizzagalli et al., 2002;Wahbeh & Oken, 2013), electroencephalographic neurofeedback (EEG-NFB) has been touted as a possible solution. EEG-NFB is a noninvasive form of biofeedback that teaches the brain to modify its function via a closed-loop braincomputer interface, whereby an exogenous sensory stimulus (e.g., audible tone) is fed back to the participant in real time following some predetermined electrical activity recorded from the scalp (Arns et al., 2017;Collura, 2013;Marzbani, Marateb, & Mansourian, 2016;Orndorff-Plunkett, Singh, Aragón, & Pineda, 2017;Sitaram et al., 2016). ...
Background: Mental illnesses are increasing worldwide with the internalizing disorders (IDs; e.g., anxiety disorders, depressive disorders) being the most prevalent. Current first-line therapies (e.g., pharmacotherapy) offer high failure rates and substantial side effects. Electroencephalographic neurofeedback (EEG-NFB) has been shown to be an effective and safe treatment for these conditions; however, there remains much doubt regarding the existence of specificity (i.e., clinical effects specific to the modulation of the EEG variables of interest). This is a protocol for a quantitative review that will attempt to determine if there is evidence for EEG-NFB specificity in the treatment of IDs. Methods: We will consider all published and unpublished randomized, double-blind (i.e., trainees and raters), sham/placebo-controlled (i.e., feedback contingent on a random signal, the activity from a different person's brain, or an unrelated signal from the trainee's own brain) trials involving humans with at least one ID diagnosis without exclusion by language, locality, ethnicity, age, or sex. Effect sizes will be calculated for individual studies and combined in a meta-analysis. Discussion: This protocol outlines the research methodology for a quantitative review undertaken to assess for evidence of EEG-NFB specificity in the treatment of IDs. © 2021 International Society for Neurofeedback and Research. All rights reserved.
... Scalp electrical potentials have been shown to produce sufficient output for obtaining real-time resolution information on the three-dimensional distribution of electric neuronal activity in the brain. sLORETA provides high-resolution source localization using 5-millimeter voxels (a voxel is a unit of volume, defined in 3D space) and the volume of the entire brain is measured using 6,239 voxels (Collura, 2014). Source localization analyses yield images of standardized current density with zero localization error (Pascual-Marqui, 2002). ...
Due to the distinct lack of definition surrounding the desirable attributes of an effective Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFT) practitioner, this study utilized a modified Delphi technique to explore this. This method is designed to achieve a consensus amongst skilled panelists when an accepted body of literature is lacking. A three-round modified Delphi approach was used and participants were skilled in delivering EFT as a practitioner (N = 22). The first round was an open-ended series of questions derived from the literature, and responses to these initial questions were analyzed using content analysis (nVivo), with common themes identified and grouped together. These themes were then utilized to develop more specific quantitative questions (Likert format) to be used in the subsequent rounds. Consensus was set at 75% agreement on an item and was reached for 11 out of the 15 traits of an effective EFT practitioner identified in round 1. Consensus was also reached for seven out of the eight traits of an ineffective EFT practitioner, but was not reached for many core elements in training. These included adequate training, knowledge of other energy techniques, and the use of structured interviews, among other issues. Consensus was also not reached for the use of screening processes prior to training. These results are discussed in terms of standardization in EFT
... Since its inception at the beginning of the 2000s (Collura, 2008(Collura, , 2014, Z-score training (ZT) has attracted interest among the NF scientific community resulting in several case (Collura, Guan, Tarrant, Bailey, & Starr, 2010;Koberda, Moses, Koberda, & Koberda, 2012;Pérez-Elvira, Carrobles, López Bote, & Oltra-Cucarella, 2019;Pérez-Elvira et al., 2018;Smith, 2008) and group studies (Groeneveld et al., 2019;Hammer et al., 2011;Wigton, 2014;. In ZT all the patients' EEG Z-scores from all elements (absolute power, relative power, coherence, etc.) are computed and collected at all times, the percentage of Z-scores within a specific range (for instance, ±1 SD) is calculated, and the patient receives feedback every time the percentage of Z-scores within the normal range is equal to or higher than a requested percentage. ...
Objective/Background: Theta-to-Beta ratio is one of the most studied electroencephalography findings in ADHD in the neurotherapy field, alongside the neurofeedback (NF) protocols whose objective is reducing it. The NF field has developed to a great level in the last decade. One of the approaches that became of particular interest to the clinicians has been Z-score training (ZT). In general, there are still a few studies about the efficacy of ZT and even fewer that compare this technique with the classic protocols. This study aimed to check the efficacy of ZT in reducing Theta-to-Beta ratio. Participants: 15 patients diagnosed with combined type ADHD aged 7 to 18, recruited in retrospect. Methods: The participants were divided in two groups. One of the groups was provided with the ZT intervention and the other one, the Theta/Beta (T/B) protocol. Both groups went through ten 30-min NF sessions using videos selected by themselves as a reinforcement. The main outcomes of this study were the patients’ Theta-to-Beta ratio metrics. Results: Both groups showed a decrease in Theta-to-Beta ratio; the ZT group showed a decrease of 1.02 points average and the T/B group showed a decrease of 0.15 points average, only being statistically significant for the ZT group.
... QEEGs were obtained during the standardized hypnotic assessment, the PCI -Hypnotic Assessment Procedure (PCI-HAP; Pekala, *71, 72+) as delineated above, and also during sidhi meditation. The amplifier used for the EEG acquisition was the Brainmaster Discovery 24E (Brainmaster Technologies, Inc., Bedford, OH; Collura, [97]), with an EEG bandwidth of 0.43-80 Hz, A/D conversion of 24 bits (resolution of 0.01 µV EEG, 0.4 µV DC), a sampling rate of 1024 samples per second (data rate to the computer of 256 samples per second), and an input impedance of 1000 GΩ (see Collura, [98], for technical details concerning the measurement of the qEEG). ...
... In brief, by allowing patients to directly perceive specific neural events (e.g., by using visual or auditory representations of a patient's own brain activity as targets), NF, through operant conditioning, allows patients to practice modulating their own neural activity 19 . Collura described NF as "…an art, and [that] there can be very different ways to apply general principles, in the form of a clinical intervention 20 ." ...
Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by positive symptoms (hallucinations and delusions), negative symptoms (anhedonia, social withdrawal) and marked cognitive deficits (memory, executive function, and attention). Current mainstays of treatment, including medications and psychotherapy, do not adequately address cognitive symptoms, which are essential for everyday functioning. However, recent advances in computational neurobiology have rekindled interest in neurofeedback (NF), a form of self-regulation or neuromodulation, in potentially alleviating cognitive symptoms in patients with SCZ. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review of the literature for NF studies in SCZ to identify lessons learned and to identify steps to move the field forward. Our findings reveal that NF studies to date consist mostly of case studies and small sample, single-group studies. Despite few randomized clinical trials, the results suggest that NF is feasible and that it leads to measurable changes in brain function. These findings indicate early proof-of-concept data that needs to be followed up by larger, randomized clinical trials, testing the efficacy of NF compared to well thought out placebos. We hope that such an undertaking by the field will lead to innovative solutions that address refractory symptoms and improve everyday functioning in patients with SCZ.
... Impedance values were kept <5 kΩ. The SMR-NFT protocol aimed at training the ability to increase SMR (12-15 Hz) at Cz while concomitantly inhibiting theta (4-7 Hz) and high beta (23-35 Hz) at Cz. Thresholds were manually adjusted daily so that the participant would meet criteria approximately 60% of the time (e.g., Collura, 2014;Gruzelier, 2014;Strack, Linden, & Wilson, 2011;Thompson & Thompson, 2015). Manual flexible adjustment of thresholds was implemented in order to ensure that learning is achieved when motivation and fatigue may vary (Gruzelier, 2014). ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) neurofeedback training (NFT) and biofeedback training (BFT) intervention on ice hockey shooting performance. Specifically, the purpose was to examine (a) whether an NFT/BFT program could improve ice hockey shooting performance, (b) whether the implementation of an SMR-NFT intervention leads to neurological adaptations during performance, and (c) whether such neurological changes account for improvement in shooting performance. Using a longitudinal stratified random control design, results demonstrated that while both SMR-NFT/BFT and control groups improved performance, the rate of improvement for the SMR-NFT/BFT group was significantly higher than the control. Participants in the SMR-NFT/BFT group demonstrated the ability to significantly increase SMR power from pre- to postintervention in the lab. However, no significant changes in SMR power were found during shooting performance. This result may be suggestive of differing cortical activity present during motor-skill preparation.
... In comparison to these studies, we obtained results in a smaller number of sessions, probably because QEEG-guided intervention and the amplitude sLORETA NF was used instead of the surface amplitude. This type of NF is characterized by the ability to locate and train the activity of specific brain structures or even parts of them (Collura, 2014;Gracefire, 2016). In our study, the BA2 area was selected because it was the area that was most deviated from the norm, both in the pre-treatment1 and pre-treatment2 evaluation, and because of its role in the perception and anticipation of pain and body sensations (Chen et al., 2006;Kanda et al., 2000;Kim et al., 2015). ...
Fibromyalgia is a chronic and incapacitating condition that produces, as main symptoms, pain, and stiffness. In addition to these physical symptoms, it is also accompanied by psychological symptoms such as cognitive deficits, anxiety, and depression. One of the non-pharmacological treatments that have been used in this pathology in recent years is neurofeedback. In this study, we analyze the efficacy of sLORETA Neurofeedback in the case of fibromyalgia. The experimental subject was a 37-year-old patient. Quantified electroencephalography studies were applied on three occasions, one initial, another after fifteen days of a waiting list, and another after treatment. Psychometric scales were also applied at the same time to evaluate the patient's psychological and physical state. The treatment consisted of 5 sessions of Neurofeedback LORETA in Brodmann area 2. After the treatment, a neurometric, psychometric, and clinical improvement were found. The improvement of the patient after 5 sessions is relevant since previous studies using neurofeedback in fibromyalgia, despite positive results, suggest a higher number of sessions were needed to achieve stronger results. Therefore, the intervention with Neurofeedback LORETA in fibromyalgia patients could be an alternative or complement to current treatments.
... Participants responded to several items measuring their perceived presence of neuroscience in the counselor education curriculum and rated how much NEUROSCIENCE IN CED https://doi.org/10.7290/tsc010201 Collura (2014;3%). The mean number of books read was .65 (SD = 1.02) with a range of zero to six, and 60% (n = 249) of the participants had not read any of the texts, nor did they enter any text in the free-text field. ...
... It likewise does exclude enough quick beta waves (15)(16)(17)(18) in frontal, focal and fleeting locales [6,7]. Contrasted with neuro-typical subjects, the frequency of high Beta waves (22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30) is higher while the amplitude of SMR (12-15) is lower [8,9]. ...
The main objective of the paper is to achieve the implementation of an economical and user-friendly neurofeedback tool that can be used to treat pain, addiction, aggression, anxiety, autism, depression, Schizophrenia, epilepsy, headaches, insomnia, Tourette syndrome, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), also used for the treatment of brain damage caused by stroke, trauma, and other causes in developing countries using EEG signal analysis. The analysis and the detection of the EEG can be achieved with the help of a home-made neurofeedback-built system. The technical and clinical EEG spectrum can be subdivided into-Alpha, Beta, Theta and Gamma ranges. The report will focus on the frequencies of the Beta band in accordance to the analysis of the power values and the output of the EEG analysis will be required to control the video and-or audio feedback. [22]
... Participants responded to several items measuring their perceived presence of neuroscience in the counselor education curriculum and rated how much NEUROSCIENCE IN CED https://doi.org/10.7290/tsc010201 Collura (2014;3%). The mean number of books read was .65 (SD = 1.02) with a range of zero to six, and 60% (n = 249) of the participants had not read any of the texts, nor did they enter any text in the free-text field. ...
Current neuroscience research demonstrates that counseling changes the mind and the brain. Several clinical mental health counseling (CMHC) programs are infusing neuroscience information into their curriculum. Learning about potential students' knowledge and attitudes about neuroscience could help guide these efforts. This study investigated general neuroscience knowledge, attitudes toward neuroscience, presence of neuromyths, and intention to apply neuroscien-tific knowledge among undergraduate students in the helping professions. Participants included 125 undergraduates enrolled in rehabilitation counseling, psychology, or education programs. Descriptive statistics and hierarchical regression analysis revealed the existence of neuromyths and high intention to apply correct and incorrect neuroscience knowledge. General knowledge was significantly associated with more neuromyths, but additional learning reduced neuromyths. Practical implications to improve the teaching of neuroscience to students in helping professions and to guide infusion of neuroscience in CMHC programs are discussed.
... There is increasing research pointing to the clinical application of HRV in training and exercise due to its apparent result in strengthening sympathetic-parasympathetic balance (Peper, Harvey, Lin, Tylova, & Moss, 2007). Achieving an increased HRV while doing ISF training should be a good indicator of firstly reaching clients Optimum Frequency (OF) and secondly achieving a sympathetic-parasympathetic balance (Camp, Remus, Kalburgi, Porterfield, & Johnson, 2012;Collura, 2014). This study hypothesizes that ISF training has a measurable physiological effect on an individual by measuring certain autonomic functions; namely, HRV, muscle tension, skin temperature, skin conductance, heart rate, respiration rate, and blood pressure. ...
... (2) EEG parameters: The BrainAvatar analysis (BrainMaster) was used to analyze EEG raw signals by visual inspection in a 10-s window, and delete eye blink and movement artifacts. This study used joint timefrequency analysis to analyze absolute EEG power into the following bands: total alpha (8-12 Hz) and total beta (12-32 Hz) at Fz, Cz, and Pz, which were subsequently transformed to relative EEG (Collura, 2014). ...
Cardiorespiratory synchronization training (CRST) uses diaphragmatic breathing to increase balance in the autonomic nervous system and reduce negative emotions. CRST integrated with high-technology mobile applications affords innovative and convenient home-based training. This study examined the effects of a CRST mobile application on heart rate variability (HRV) and electroencephalography (EEG) parameters in healthy adults. Ninety-six participants were randomly assigned to the CRST, relaxation training (RT; active control group), and control (C) groups. The CRST group received paced breathing training using a wearable device connected to a mobile application and received feedback on the HRV indices. The RT group received muscle relaxation training using a wearable device connected to a mobile application and received feedback on heart rate (HR). The training program was conducted for 1 h per week for 4 weeks. The C group did not receive any wearable device, mobile application, or psychological intervention. Psychological questionnaires on depression and anxiety and physiological measurements of the breathing rates, electrocardiography (ECG), and EEG were measured at the pretest and posttest. The CRST group showed significantly higher HRV indices and lower breathing rates at the posttest than the RT and C groups. There were no significant interaction effects on EEG parameters at pretest and posttest among the three groups. Use of a CRST mobile application increased balance in the autonomic nervous system at the resting state. This clinical evidence-based technologically advanced mobile application could be implemented in future clinical practice.
... This occurs within an operant conditioning framework, which involves considerable time and effort. 51 As an alternative to the traditional approach, pulsed lowenergy systems have evolved over the years. Among the first was an EEG-Driven Stimulation system that involved subliminal flashing lights presented to individuals through goggles. ...
Research regarding noninvasive brain stimulation technologies for the treatment of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and mixed (mTBI/PTSD) trauma syndromes has been increasing exponentially. Technologies with the greatest potential thus far include repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES). The nature and some of the controversies distinguishing mTBI, PTSD, and mTBI/PTSD are reviewed along with evidence for shared underlying mechanisms. An overview of treatment applications for rTMS, tDCS, and CES are also reviewed. A novel variant of a minute pulsed electromagnetic stimulation technology linked to ongoing electroencephalograph monitoring known as the Flexyx Neurotherapy System is introduced with an overview of the technology and technique, as well as a summary of supportive data to date that explores potential applications for amelioration of these syndromes.
Objective. Electroencephalographic neurofeedback (EEG NF) or its effects on event-related potentials (ERPs) in quantitative EEG have not yet been systematically studied in cancer patients. The aim of this study was to investigate the emotional arousal and valence effects on the event-related P300 in a visual oddball paradigm by an individualized EEG alpha and theta/beta NF intervention in cancer patients and survivors ( N = 18, age between 31 and 73 years). Methods. ERPs to low and high arousal target stimuli with either emotional positive or negative content and depressive state were obtained in cancer patients before and after a five-week NF intervention in a waitlist paradigm, following the consensus on the reporting and experimental design of clinical and cognitive-behavioral NF studies (CRED-nf checklist). Results. Overall, P300 amplitudes decreased significantly ( p < .05) from pre to post therapy. Effects concerning high arousal stimuli with negative and positive valences were on the border to significance. Moreover, patients achieved significant relief of depressive symptoms ( p < .05). Especially younger participants (<55 yrs.) benefited. Conclusions. P300 observations could reflect a therapeutic effect on brain activity level. EEG NF alleviates depressive symptoms in cancer patients. Significance. Based on these findings, further studies are needed to investigate the effects on event-related potentials by NF therapy.
Treatment Rationale: Exposure to repeated sexual trauma, particularly during childhood, often leads to protracted mental health problems. Childhood adversity is specifically associated with complex posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) presentation, which is particularly tenacious and treatment refractory, and features severe emotion dysregulation. Augmentation approaches have been suggested to enhance treatment efficacy in PTSD thus integrating first-line psychotherapy with mechanistically informed self-neuromodulation procedures (i.e. neurofeedback) may pave the way to enhanced clinical outcomes. A central neural mechanism of PTSD and emotion dysregulation involves amygdala hyperactivity that can be volitionally regulated by neurofeedback. We outline a treatment rationale that includes a detailed justification for the potential of combining psychotherapy and NF and delineate mechanisms of change. We illustrate key processes of reciprocal interactions between neurofeedback engagement and therapeutic goals.
Case Study: We describe a clinical case of a woman with complex PTSD due to early and repetitive childhood sexual abuse using adjunctive neurofeedback as an augmentation to an ongoing, stable, traditional treatment plan. The woman participated in (a) ten sessions of neurofeedback by the use of an fMRI-inspired EEG model of limbic related activity (Amygdala Electrical-Finger-Print; AmygEFP-NF), (b) traditional weekly individual psychotherapy, (c) skills group. Before and after NF training period patient was blindly assessed for PTSD symptoms, followed by a 1, 3- and 6-months self-report follow-up. We demonstrate mechanisms of change as well as the clinical effectiveness of adjunctive treatment as indicated by reduced PTSD symptoms and improved daily functioning within this single case.
Conclusions: We outline an integrative neuropsychological framework for understanding the unique mechanisms of change conferring value to conjoining NF applications with trauma-focused psychotherapy in complex PTSD.
Removal of the mesial temporal lobe (MTL) is an established surgical procedure that leads to seizure freedom in patients with intractable MTL epilepsy; however, it carries the potential risk of memory damage. Neurofeedback (NF), which regulates brain function by converting brain activity into perceptible information and providing feedback, has attracted considerable attention in recent years for its potential as a novel complementary treatment for many neurological disorders. However, no research has attempted to artificially reorganize memory functions by applying NF before resective surgery to preserve memory functions. Thus, this study aimed (1) to construct a memory NF system that used intracranial electrodes to feedback neural activity on the language-dominant side of the MTL during memory encoding and (2) to verify whether neural activity and memory function in the MTL change with NF training. Two intractable epilepsy patients with implanted intracranial electrodes underwent at least five sessions of memory NF training to increase the theta power in the MTL. There was an increase in theta power and a decrease in fast beta and gamma powers in one of the patients in the late stage of memory NF sessions. NF signals were not correlated with memory function. Despite its limitations as a pilot study, to our best knowledge, this study is the first to report that intracranial NF may modulate neural activity in the MTL, which is involved in memory encoding. The findings provide important insights into the future development of NF systems for the artificial reorganization of memory functions.
In diesem Kapitel werden die Grundlagen des Elektroenzephalogramms (EEG) besprochen, um die nachfolgenden Neurofeedback-Techniken besser verstehen und einordnen zu können. Es wird dargestellt, wie kortikale Schichten der Großhirnrinde das EEG-Signal erzeugen und welche Arten von neuronaler Aktivität existieren. Dabei werden die Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede zwischen spontaner und evozierter Gehirnaktivität ausführlich erläutert. Neben dem normalen EEG, welches die Grundlage für die typischen EEG-Frequenzen bildet, wird das DC-EEG und dessen neurophysiologischen Grundlagen thematisiert. Zu jeder Form der Gehirnaktivität werden die Zusammenhänge und Befunde hinsichtlich der ADHS besprochen. Im letzten Drittel des Kapitels wird der Fokus auf die elektrotechnischen Eigenschaften der Signalverarbeitung des EEG-Signals gelegt. Der Leser bekommt einen Überblick darüber, wie die Umwandlung eines analogen in ein digitales Signal erfolgt, und wie verschiedene Maße wie Frequenz, Kohärenz und Phase digital gefiltert und verarbeitet werden. Zudem wird der Unterschied zwischen absoluter und relativer Power erläutert.
This dissertation, after a critical review of the extant neurofeedback training (NFT) literature in sport, has identified some evidence for NFT as an approach that should enhance sporting performance in some circumstances; however, this evidence is on shaky grounds. A subsequent study tested the effectiveness of NFT on attention and reaction time of athletes, but found a smaller effect than what was found in the literature. This dissertation also highlights the debates on NFT and its effectiveness, and offers a solution by developing an allostasis four-stage model of NFT.
The field of neurofeedback training (NFT) has seen growing interest and an expansion of scope, resulting in a steadily increasing number of publications addressing different aspects of NFT. This development has been accompanied by a debate about the underlying mechanisms and expected outcomes. Recent developments in the understanding of psychophysiological regulation have cast doubt on the validity of control systems theory, the principal framework traditionally used to characterize NFT. The present article reviews the theoretical and empirical aspects of NFT and proposes a predictive framework based on the concept of allostasis. Specifically, we conceptualize NFT as an adaptation to changing contingencies. In an allostasis four-stage model, NFT involves (a) perceiving relations between demands and set-points, (b) learning to apply collected patterns (experience) to predict future output, (c) determining efficient set-points, and (d) adapting brain activity to the desired (“set”) state. This model also identifies boundaries for what changes can be expected from a neurofeedback intervention and outlines a time frame for such changes to occur.
This report describes the scientific, technical, and clinical bases for the use of quantitative EEG (QEEG) in the assessment of clients and in treatment monitoring. Specific attention is directed toward the use of normative databases and z-scores as a form of standardized referencing for reporting and training purposes. Normative databases have general value and are of particular value when connectivity metrics are being used. It is shown that the use of z = 0 as an average over time corresponds to a state of optimum flexibility, adaptability, and readiness. The use of the inverse solution (LORETA) methods is also described, as well as use of those methods within the QEEG and normative model. Advantages as well as shortcomings of this approach are described and discussed.
This report describes and briefly characterizes a method for computing quantitative EEG (qEEG) z-scores based on a modification of the typical methods used for qEEG reporting.In particular, it describes using a sample of EEG from a single individual, and creating a reference database from the individual sample, in contrast to using
a population of individuals as the source data. The goal of this method is to quantify and localize within-subject changes that may arise due
to time or various factors. We refer to this approach as “z-builder,” because the z-score reference is constructed or “built” on a per-
subject basis in the office or laboratory and is not derived from
a reference obtained from an outside source. It is confirmed that z-
scores for EEG acquired during a test period can be calculated based on a single previously recorded reference sample from an individual, and that the resulting z-scores obey the expected statistical distribution.Reference data can be calculated using samples in the 1-to 5-minute range, and subsequent static or dynamic
z-scores for a test sample can then be computed using this reference data in lieu of a population database. It is confirmed that, in the absence of systematic change in the EEG, z-scores generally fall well within the range of 1.0, providing a sensitive indicator when
changes do occur. It is shown that this method has value in assessing individual stability of EEG parameters and for quantifying changes that may occur due to time effects, aging, disorders, medications, or interventions.
Purpose:
The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of neurofeedback training for reducing stress and enhancing self-regulation in late adolescence to identify the possibility of use for nursing intervention.
Methods:
A nonequivalent control group pre-post quasi-experimental design was used. Participants were 78 late adolescents assigned to the experimental group (n=39) that received the neurofeedback training and the control group (n=39). Data were collected on heart rate variability (HRV) and skin conductance level (SCL) to assess stress-biomarker response. The questionnaire contained 164 items from: Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R) and Self-regulatory Ability scale. The neurofeedback training was based on the general adaptation syndrome and body-mind medicine. The intervention was conducted in a total of 10 sessions for 30 minutes per session with high-beta, theta and sensory motor rhythm training on scalp at central zero.
Results:
There were significant difference in standard deviation of normal to normal interval (p=.036) in HRV and SCL (p=.029) of stress-biomarker response between the two groups. Negative affect (p=.036) in PANAS and obsessive compulsive (p=.023) and depression (p<.001) in SCL-90-R were statistically significant. Self-regulation mode (p=.004) in self-regulation ability scale showed a significant difference between the two groups.
Conclusion:
The results indicated that the neurofeedback training is effective in stress-biomarkers, psychoemotional stress response and self-regulation. Therefore, neurofeedback training using neuroscientific approach based on brain-mind-body model can be used as an effective nursing intervention for late adolescents in clinics and communities for effective stress responses.
This article discusses the relevance of quantitative EEG (QEEG) and live z-score training (LZT) to the field of mental health in general, and to neurofeedback in particular. We examine what practitioners might learn about clients when QEEG is used for assessment, and the relevance of LZT as a treatment modality. Clinicians can benefit from viewing the brain as a dynamic system, and this point of view can provide a foundation for QEEG and LZT. This approach emphasizes understanding the value of brain activation as a basis for observed symptoms and behaviors. Of paramount importance are localization and frequency information, as well as connectivity metrics. The brain can be viewed as a complex self-controlled system operating with various identifiable networks and frequencies that, when dysregulated, produce what we commonly refer to as “disorders.”
Heart rate variability (HRV) is a critical marker of a healthy organism. Low HRV predicts greater morbidity and mortality after heart attack, and also predicts death by all causes. HRV biofeedback can increase the adaptive and coherent variability in heart rate, and moderate the symptoms of asthma, COPD, and other autonomically mediated medical conditions. Diaphragmatic breathing, cognitive relaxation, and positive emotion are conducive to optimal increases in HRV.
A study of three dancers was conducted to assess the results of neurofeedback on performance anxiety. Prior to undergoing neurofeedback, each subject completed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Test (STAI) in order to ascertain whether they had a reportable level of anxiety. The STAI clearly differentiates between the temporary condition of state anxiety and the more general and long-standing quality of trait anxiety. The STAI was also administered prior to the start of each neurofeedback session and before each significant dance performance or audition. During the course of the study the subjects also underwent 20 neurofeedback treatment sessions of 30 minutes each. Two of the three subjects completed the study and for each the results indicated a reduction in anxiety levels over the course of treatment.
Recently, audio-visual stimulation (AVS) has been proposed to be effective as an adjunct to EEG biofeedback (neurofeedback) therapy, when used as a “priming stimulus” to activate desired cortical frequencies. Since standard neurofeedback therapies for ADD/HD involve training subjects to enhance activity in the 13-21 Hz bandpass, we hypothesized that this activity could also be enhanced by AVS at a constant frequency in this range. Further, we hypothesized that auditory or visual stimulation alone might induce an entrainment effect. EEG was recorded from fifteen college students under the following conditions: (A) auditory stimulation alone, with eyes open; (B) auditory stimulation alone, with eyes closed; (C) visual stimulation alone, with eyes closed; (D) both auditory and visual stimulation, with eyes closed. An eyes-closed and eyes-open baseline condition were recorded prior to the first session. An ANOVA on the differences between the four stimulation conditions and baseline revealed no significant differences between the conditions, so the averages of all four conditions were analyzed as a single group. A significant increase was observed in the 13-21 Hz band (p = 0.045). This increase was of greater magnitude and significance in the narrower, 16-20 Hz band (p = 0.008). When this band was analyzed in half-Hz intervals, a prominent peak was observed at 18.5 Hz (p = 0.001). Applying this same analysis to the individual conditions suggested that the eyes-closed conditions with auditory or visual stimulation alone had more generalized effects throughout the 16-20 Hz band. These results support the hypothesis that AVS entrains endogenous EEG rhythms, and suggest a possible adjunctive role for AVS in EEG biofeedback therapies. However, the relatively weak generalization to frequencies adjacent to the stimulation frequency suggests that variable-frequency AVS might be more effective at activating the desired range of frequencies within a given bandpass.
Introduction. A patient with severe, medication resistant depression was found to have the frontal alpha asymmetry described in Davidson's (1998a) research as demonstrating a predisposition to depression.Treatment. Initial sessions of EEG neurofeedback using Rosenfeld's (1997) protocol for correcting the alpha asymmetry were discouraging, actually producing slight negative change. Therefore, treatment shifted to using the Roshi, a two channel unit combining neurofeedback and photic stimulation, doing primarily left hemisphere beta training.Results. The very first Roshi session produced positive changes, and within five sessions the patient reported feeling less depressed and more energetic. At the conclusion of thirty training sessions, objective testing documented dramatic reductions in depression, somatic symptoms, overemotionality, anxiety, rumination, and fatigue.Discussion. In support of Henriques and Davidson's (1991) belief that hypoactivation of the left hemisphere results in an “approach deficit” and more withdrawal behavior, post-testing and interview data also documented that the patient had become less withdrawn, more active, sociable, and less distrustful. Eight and one-half month follow-up documented maintenance of changes. Continued exploration of left hemisphere beta protocols in treating depression, and of the combined use of neurofeedback with photic stimulation are encouraged.
Background. Quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) databases have been developed for the eyes closed (EC) condition. The development of a cognitive activation database is a logical and necessary development for the field.
Method. Brain activation was examined by QEEG during several tasks including EC rest, visual attention (VA), auditory attention (AA), listening to paragraphs presented auditorily and reading silently. The QEEG measures obtained in the EC and simple, non-cognitive attention task that were significantly related to subsequent cognitive performance were not the same variables which accounted for success during the cognitive task.
Results. There were clear differences between relative power, microvolt, coherence and phase values across these different tasks.
Conclusions. The conclusions reached are (1) the associations among QEEG variables are complex and vary by task; (2) the QEEG variables which predict cognitive performance under task demands are not the same as the variables which predict to subsequent performance from the EC or simple, non-cognitive attention tasks; (3) a cognitive activation database is clinically useful; and (4) an hypothesis of brain functioning is proposed to explain the findings. The coordinated allocation of resources (CAR) hypothesis states that cognitive effectiveness is a product of multiple specific activities in the brain, which vary according to the task; and (5) the average response pattern does not involve the variables that are critical to success at the task, thus indicating an inefficiency of the normal human brain.
Live Z-score neurofeedback training introduces operant conditioning based on
simultaneously meeting multiple quantitative EEG-based conditions related to
power, dispersion (amplitude asymmetry), coherence, and phase1. While it’s
possible to train only one or two criteria the greater strength of the approach lies
in being able to train tens, hundreds, or even thousands of criteria
simultaneously. In taking multi-threshold training to a quantitatively new level Zscore
training suggests we examine the space of the brain’s electrical activity.
This article develops a picture of this space with the object of coming to a better
understanding of how we learn, and how we might help the brain adjust itself.
The study of neurofeedback and neuromodulation offer a window into brain physiology and function, suggesting innovative approaches to the improvement of attention, anxiety, pain, mood and behavior. Resources for understanding what Neurofeedback and neuromodulation are, how they are used, and to what disorders and patients they can be applied are scarce, and this volume serves as an ideal tool for clinical researchers and practicing clinicians in both neuroscience and psychology, to understand techniques, analysis, and their applications to specific patient populations and disorders. The top scholars in the field have been enlisted and contributions offer both the breadth needed for an introductory scholar and the depth desired by a clinical professional. Includes the practical application of techniques to use with patients Includes integration of neurofeedback with neuromodulation techniques Discusses what the technique is, for which disorders it is effective, and the evidence basis behind its use Written at an appropriate level for clinicians and researchers.
This chapter focuses on reactive attachment disorder (RAD), a condition of unremitting terror that disrupts the development of the self and renders “the other” unrecognizable. Empathy and trust cannot emerge. It is a disorder that has been refractory to treatment as it has been all but impossible to address the psychic programing of fear and distrust with standard psychotherapy. This chapter argues that neurofeedback can and does rewrite this program, first in the brain and, over time, in the mind. RAD can be seen as a discrete diagnosis. However, as attachment dynamics and their effects on brain development are better understood, it is becoming increasingly clear that early unrepaired attachment disruption is implicated in a wide range of severe disorders. It is a central premise of this chapter that where attachment issues prevail, the core affect is fear. Neurofeedback quiets fear. In doing so, it enriches the capacity for attachment and the ability to engage in meaningful relationships, including psychotherapy. It may be possible to generalize the efficacy of neurofeedback, then, in enhancing the treatment of any disorder that has attachment disruption at its root and fear as its aftermath. Attachment theory and the imperative of attachment in human beings offer practitioners a central ethical principle to guide their practice. Neurofeedback providers must understand the primacy and process of attachment, assess for attachment breaks, and pursue the repair of attachment. Through neuronal regulation, neurofeedback has the potential to promote the human birthright of attachment, love, empathy and trust.
Excerpt
The analysis of the action potential of the axon, especially as regards the spike, describes quite completely and accurately the phasic, all-or-none, aspects of the electrical activity of the axon. Since the recent work of Gasser and his associates (1) on after-potentials and the work of Levin (2) and Furusawa (3) on the retention of negativity in crustacean axons, more attention has been directed to a different type of electrical change in the axon occurring as a result of its activity. This slow summated depolarization which does not behave in an all-or-none manner, and which is very slow in recovery compared to the spike and negative after-potential, represents the more “tonic” change in the steady state of the axon, a process with which we are greatly concerned in any discussion of the electrical activity of the central nerve cells. There is some evidence from the work of Monnier and Jasper...
Human steady-state visual and auditory evoked potentials were measured during a sequence of visual and auditory discrimination tasks requiring attention, and the detection of just-noticeable differences in stimulus intensity. Both stimuli were always present, and visual and auditory evoked potentials were measured simultaneously. Evoked potentials were measured by synchronous filtering of the EEG at the stimulus fundamental and its first harmonic. The experiment alternated visual and auditory discrimination tasks in a manner designed to demonstrate the effects of attention shifts, separate from changes in general alertness or arousal. Confirming prior studies, auditory evoked potentials were found to be insensitive to directed attention shifts. However, visual evoked potential correlates of directed attention were found in some subjects. Considerable inter-subject variability was found, suggesting differences in cognitive style or strategies during the task. This method appears to be useful in studying short-term effects in evoked potentials as a function of attention, alertness, and time effects.
Research demonstrates that individuals can learn to voluntarily alter and control the frequency of their brain wave activity resulting in a normalization of brainwave patterns and improved functioning. A problem is the length and intensity of training time required to bring about these changes. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if regular and sustained auditory and visual stimulation would bring about neurodevelopmental growth as reflected in increasedI Q scores, achievement test scores, and self-control in learning disabled boys. Results suggest significant improvement following this training and that longer training time results in greater improvement. An innovative and inexpensive procedure that may improve student's school performance and behavior is the focus of this pilot study. Previous studies have shown that auditory or visual stimulation has a powerful effect on the frequency activity of the brain. It has been shown that rhythmic sound waves entering the ears results in a phenomenon called "entrainment" whereby brain waves match and resonate at the same frequency as the stimulating audio frequency. In auditory entrainment, the hemispheres of the brain produce symmetrical brain waves highly similar in frequency, amplitude, phase, and coherence. Entrainment to visual rather than to auditory stimulation occurs when rhythmic lights flashed into a subject's eyes cause the brain wave pattern of the entire cortex to fall into the same frequency as the flickering light. Electroencephalograph (EEG) studies have demonstrated that significant targeted behavioral changes occur as a result of the challenge and stimulation of intensive EEG training. Other studies suggest that individuals with epilepsy have reduced seizure activity by learning to regulate their brain wave activity (Sterman & Friar, 1972, Lubar, 198 1). Cunningham (198 1) reported increased math and reading scores as well as increased self-control in children following EEG biofeedback training; and Lubar (1985) demonstrated significantly improved academic performance in learning disabled students. Both Carter and Russell (1981, 1992) and Tansey (1984, 1990) investigated the effects of EEG biofeedback training with learning disabled boys and found that the children made significant gains on their IQ scores. In a related series of investigations, Diamond (1988) has shown that environmental stimulation in rats increased dendritic growth which resulted in improved performance on tasks such as maze learning and memory. Although there is considerable evidence that visual and auditory entrainment is a replicable physical phenomenon, there have been no quantitative studies on the possible effects on behavior and brain functioning of sustained visual and auditory entrainment. The present study focused on the effects of synchronized visual and auditory stimulation on the academic and behavioral functioning of learning disabled boys. Following auditory and visual stimulation entrainment training, it was hypothesized that elementary-aged learning disabled boys would show improvement in these areas: Verbal and nonverbal IQ; reading, spelling, and arithmetic; and self-control behavior as rated by teachers and parents.
Schizophrenics and controls participated in functional MRI (fMRI) and event-related potential (ERP) experiments, in which they viewed a face, eyes and moving eyes. Low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (LORETA) was reconstructed using ERPs. In fRMI, controls exhibited more eminent activations for the face in the fusiform gyrus and superior temporal gyrus bilaterally than did schizophrenics. For eyes, controls exhibited more prominent activations in the left inferior temporal gyrus and fusiform gyrus than did schizophrenics. In controls, moving eyes activated the posterior portion of the superior temporal region and transverse temporal gyrus right-dominantly or the middle and inferior occipital gyrus bilaterally. In contrast, schizophrenics tended to have greater activation in the left amygdala than controls. In LORETA, controls exhibited greater current density for the static face in the right middle temporal gyrus than did patients. In contrast, patients showed greater current density for the static eyes in the left insula. Furthermore, patients showed greater current density for moving eyes to the left in the left insula. Overactivation for eyes or moving eyes in the amygdala, insula, or extrastriate cortex observed in patients might indicate their hypersensitivity in the processing of feature details before processing the gestalt of the face or facial expression as a whole, which might be implicated in their deficits in interpersonal skills or in the formation of a variety of their clinical manifestations.
This study tested a 15-session electroencephalograph (EEG) driven photic stimulation neural training procedure designed to enhance the regulation of brain wave activity and thus improve cognitive functioning in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) children. The subjects (N=25) were 8-14 year old children of intact families and were screened by a developmental pediatrician for other DSM-4 diagnoses and medical conditions. Some of the subjects were medicated and some were not. A quasi-experimental waiting control group design was used with repeated psychometric tests consisting of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Third Edition (WISC-3), Raven Progressive Matrices (RPM), Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT), Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist and Profiles (CBCL-P), the computerized performance Test of Variables of Attention (T.O.V.A.), and two separate EEG measures. No significant changes were noted in any waiting period control group tests. Experimental results revealed highly significant (P< 05 two-tailed) EEG changes, improvements in the WISC-3 processing speed and freedom from distractibility scales, WIAT, CBCL-P, and T.O.V.A. fourth quarter commission error test scores. The results of this study are encouraging. The primary goal was accomplished and the hypotheses were supported by the data. Further study is indicated to explore the effects of longer treatment courses, different training goals, and better data procurement procedures using outcome measures of EEG variability coupled with successful psychometric performance.
Background. The purpose of this study was to determine the validity of Low Resolution Electromagnetic Tomography (LORETA) in visualizing limbic structures and possibly identifying electroencephalographic (EEG) frequencies in the limbic region during an anger memory recall process.Method. This study was conducted with twelve subjects, non-clinical students at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. A pre-study screening was conducted. Eyes-open baselines were obtained employing 300 epochs, or five minutes, using a 19-channel quantitative electroencephalographic (qEEG) acquisition system with linked ear reference. The experimental condition recording directly followed an eyes-open baseline. The experimental condition was to allocate a memory that created intense anger and retain the state as long as possible. All files were no less than 100 total epochs upon editing. The data were analyzed in both individual and group conditions with LORETA imaging software. Statistical differences between conditions were evaluated for significance, then computed and transformed into LORETA images.Results. The data revealed significant differences between the anger condition and baseline recordings in limbic structures and frontal regions. The data suggests that limbic lobe and hippocampal activity can be recorded and visualized using LORETA during affective memory recall. There are several notable differences between the baseline and condition images. One of the more interesting of these differences is possible activation of the amygdala, uncinate gyrus and surrounding structures in the beta (12–32 Hz) frequencies. The hemispheric asymmetries during anger memory recall offer further support for the lateralization of hemispheric activity relating to affective states.Conclusion. LORETA may be an effective method used to differentiate and visualize limbic lobe, hippocampal formation and other related structures during affective anger memory recall.
Background. Previous research on information processing by the primate brain prompted further investigation of phase synchronized alpha brain wave activity at five loci in humans. The results of this investigation indicated that a particular form of attention was associated with production of whole brain synchrony.Method. Patients were treated with a dual approach, a systematic program of attention training coupled with the regular practice of multi channel alpha phase synchrony training. One hundred thirty-two clinical patients were treated for a variety of stress related symptom categories by six therapists in different locations. Patients were rated for symptom intensity, frequency and duration.Results. It was found that learning to develop this particular form of attention, coupled with the regular practice of multi-channel alpha phase synchrony were effective in resolving many common stress related disorders. Analysis of 132 cases using this dual approach found that more than 90 percent of the patients reported an alleviation of symptoms. These positive results were found with stress-induced headache, joint pain, and gastrointestinal disease.Conclusion. The authors propose that there exists a common mechanism operating in these widely different successful applications; to wit, attentional flexibility, which is achieved through systematic practice of audio taped attention exercises and neurofeedback phase synchrony training. Patients who participated in this program generally reported experiencing a release from their symptoms and from emotional conditioned responses in favor of more flexibility and more stable homeostasis. The significance of this “release experience” is discussed and attention-neurofeedback training is compared to other interventions, which rely exclusively on peripheral modalities of biofeedback training.
Neurofeedback techniques are used as treatment for a variety of psychological disorders, including attention deficit disorder, dissociative identity disorder, depression, drug and alcohol abuse, and brain injury. Resources for understanding what the technique is, how it is used, and to what disorders and patients it can be applied are scarce. This book will be of interest to practicing clinicians and clinical psychologists in independent practice and hospital settings. It provides an introduction to neurofeedback/neurotherapy techniques. The book details advantages of quantitative EEG over other systems like PET and SPECT. It gives details of QEEG procedures and typical measures, and describes QEEG databases available for reference. The book also recommends protocols for specific disorders and patient populations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Combined treatment studies with functional imaging to compare changes that occur with different types of antidepressant treatment including ECT, pharmacotherapy, sleep deprivation therapy, and light therapy for seasonal affective disorder. ECT-induced seizures appear to increase cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral metabolic rate. Pharmacotherapy may increase blood flow or metabolism in the basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex, and/or cingulate cortex. Studies of Ss using sleep deprivation therapy suggest a higher baseline level of CBF or metabolism in limbic structures, particularly in the anterior cingulate gyrus. Light therapy appears to reduce or disintegrate the number of hypometabolic and hypermetabolic abnormalities noted before the treatment, but only very small sample sizes have been tested. The greatest advances in functional brain imaging studies of antidepressant treatment have been made in ECT and pharmacotherapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Very slow oscillations (5-8 c/min) were observed in the scalp potential of ten normal awake humans, ages 21-40, who were sitting quietly with eyes open. The oscillations were sometimes nearly in phase with slow, spontaneous breathing but continued during breath holding. The wave form was nearly sinusoidal but waxed and waned in amplitude, having a 50-75 μV peak-to-peak amplitude for continuous wave trains. They were observed in left-to-right occiput, left occiput-to-neck, and vertex-to-right mastoid potentials. The occurrence of the very slow oscillations was unpredictable. Sometimes a subject who did not show any slow waves during one recording session would exhibit them almost continuously in another recording. On the average the wave trains were present about 15% of the time. No stimuli or mental activity were found to affect the onset or termination of these waves. Possible sources of the very slow oscillations are discussed.
A technique of muscular relaxation based on the combination of auditory stimulation and electromyographic biofeedback was applied to thirty-three patients with bruxism and myofascial pain-dysfunction syndrome (MPD syndrome), with successful results in the treatment of this pathologic condition. The pathogenic factors are discussed as well as the results obtained throughout the sessions, analyzing at rest integrated electromyographic recordings, and evolution of the symptoms.
Seventy-one patients with recurrent migraine headaches, aged 17–62, from one neurological practice, completed a quantitative electroencephalogram (QEEG) procedure. All QEEG results indicated an excess of high-frequency beta activity (21–30 Hz) in 1–4 cortical areas. Forty-six of the 71 patients selected neurofeedback training while the remaining 25 chose to continue on drug therapy. Neurofeedback protocols consisted of reducing 21–30 Hz activity and increasing 10 Hz activity (5 sessions for each affected site). All the patients were classified as migraine without aura.
For the neurofeedback group the majority (54%) experienced complete cessation of their migraines, and many others (39%) experienced a reduction in migraine frequency of greater than 50%. Four percent experienced a decrease in headache frequency of <50%. Only one patient did not experience a reduction in headache frequency.
The control group of subjects who chose to continue drug therapy as opposed to neurofeedback experienced no change in headache frequency (68%), a reduction of less than 50% (20%), or a reduction greater than 50% (8%).
QEEG-guided neurofeedback appears to be dramatically effective in abolishing or significantly reducing headache frequency in patients with recurrent migraine.
(1) The interhemispheric amplitude correlations of the fundamental (A1) and second harmonic (A2) components of responses to sine wave modulated light were determined in the occipital, parietal and temporal scalp areas of a group of normal subjects and a group of patients with unilateral irritative EEG phenomena. The interhemispheric amplitude correlation was computed at 10- and 16-c/sec stimulation frequencies and under 3 conditions: no modulation and no attention (M−, A−), modulation 30%, and no attention (M+, A−) and modulation 30% and attention (M+, A+). The correlations were expressed in the rank correlation coefficient of Kendall (rK).
A two step procedure is described for measuring the characteristics of visual evoked brain potentials. First, the recorded waveforms are processed by a filter designed to minimize the mean square error produced by the ongoing EEG. This filter is different for each subject and is based on certain statistical properties of the measured data. Second, the filtered potentials are searched automatically by a computer to determine the existence and location of the individual components in the responses. By aligning the corresponding components in different waveforms and averaging over the waveform segment in the immediate vicinity of the peak, a latency corrected average is obtained that provides a new representation of the response waveform.
Methods for obtaining multimodality evoked potentials, somatosensory, visual, auditory, and auditory brain-stem potentials in patients with severe head trauma are described. A method of analyzing abnormal multimodality evoked potentials (graded evoked brain-injury potentials) is proposed that defines the degree of abnormality of the electrophysiological data and expresses it simply in four grades per modality. Data from 20 normal subjects are given for comparison with the abnormal data obtained from 51 patients with head trauma.
Human evoked-potential research on the neurophysiological substrate of selective attention is reviewed. Most of these studies report enhanced amplitudes of potentials evoked by attended (task-relevant, meaningful, important, etc.) stimuli the results of which are generally regarded as providing an electrophysiological correlate for selective attention. In accepting such claims, there appears to be two major procedural problems generally not satisfactorily solved in these studies: (1) the inability to reliably separate the specific and non-specific physiological changes concomitant with selective attention from each other; and (2) inadequacy of peripheral sensory control possibly inducing contaminating changes already at the level of the proximal stimulus. Problem (1) originates from, and the importance of (2) is emphasized by, the temporal stimulus structure of experimental tasks in these studies which allows the subject to predict above the chance level the relevant events and, thus, to differentially prepare himself for these in advance (increased non-specific arousal and selective peripheral sensory orientation, the latter often made possible by insufficient control, have possibly been among these changes). Those studies to which these two (and other) remarks do not apply at all or only to an insignificant degree have generally shown no selective evoked-potential changes (or these changes have occurred only with a long latency ('P3' or 'P300') making their interpretation especially uncertain). There is one exception for this general notion, the reasons for and significance of which are dealt with in detail. Finally, the difficulties and inherent limitations of inferring brain events from scalp-recorded evoked-potential data, especially with respect to the important selective-filter hypothesis of selective attention, are extensively discussed and, in the light of these difficulties, some trends for future research proposed.
This report describes the objectives, problems, and current techniques associated with using EEG maps in the management of surgery of epilepsy. The purpose of EEG mapping in epilepsy is to precisely identify and characterize epileptogenic zones of the brain. Such zones may be single or multiple, pointlike or diffuse, and may be near or distant from the recording electrodes. The resulting measured electric fields are used to obtain information which, when analyzed in light of all the complementary clinical information, can frequently help to localize and describe the epileptic foci with more precision.
It is shown that EEG visual evoked potentials elicited by repetitive stimuli in the range of 2 to 20 per second can be readily estimated in real time using a simple filtering approach. This measurement takes advantage of the fact that a comb filter will pass the important Fourier harmonics of the signal to provide an estimate of the evoked activity, plus track time-variations in the signal. Results on human subjects demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach.
Roles of tradition, convenience, and noise or artifact rejection are discussed with regard to the monopolar versus bipolar electrode placement controversy in electroencephalography (EEG). Particular emphasis is placed on the relevance to biofeedback. The crucial interactions between the differential amplifier, brain waves, and monopolar/bipolar placements are discussed. Through logical analysis and empirical observation, it is demonstrated how the very nature of the EEG's differential amplifiers must destroy those elements of brain activity which are common to the recording electrodes. Controlled experiments further illustrate the critical importance of electrode placements. Various methods, including preferred electrode placements, are presented to help resolve recording problems that frequently arise. It is concluded that there are serious implications for researchers, EEG clinicians, biofeedback providers, and their clients in preferring one type of electrode placement technique over the other. EEG recording accuracy is affected by this choice.
An assessment of the technique of eliciting VERs with rapid rates of stimulation has revealed that differences in evoked response due to stimulus parameters may be minimized under these conditions. The probable reason is that addition of ongoing activity from one flash to that elicited by another occurs; this addition can obscure or enhance wave form differences present in the complete evoked response. A comparison of visual-evoked responses (VERs) to rapid flash rates which were empirically determined with VERs synthesized from a linear addition of the first two segments of the complete evoked response reveals a rather remarkable agreement in most cases. On the other hand, some failures to predict empirical data in this manner to occur. These failures are not due to temporal variations and their etiology is unknown at this time. Until the electrogenesis of the VER is understood, we conclude the use of both a fast and a slow rate to obtain VERs is a good methodological technique for studying brain functioning.
The effects of shifting attention toward or away from visual or auditory stimuli of varying intensities were studied using average evoked responses (AERs) in 24 normal human volunteers. S s were asked to attend to visual or auditory stimuli of four intensities (randomly presented) or to ignore the lights and tones and do mental arithmetic. For visual stimuli, attentional effects were largest at low intensities whereas for auditory stimuli equal effects were shown across intensities. Similar individual rates of increase of AER amplitude with increasing intensity were observed for both visual and auditory stimuli when attentional conditions were controlled.
These results suggest that some general intensity processing response is reflected in the AER and that it is important to control attention in AER experiments.
Human subjects were asked to perform a task while recordings were made of the electrical activity of the right masseter muscle. The task apparatus consisted of a series of lamps illuminated in random order, and a button panel. The subjects were asked to press the buttons to correspond with the lamps illuminated. Recordings made from the muscle during this task showed an increase in electrical activity. The magnitude of this increase was related to the number of errors made by the subject. Muscle activity with similar characteristics has been shown by earlier workers to occur elsewhere in the body. It is suggested that such psychogenic activity in the masticatory muscles could affect mandibular posture, and the findings reported are discussed in relation to the current hypothesis of the control of mandibular posture.
Recent experiments on animals show the fallacy of an ancient view of the autonomic nervous system.
Stable spike foci generated by weak penicillin solutions had a minimal area of distribution of 12.5 mm2. Two foci separated by 4 mm on the same gyrus were consistently dependent and simultaneous. An area of "positive surround" between the two spikes did not prevent dependency. This contradicts the hypothesis that "positive surround" prevents spreading of epileptiform discharges. Spike foci separated by 6 mm were almost always independent. Bursts of afterdischarges remained independent if the primary spikes were independent. Postafterdischarge suppression and spreading depression of Leao affected independent spike focus selectively. These experiments suggest that cross-talking between cortical columns is limited to column 1 to 2 mm apart.
To clarify the differences of movement-related potentials (MRPs) among ipsilateral, contralateral and simultaneous bilateral movements, MRPs with finger, thumb or foot movements were recorded from subdural electrodes chronically implanted on the supplementary motor area (SMA) in 3 patients, and also from the primary sensorimotor area in two of them being evaluated for epilepsy surgery. As a result: (1) SMA generated clear pre-movement potentials regardless of the type of movement. Its amplitude was almost identical between contralateral and bilateral movements except for the motor potential (MP). The pre-movement potentials associated with ipsilateral movements were relatively smaller than those with contralateral or bilateral movements. (2) The primary sensorimotor area generated clear pre-movement potentials in contralateral and bilateral movements with similar amplitude. With ipsilateral hand movements, however, only a small Bereitschaftspotential (BP) and no negative slope (NS') or MP was seen, and ipsilateral foot movements were not preceded by any BP. It is, therefore, most likely that, as far as the preparation for simple voluntary self-paced movement is concerned, the SMA plays an equally important role in unilateral and bilateral movements, whereas the primary sensorimotor area is involved predominantly in the preparation of contralateral movements.
The neurons of cerebral cortex are largely autonomous and generate activity that is manifested in trains of microscopic axonal action potentials. The neurons interact by sparse but numerous synaptic connections to generate macroscopic dendritic activity patterns that are observed in electroencephalographic (EEG) waves. The macroscopic patterns are constructed by the populations and they shape the output of cortical neurons in parallel arrays. Sensory cortexes receive sensory information in the form of microscopic action potentials, which induce state transitions in population dynamics. Each state transition transforms sensory information to perceptual meaning. The EEG reflects both kinds of activity. The sensory input is accessed by time ensemble averaging, whereas the perceptual output is found by spatial ensemble averaging. Spatial phase gradients in the EEG are useful for identifying EEG segments in a sequence of state transitions in response to sensory input. The rapidity and flexibility with which they take place give strong reason to postulate that the mechanism for the construction of these sequences of patterns is a dynamical system operating in a chaotic domain.
We report on the quantitative analysis of the EEG (QEEG), using the Neurometric method, in large samples of normal elderly; normal subjectively impaired elderly; patients with mild cognitive impairment; patients presenting with a continuum of primary cognitive deterioration from mild to moderately severe as measured by the Global Deterioration Scale (GDS), compatible with dementia of the Alzheimer's type (DAT). Neurometric QEEG measures were found to be a sensitive index of degree of cognitive impairment, especially reflected in increased absolute and relative power in the theta band, with delta increasing in later stages of deterioration. While these abnormalities were widespread, neither localized or lateralized, MANOVA's for GDS and relative power in theta reached highest significance in a bilateral temporo-parietal arc. A possible relationship between hippocampal dysfunction, cognitive deterioration, and theta abnormalities is discussed in relation to these findings. The results suggest that Neurometric QEEG features are sensitive to the earliest presence of subjective cognitive dysfunction and might be useful in the initial evaluation of patients with suspected dementia, as well as in estimating the degree of cognitive deterioration in DAT patients.
We describe a workstation-based EEG viewer that satisfies the requirements for high-volume clinical EEG review. It currently supports two 24-h four-bed epilepsy monitoring units and a network of routine, intraoperative, and intensive care monitors, providing paperless review of over 5000 pages/day by a staff of clinical neurophysiologists. The design takes advantage of the development environment, processing and graphics resources, and networking capabilities of high-performance UNIX workstations. The user interface and operational infrastructure have been tailored to the demands of clinical neurophysiologists requiring rapid access to large volumes of EEG waveform data in a large clinical neurophysiology laboratory. This paper describes the functional requirements, system architecture, and implementation details of the current system.
Field potentials associated with the execution of a warned choice Go/No-Go reaction task were recorded from prefrontal supplementary (SMA) and primary motor cortex (MI) by using subdural electrodes in 5 epileptic patients during presurgical evaluation. The choice was between a Go and a No-Go imperative stimulus (S2) in the S1-S2 paradigm. Orbitofrontal and mesial prefrontal areas generated a slow preceding potential before S2 (most likely late CNV), and bilateral mesial prefrontal areas generated a transient potential, most likely related to decision making, upon S2 in both Go and No-Go conditions. In self-paced, repetitive movement, the Bereitschaftspotential was seen only at SMA and MI, but not in the prefrontal area. The present result, therefore, suggests that in humans orbitofrontal and mesial frontal areas play an important role in preparation for cognition and in decision making, whereas SMA and MI do so in motor preparation.
A review is presented of the currently sparse literature about EEG operant conditioning or biofeedback as a treatment to reduce symptomology and patient complaints following a traumatic brain injury. The paper also evaluates the general use of quantitative EEG (QEEG) to assess traumatic brain injury and to facilitate EEG biofeedback treatment. The use of an age matched reference normative QEEG database and QEEG discriminant function are presented as a method to evaluate the nature or neurological basis of a patient's complaints as well as to individualize an efficient and optimal feedback protocol and to help evaluate the efficacy of the biofeedback therapy. Univariate and multivariate statistical issues are discussed, different classes of experimental designs are described and then a "double blind" research study is proposed in an effort to encourage future research in the area of EEG biofeedback for the treatment and rehabilitation of traumatic brain injury.
A general conceptual framework for large-scale neocortical dynamics based on data from many laboratories is applied to a variety of experimental designs, spatial scales, and brain states. Partly distinct, but interacting local processes (e.g., neural networks) arise from functional segregation. Global processes arise from functional integration and can facilitate (top down) synchronous activity in remote cell groups that function simultaneously at several different spatial scales. Simultaneous local processes may help drive (bottom up) macroscopic global dynamics observed with electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG).
A local/global dynamic theory that is consistent with EEG data and the proposed conceptual framework is outlined. This theory is neutral about properties of neural networks embedded in macroscopic fields, but its global component makes several qualitative and semiquantitative predictions about EEG measures of traveling and standing wave phenomena. A more general “metatheory” suggests what large-scale quantitative theories of neocortical dynamics may be like when more accurate treatment of local and nonlinear effects is achieved.
The theory describes the dynamics of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic action fields. EEG and MEG provide large-scale estimates of modulation of these synaptic fields around background levels. Brain states are determined by neuromodulatory control parameters. Purely local states are dominated by local feedback gains and rise and decay times of postsynaptic potentials. Dominant local frequencies vary with brain region. Other states are purely global, with moderate to high coherence over large distances. Multiple global mode frequencies arise from a combination of delays in corticocortical axons and neocortical boundary conditions. Global frequencies are identical in all cortical regions, but most states involve dynamic interactions between local networks and the global system. EEG frequencies may involve a “matching” of local resonant frequencies with one or more of the many, closely spaced global frequencies.