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Third turn position in teacher talk: Contingency and the work of teaching

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Abstract

As part of the familiar three-turn sequence in pedagogical discourse, the third turn position in classroom talk is considered to play an important role in giving feedback on second turn answers produced by the students. The prior literature relies on functional categories to explain the relationship between teachers' third turn moves and student learning and yet, their analyses often take for granted the local exigencies embedded in the three-turn sequence. In producing the third turn, classroom teachers come to terms with far more local and immediate contingencies than what is projected by blanket terms such as 'evaluation,' 'feedback,' or 'follow-up.' Following Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis, this paper examines and specifies the local contingencies that surround the teacher's third turn in order to bring into view the unforeseen range of the method of actions that teachers display. Based on 46 hours of ESL classroom interactions, several collections of talk exchanges are analyzed to demonstrate how the third turn carries out the contingent task of responding to and acting on the prior turns while moving interaction forward. It is in these procedural aspects of interaction that we find the practical enactment of the classroom teachers' pedagogical work.

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... They involve linguistic and prosodic resources and serve to elicit student participation, provide evaluation, direct student attention, and guide the interactional project. This study explores the complexity of three turn instructional sequences (Lee, 2007;Waring, 2016) by documenting the multimodal turn design of a teacher's third turn repetitions (TTRs) and the actions accomplished in TTRs and subsequent post-expansions. Repetition in mundane and institutional interaction serves a variety of functions including but not limited to initiating repair (Schegloff et al., 1977), pursuing responses (Antaki, 2002;Pomerantz, 1984b;Zemel & Koschmann, 2011), and doing affiliation (Margutti & Drew, 2014;Pomerantz, 1984a;Schegloff, 1996). ...
... Students respond in the second turn of the sequence, and the teacher follows up oftentimes with some form of positive or negative evaluation of the student response in the third turn. The design of third turns, their complex action, and how they facilitate or hinder student participation are longstanding concerns among classroom teaching researchers (Hall, 1997;Lee, 2007;Margutti & Drew, 2014;Nassaji & Wells, 2000;Park, 2014;Roh & Lee, 2018;Waring, 2008). Third turns are spaces in which teachers undertake complex professional work, addressing problematic turns, managing affiliation, and providing students with genuine opportunities to comprehend and subsequently produce speech (Lee, 2007;Margutti & Drew, 2014;Waring, 2008). ...
... The design of third turns, their complex action, and how they facilitate or hinder student participation are longstanding concerns among classroom teaching researchers (Hall, 1997;Lee, 2007;Margutti & Drew, 2014;Nassaji & Wells, 2000;Park, 2014;Roh & Lee, 2018;Waring, 2008). Third turns are spaces in which teachers undertake complex professional work, addressing problematic turns, managing affiliation, and providing students with genuine opportunities to comprehend and subsequently produce speech (Lee, 2007;Margutti & Drew, 2014;Waring, 2008). Repetitions are a common linguistic design third turns take. ...
Article
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This conversation analysis (CA) study extends our understanding of the complexity of three turn instructional sequences by investigating the multimodal turn design of a teacher's third turn repetitions (TTRs) and the actions accomplished in the third turn position as well as subsequent post-expansions. The videorecorded data are from an undergraduate Korean as a foreign language classroom at a large US university. The analysis reveals how a teacher coordinates resources such as language, prosody, gaze, gesture, body movements, and objects during and immediately following TTRs to mitigate negative evaluation, direct student attention to trouble sources, and intimate answers. The findings show that actions accomplished by talk, i.e. negative evaluation, and actions accomplished by multimodal resources like gaze, i.e. directing attention, may be undertaken simultaneously. The article contributes to understandings of teaching as complex and contingent interactional work by unpacking in fine-grained detail the moment-by-moment multimodal unfolding of pedagogical practice. We conclude by discussing implications for teacher preparation, namely the central role microanalysis of videorecorded classroom interaction should play.
... 38). Over the past several decades, various CA-based studies have driven this research agenda by investigating how teaching and learning are accomplished in a vast array of instructional contexts, including traditional classroom settings (e.g., Duran & Sert, 2019, Duran & Sert, 2021Lee, 2007;Seedhouse, 2004;Sert, 2015;Waring, 2008Waring, , H. Z., 2011, conversation-for-learning situations (e.g., Hauser, 2017;Kasper & Kim, 2015;Kim, 2012Kim, , Y., 2019Mori & Hayashi, 2006), and tutoring sessions (e.g., Belhiah, 2009Belhiah, , 2012Duran & Kääntä, 2023;Park, 2017Park, , I. 2019Ro, 2021;Ro & Kim, 2023;Seo, 2011Seo, , M.-S. 2021Seo & Koshik, 2010). ...
... The interactional prefatory work identified in Excerpt 3 functions similarly to what Lee (2007) describes as "steering the sequences" (p. 191). ...
... Thus, scaffolding the elicitation sequence with a series of questions helps elicit essential content that eventually facilitates the learner's construction of the lengthy sentence, including the intricate target structure. This process reflects how, as Lee (2007) argues, interactional sequences can be used as a resource to build preliminary steps for elicitation and encourage the learner to use more grammatically advanced sentences. ...
Article
This paper explores instructor elicitation practices used in mandatory one-on-one instructional sessions to prompt learners of Japanese to incorporate specific linguistic items in their responses. Specifically, the study is based on a corpus of 15 h of video-recorded interactions in a study abroad program in Japan. Drawing on multimodal conversation analysis, the study investigates: (1) how instructors design and sequentially place elicitations to prompt learners to use a specific target language form while engaging in meaning-focused activities; and (2) how these elicitation designs and placements affect the accomplishment of the intended pedagogical goal. The findings contribute to the understanding of elicitation practices for specific pedagogical purposes and yield empirically based insights that can inform interactional decisions.
... According to some scholars, it provides finite opportunities for L2 learners to be engaged in classroom interactions while it promotes teacher authority and teacher-fronted classes (Hall, 2010;Waring, 2008). However, others have argued that the IRF has the potency of being an educational instrument to L2 instruction, and it can also be flexible, providing chances for learners to co-construct knowledge; thereby, maximizing the learning opportunities (Lee, 2007;Nassaji & Wells, 2000;Seedhouse, 2004;Waring, 2009). Each cycle of this triadic pattern reacts to the prompt in situ and pedagogic contingencies and objectives of the emerging lesson (Gardner, 2019). ...
... Various feedback provided by the teachers in the F turns can influence time and space accessible for perceiving and understanding the pedagogical aims. As for giving feedback, teachers can benefit from a wide range of pedagogical tools (Lee, 2007). These tools hinge on the teachers' experience and competency, the task type, and their awareness about the students' weaknesses and strengths (Fagan, 2015). ...
... Teachers can employ an infinite number of strategies to deal with the F stage. For instance, they can employ some clues to inspire learners to make more contributions, ask new queries, and encourage peer correction and the students' further elaborations (Fagan, 2014;Lee, 2007). ...
... According to some scholars, it provides finite opportunities for L2 learners to be engaged in classroom interactions while it promotes teacher authority and teacher-fronted classes (Hall, 2010;Waring, 2008). However, others have argued that the IRF has the potency of being an educational instrument to L2 instruction, and it can also be flexible, providing chances for learners to co-construct knowledge; thereby, maximizing the learning opportunities (Lee, 2007;Nassaji & Wells, 2000;Seedhouse, 2004;Waring, 2009). Each cycle of this triadic pattern reacts to the prompt in situ and pedagogic contingencies and objectives of the emerging lesson (Gardner, 2019). ...
... Various feedback provided by the teachers in the F turns can influence time and space accessible for perceiving and understanding the pedagogical aims. As for giving feedback, teachers can benefit from a wide range of pedagogical tools (Lee, 2007). These tools hinge on the teachers' experience and competency, the task type, and their awareness about the students' weaknesses and strengths (Fagan, 2015). ...
... Teachers can employ an infinite number of strategies to deal with the F stage. For instance, they can employ some clues to inspire learners to make more contributions, ask new queries, and encourage peer correction and the students' further elaborations (Fagan, 2014;Lee, 2007). ...
Article
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This study explored the representation of the Initiation, Response, Feedback (IRF) cycle in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom. Video recordings have been used to collect data from 10 classes, which were managed by 8 L2 teachers. In total, 900 minutes of video recordings with 784 triadic patterns were collected. Using Conversation Analysis (CA), the findings demonstrated that the IRFs in classroom interactions were disclosed in various ways. The coding system revealed that the teachers generally used authentic and focused questions. In the F stage, the teachers used elaboration, scaffolding, correction, and refusal strategies. The F stage was also a rich juncture for local contingencies as the teachers' productions were contingent on the students' responses. Likewise, uptake and scaffolding have been important elements in the IRF patterns. The analysis suggests that the third stage can create an ad-hoc co-constructive classroom interaction and provide L2 learners with various learning opportunities.
... In a similar vein, Lee's (2007) research reveals how an instructor tailors and produces a third turn move of an IRE sequence contingently upon a student's second turn response in order to effectively accomplish a pedagogical goal and manage classroom discourse. Lee thereby argues that the third turn position of such three-turn pedagogical sequences reflects the instructor's interpretive endeavor, which is locally produced. ...
... In order for this type of learning to occur, elicitation practices are necessary and become integral. While reactive feedback in the form of repair has also been extensively investigated in previous CA studies (e.g., Eskildsen & Markee, 2018;Fasel Lauzon & Pekarek Doehler, 2013;Gardner, 2008;Lee, 2007;Seedhouse, 2004;Waring, 2008), however, elicitation practices used in planned, form-focused interactions has yet to be thoroughly examined previously. The type of elicitation that examined in the current chapter is, thus, not that which is used as reactive negative feedback targeting linguistic errors, but rather that which is used to elicit responses that contain a supposedly pre-determined (formfocused) linguistic item. ...
... The interactional work presented in the current excerpt resembles the case from Lee's (2007) study, referred to as "steering the sequences" (191), in which an instructor exploits the third turn to direct student's understanding into a particular manner and direction. The difference, however, lies in that while, in Lee's case, the instructor's interactional work is conducted to help the student identify and recognize a grammatically inaccurate aspect of their utterance or check a specific component of a homework assignment, in the excerpt above, the instructor's follow-up questions direct the learner to use the supposedly targeted lexical item in her response. ...
Thesis
This present study closely examines a particular type of institutionalized interactions for second language (L2) learning, namely one-on-one instructional sessions between instructors and learners of Japanese at an intensive summer study abroad program in Japan. During these sessions, both instructors and learners employ various form-focused practices to construct language learning opportunities by making language-related matters relevant to the interaction. Taking a socially-oriented approach that employs conversation analysis (CA) to examine L2 learning as a locally accomplished social activity, the current research explicates the process of constructing L2 learning opportunities. More specifically, it examines approximately 15 hours of video-recorded data and identifies three focal form-focused practices that participants use. The objective of the study is to explore: (a) what kind of learning opportunities are co-constructed through such focal practices, and (b) how the identified focal practices embody and are shaped by participants’ interpretations of the institutional goals and purposes of the session. The analytical portion of my dissertation is comprised of three chapters, each of which focuses on a specific practice that the participants employ. The first analytical chapter focuses on instructor elicitations as a pedagogical practice and examines how the elicitation design affects the way in which the instructor solicits a targeted language form from the learner. The second analytical chapter investigates how instructors use epistemic status checks (ESCs) (Sert, 2013) to make learners’ knowledge states about a particular linguistic item relevant to the interaction. The third analytical chapter examines cases in which learners utilize their verbal and non-verbal resources to embed a form-focused sequence, which I refer to as an embedded linguistic try, during a meaning-focused activity. Conducting a micro-analysis on these three practices in light of the institutional goals provided by the study abroad program, the current research demonstrates the reflexive relationship between the identified form-focused practices and the institutionality of the one-on- one sessions. This study further strives to contribute to the growing body of CA-SLA research (Kasper & Wagner, 2011) by reemphasizing the importance of considering the larger institutionalized context in order to better understand the social process through which learning opportunities are constructed.
... Hence, several other research studies have examined the possibility of extending the teacher-student interaction beyond IRF sequence. For example, Cullen (2002), Lee (2007), Waring In the study context, the opportunities to learn English language for the students are confined to ESL classes only. The students in the faculty receive only a few hours of instruction in teacher-fronted classrooms. ...
... That is, the three-part structure is an effective tool for guiding the students for learning (Mercer, 1995) on the premises that the last move could be handled by the teacher to bring in more student involvement and participation (Wells, 1993). Hall (1998) as well as Lee (2007) stated that the variation in the IRF pattern could create different abilities to participate, different learning opportunities, and different outcomes. Two moves become important here; one is the initiation or the questions teachers ask that decide the nature of the flow of interaction. ...
... Two moves become important here; one is the initiation or the questions teachers ask that decide the nature of the flow of interaction. The other one is the third move which is equally important because it decides whether the interaction continues or is brought to a halt (Lee, 2007). The third move could play different functions such as offering evaluation, feedback or follow-up on the students' second move. ...
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We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website http://www.ijlter.org. We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue. We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration. The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers. We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal with this issue.
... Aus Sicht der konversationsanalytischen Unterrichtsforschung wird man damit aber der Komplexität des third turn -geschweige denn der gesamten konversationellen Bearbeitung einer Interaktionssequenz -nach wie vor nicht gerecht. Kritisiert werden solche Herangehensweisen etwa von Lee (2007Lee ( : 1206, der die zentrale Stellung des third turn für Untersuchungen von Lehrprozessen hervorhebt: "The third turn is an extraordinary space in the sense that it allows us to identify the practical and procedural details of teaching that teachers routinely and contingently display in the course of interaction". Der third turn wäre also in diesem Sinne eine Art Spiegel der pädagogischen Aktivität der Lehrperson, wie sie sich in einer spezifischen, nur lokal versteh-und interpretierbaren Interaktionssituation manifestiert. ...
... Wie aus den Analysen deutlich wurde, sind LehrerInnen-SchülerInnen-Interaktionen selbst im gewöhnlichen plenaren LehrerInnen-SchülerInnen-Gespräch und sogar im Anfangsunterricht deutlich komplexer, als es das grobe IRF-Schema vermuten lassen würde. Lee (2007Lee ( : 1226 unterstreicht, wie aufschlussreich es ist, auch die Interaktion im Frontalunterricht detailliert zu beschreiben und zu analysieren: "While formal categories of classroom discourse give the impression that teachers and students do the same thing over and over again […], each and every three-turn sequence involves close interpretive works of understan- ...
... McHouls Untersuchung (1978), in der er an Sacks, Schegloff und Jefferson (1974) direkt anschließt, stellt eine grundlegende konversationsanalytische Analyse des ‚turntaking system' bei der formalen Organisation des Gesprächs innerhalb der Lehr-Lern-Interaktionen dar, deren verschiedene Aspekte ferner in einer ganzen Reihe von Arbeiten (vgl. Heap 1985;Lee 2007; Nassaji und Wells 2000 u. a.) aufgegriffen wurden. Es zeigt sich, dass die Lehr-Lern-Interaktion durch ein spezifisches System des Sprecherwechsels gekennzeichnet ist: Frage (des Lehrers) -Antwort (des Lernenden) -Bewertung (des Lehrers), wobei die Bewertung des Lehrers systematisch die ‚third turn position' (Lee 2007) ist. ...
... Heap 1985;Lee 2007; Nassaji und Wells 2000 u. a.) aufgegriffen wurden. Es zeigt sich, dass die Lehr-Lern-Interaktion durch ein spezifisches System des Sprecherwechsels gekennzeichnet ist: Frage (des Lehrers) -Antwort (des Lernenden) -Bewertung (des Lehrers), wobei die Bewertung des Lehrers systematisch die ‚third turn position' (Lee 2007) ist. ...
Chapter
Der Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über die grundlegenden methodologischen Prämissen der Ethnomethodologie und Konversationsanalyse und empirische Entwicklungen des ethnomethodologisch-konversationsanalytischen Ansatzes im Bereich der Bildungsforschung. Eine zusammenfassende Darstellung der wichtigsten Forschungsthemen und Ergebnisse exemplarischer ethnomethodologischer und konversationsanalytischer Arbeiten in diesem Bereich zeigt die Mannigfaltigkeit ethnomethodologischen Interesses an Phänomenen im Kontext formaler Bildung und veranschaulicht die ethnomethodologische Perspektive.
... Studies in educational settings have also shown how questioners may pursue an answer by turning the original question into subsequent 'easier' questions. Lee (2007) described how teachers 'parsed' questions into smaller components following 'problematic' responses from students. By breaking down the initial question into more manageable sub-questions, teachers can steer students towards a particular interactional trajectory in a step-by-step fashion. ...
... By doing this, she 'parses' (cf. Lee 2007) or 'decomposes' (cf. Svennevig 2018) the original question, focusing on one component (the 'what you read' part). ...
Article
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What happens when students cannot answer teachers’ questions in oral examinations? This study investigates how teachers manage students’ insufficient answers in disciplinary oral competence exams (DOCEs) in the secondary school context. Using conversation analysis, we show that teachers either pursue an answer by reformulating it and providing more topic information or abandon the original question and move on to a new sequence by creating contiguity and defusing negative implications. Pursuing provides additional opportunities to answer but does not necessarily enable students to provide quality answers. Abandoning means that students lose a chance to display knowledge, but it does provide an opportunity to answer another question. The study contributes to the understanding of managing trouble displays in non-standardized test talk and specifies interactional practices used to manage insufficient responses. It also reveals the dilemmas that teachers must solve in real-time examinations.
... Currently, most academic institutions include technological means for teaching and learning that incorporate online collaboration in addition to face-to-face classes (Banna et al., 2015;Kauffman, 2015). Through online collaborative learning, students receive authentic and reliable linguistic input, produce output, and receive feedback, (Lee, 2007) especially when they interact with native speakers of the target language (Durairaj & Umar, 2015). ...
... In terms of fluency and complexity, the result shows a negative impact of the use of high cognitive level questions on classroom participation. This finding agrees with several past studies such as Lee (2007) and Wu (1993). This can be explained by referring to the cognitive load theory. ...
Article
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With recent developments in technology and its massive impact on the education field, videoconferencing has emerged as an effective teaching learning tool in the language classroom. It is mainly a means of communication to overcome the impediments of geographical distance and separation. However, despite the successful implementation of this technology, it has been stated that using videoconferencing for online teaching is problematic. Videoconferencing impedes instructor-learner interaction and is unable to replace the traditional face-to-face classroom. To understand online interaction from a sociocultural standpoint, this study examined the characteristics of instructor questions in terms of cognitive level so as to investigate if instructor question can function as a stimulus for interaction in the online classroom. The results show that cognitive level of instructor question can function as an effective factor to promote online classroom interaction. Conclusions and implications are drawn at the end of this paper to help understand interaction in online learning.
... The recognition of the importance of conversation analysis (henceforth CA) in investigating classroom discourse has motivated L2 researchers to investigate learning as contextualized through interaction (Firth & Wagner, 1997;Lee, 2007;Mori, 2002), leading to the adoption of an emic perspective to explore learning, interactional competence and the dynamics of classroom interaction (Hall, 2004;Hellermann, 2008;Markee, 2008;Seedhouse, 2004;Sert, 2017; see also Malabarba & Nguyen in this volume). Diff erent speech-exchange systems have been explored, including teacher-fronted interaction (e.g. ...
... Lee (2006) describes how the ESL teacher guides the students toward the correct answer through a series of contingently and purposefully developed display questions and, in particular, uses yes-no questions after learner responses to "pull into view interpretative resources that are already in the room for students to recognize" (Lee 2008, p. 237). Teachers can also engage in parsing (i.e., breaking one item into smaller pieces), intimating an answer (Lee 2007), scaffolding, paraphrasing, reiterating (Walsh and Li 2013), translating, extending, clarifying, summarizing, and so on (Can Daşkın 2015). ...
... This sequence is represented as Initiation-Response-Evaluation (henceforth IRE) (Mehan 1979a), and also known as Initiation-Response-Follow-up (Sinclair and Coulthard 1975). The IRE frame can vary due to a student producing a first pair-part (Waring 2011), an inadequate student response (Lee 2007), or students co-constructing answers (Ko 2013; see also Gardner 2012; Mondada and Pekarek Doehler 2004). Within such an IRE frame, teachers employ a variety of linguistic and bodily-visual resources to elicit student responses, such as using question-word interrogatives (e.g. ...
... McHoul 1978;Sinclair & Coulthard 1975) as it has been shown that a great deal of pedagogical work is carried out by teachers when they evaluate student utterances in classroom interaction (e.g. Kaufmann, Larsson, and Ryve 2022;Lee 2007). Teachers' positive evaluations of student utterances (Waring 2008) as well as the ways negative evaluations are formulated (e.g. Park 2016; Seedhouse 1997) have attracted growing attention due to the educational value of feedback in learning (e.g. ...
Article
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This article presents a case study of a student-teacher’s change in classroom interactional practices as she engages in video-enhanced reflections and collaborative feedback encounters during her practicum in Sweden. We specifically focus on an interactional practice that can be observed in many classrooms: teachers’ use of (overt) negative evaluation (i.e. ‘No!’) that immediately follows learners’ incorrect answers. Using discursive timeline analysis (DTA), which is a combination of Conversation Analysis and Interactional Ethnography, we track the use of the focal interactional phenomenon across (1) video-recorded classroom interactions, (2) audio-recorded triadic post observation conferences, (3) student-teacher portfolios, and (4) interviews. We demonstrate that after getting video-based feedback with a video-tagging tool (i.e. VEO) and reflecting on her overuse of (overt) negative evaluation, the focal student-teacher avoids this interactional practice in her future teaching. As the analysis illustrates, this change of practice is possible thanks to data-led reflections and the evidence-based feedback that the student-teacher received. Our analysis therefore shows that reflection and feedback with a mobile video-tagging tool can facilitate increased awareness of classroom interactional practices. We argue that digitally enhanced, video-based reflections can promote teacher-learning in teacher education programmes and that using discursive timeline analysis can provide rich insights into these processes.
... The strategy (IRE) is not part of a teaching-learning process but is used as a prior diagnostic evaluation for curricular contextualization. For Lee [17] open dialogue does not generate conflicts at any time in terms of teaching or interaction. ...
Article
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With the application of remote education due to the pandemic, Ecuadorian teachers contextualized the curriculum to the needs of their students. The objective was to analyse emerging dialogue patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on teachers' experiences and stories about their interaction with their students. The research was qualitative in which the method of indirect observation of the transcription of 73 semi-structured interviews with teachers from educational institutions in Ecuador was applied through the Zoom platform. To analyze the results, they were categorized and conceptualized following the triple pattern of dialogue and discourse proposed by Mehan in its three dimensions: initiation, response and evaluation. Three phases were established: construction of the final indirect observation instrument; quality control of the information so that there is no subjectivity through the agreement of the criteria of three research authors; and the interpretation of indirect observation through contextualization by curricular contents, methodological strategies and didactic resources. It is revealed that teachers demonstrated remarkable adaptation during the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on emotional containment and creativity.
... Det innebaerer at elevene er avhengige av at eksaminator er i stand til å justere og bygge på svarene deres på en relevant måte. Det gjør at eksaminatorenes kontekstsensitivitet i utspørringsfasen påvirker kvaliteten på fagsamtalen (se også Lee, 2007) og dermed også påvirker utfallet (se også Sandlund & Sundqvist, 2019). Vurderingen av elevenes kompetanse skjer gjennom interaksjon, og elevene er derfor prisgitt at eksaminators (og sensors) interaksjonskompetanse. ...
Article
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I snart 150 år har muntlig eksamen vært en del av det norske skolesystemet. Likevel finnes det lite forskning på denne eksamensformen, og vi vet lite om hvordan eksaminators handlinger under muntlig eksamen påvirker elevens muligheter til å vise kompetanse. I denne studien undersøker vi fagsamtalen mellom eksaminator og elev under muntlig eksamen i norskfaget i ungdomsskolen og i videregående skole. Gjennom samtaleanalyse av turtaking og organisering i 36 videoinnspilte muntlige eksamener samlet inn i det NFR-finansierte forskningsprosjektet CAiTE (Conversation Analytic innovation for Teacher Education), undersøker vi elevenes handlingsrom i fagsamtalen og hvilken type muntlig kompetanse, eller literacy, fagsamtalen legger til rette for. Våre funn viser at fagsamtalen under muntlig eksamen er en asymmetrisk samtalesjanger der eksaminator styrer samtalen, og elevenes muligheter for å delta i samtalen er begrenset til å svare på spørsmål. Mens bruken av samtalebegrepet i retningslinjene indikerer at elevene skal gis mulighet for likeverdig deltakelse, viser våre analyser at fagsamtalen i realiteten har form som et intervju, med en fastlåst turtakingsstruktur og et svært begrenset handlingsrom for elevene. Vi hevder at det er et uavklart forhold mellom fagsamtalen som eksamensform og hva eksamensformen skal måle, og diskuterer noen dilemmaer for gjennomføring og vurdering av muntlig eksamen som kan oppstå som følge av et uklart samtalebegrep. English abstract For almost 150 years, the oral exam has been part of the Norwegian school system. However, there is little research on this form of examination, and we know little about how the examiner’s actions during the oral exam affect the student’s opportunities to display and demonstrate competence. In this study, we investigate the conversation between examiner and student during oral examination in the school subject Norwegian in lower and upper secondary school. Through Conversation Analysis of the turn-taking and interactional organization of 36 video-recorded oral exams collected through the research project CaiTE (Conversation Analytic innovation for Teacher Education), we examine the student’s possibilities for action and involvement in this conversation and what type of oral competence, or literacy, this conversation facilitates. Our findings show that the interaction is asymmetric where the examiner controls the conversation, and the students’ opportunities to participate are limited to answering questions. While the use of the term “conversation” in the guidelines indicates that students should be given the opportunity for equal participation, our analyses show that the subject conversation takes the form of an interview, with a fixed structure and very limited room for maneuver for the students. We claim that there is an unclear relationship between the conversation as a form of examination and what this form of examination is supposed to measure and discuss some dilemmas for the implementation and assessment of an oral examination that may arise as a result of an unclear term of conversation.
... The excerpts below provide some examples of 'classroom-like talk' occurring during the phase of realization of testing (see Table 1). In particular, ex. 2 illustrates how a mother reproduces the IRE sequence, which is constituted of 1) initiation (typically a question), 2) response, and 3) evaluation (see among others, Mehan, 1979;Lee, 2007;Margutti & Drew, 2014). By issuing the first and third turns of the sequence, the mother embodies a "surrogate teacher" (Popkewitz, 2003: 73) inside the home. ...
Article
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Since Bronfenbrenner's claims on the ecology of human development, an impressive amount of research has explored the ways in which children's primary social worlds (i.e., family and school) connect and potentially create an osmotic ecological milieu. In the building of the so-called 'family-school partnership', homework plays a crucial role. Being a school activity carried out inside the home, it is a key site for implementing parental involvement and a crucial occasion where cultural models of 'good parent' and 'good pupil' are instantiated. This video-based, conversation analytic study shows a specific activity taking place while parents assist their children with homework: testing. The analysis shows that parents deploy a 'school-like' interactive conduct by reproducing the standards, morality, and linguistic practices of the school. In so doing, they comply with the contemporary model of 'good parent as school partner' and socialize their children into the culture of the school by turning them into 'good pupils'.
... Using a Conversation Analytic (CA, Kasper, 2009;Kasper & Wagner, 2011) SLA approach, scholars have explored how learning occurs in classroom interactions through turn taking (Garton, 2012), initiation, response, feedback (IRF) routines (Lee, 2007;Waring, 2008Waring, , 2009) and self-repair exchanges (Hellermann, 2009). More recent CA research has used a multimodal perspective to describe the affordances that non-verbal resources (e.g., gaze, body posture, gesture) play in turn allocation, as well as the way learners' attention and task planning occur through mutual gaze, face expressions, and head shakes (Kääntä, 2014;Markee & Kunitz, 2013;Park, 2017). ...
Article
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Since the mid-1990s, the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has taken a social turn which acknowledges the role that social interaction plays in second language (L2) learning. Since then, extensive scholarship has used a multimodal perspective as well as alternative SLA approaches to explore L2 through classroom interaction. Even though multimodal grounded studies have analyzed fine-grained learning processes and conceive interaction as the driving force for learning, most of them have analyzed one single mode of interaction, thus, running short to integratively explore L2 classroom interaction. We draw from Socio-Cognitive Theory (SCG) to describe the trajectory in which an EFL pre-service teacher positioned an English only policy in the L2 classroom and how he and his beginning learners progressively aligned to it. SCG is an ecological L2 approach that conceives learning as the process through which humans adapt and align their minds and bodies to the eco-social world. Multimodal microanalysis of video and audio recorded segments serve to identify the diverse human and non-human semiotic modes, affordances, and natural pedagogy tools used to create and afford learning opportunities in this English lesson. Findings revealed how the “coordinated interaction” co-constructed in the lesson facilitated students’ alignment in this ecological environment, thus, contributing to the understanding of instructions, the identification of lexical items, and language production. We also discuss the implications of these trajectories for limiting students’ critical engagement in social issues related to equity and diversity.
... 502-3). In addition, detailed analyses of IRF sequences have found various actions by the teachers in the third turn position which go beyond a simple "feedback" in creating learning opportunities (Lee, 2007(Lee, , 2008Waring, 2008), and how the traditional use of the IRF sequences can limit possible learning opportunities (Waring, 2009). ...
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Researchers in the area of language teaching and learning had previously shied away from examining the micro‐detail of classroom interaction, regarding it as an excessively complex, heterogeneous, and particularly “messy” source of data. However, studies utilizing conversation analysis (CA) have demonstrated that second/foreign‐language (L2) classroom interaction can be analyzed, and, as with conversation, there is order at all points. In recent years, a wide range of languages, subjects, age groups, teaching practices, and classroom activities have been analyzed using CA, including task‐based language teaching and content and language‐integrated learning. This entry discusses how CA has been employed to investigate interaction which occurs in L2 classrooms.
... According to IRF, the teacher initiates a learning opportunity (e.g. by asking a question), the learners respond to this initiation (e.g. by responding orally), and then the teacher does a follow-up move in response to the learners' previous answers (e.g. through providing feedback). The importance of the IRF pattern lies in its initiation turn which would carry out different kinds of actions, and the third turn initiated by the teacher may launch a range of teaching activities (Lee 2007). In the current study, the student-teacher interaction that contains an IRF pattern could be considered as a questioning technique that the teacher applies to assess students' comprehension. ...
... Previous studies exploring how whole-class answer checks unfold turn by turn (e.g., Gourlay, 2005 ;Mortensen & Hazel, 2011 ) reveal that the interaction tends to be organized in initiationreply-evaluation (IRE) sequences ( Mehan, 1979 ), which reflect the organization of turn-taking in teacher-fronted classrooms ( Markee, 20 0 0 ;Maroni et al., 20 08 ;McHoul, 1978 ;Seedhouse, 2004 ). It is within the third turn that correction sequences are typically initiated, contingent upon the students' answers ( Lee, 2007 ). In this turn, teachers may correct the previous turn, which can be done implicitly, as embedded correction ( Jefferson, 1987 ), or explicitly, for instance, as replacing an item with an alternative in the following turn, negating the previous turn ( Haakana & Kurhila, 2016 ), thus doing other-correction. ...
Article
This article focuses on how the correction practices of pre-service teachers change over a one-year period. This multimodal, longitudinal conversation analytic study is based on recordings of 22 EFL (English as a foreign language) classes taught by two pre-service teachers in lower secondary schools during their initial and final school placements. Several changes in the correction practices were observed in the final school placements: the pre-service teachers (1) used teacher-initiated student self-correction more frequently, (2) displayed no verbal orientation and less visual orientation to the teaching material, and (3) engaged more in clueing and pointing at inscriptions on the board. These findings document a shift from a rather mechanistic orientation to the teaching materials during the initial school placement to an orientation to the underlying structures and knowledge, and thus student understanding, during their final school placements.
... This study explores question-answer interactions in institutional settings by using the methodology of conversation analysis. In general, conversation analysis has been used in classroom research, for example, in order to conceptualize teaching and learning as constituted in social interaction (Lee 2007;Hellerman & Pekarek Doehler, 2010). In addition, in the field of second language acquisition in classrooms, using Conversational Analysis is a growing field of interest (Hellerman & Pekarek Doehler, 2010) and is widely applied. ...
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This study examined how Japanese instructors utilize scaffolding strategies during classroom teaching. By closely investigating the question-answer interaction that occurred in an elementary-level Japanese class through Conversation Analysis (CA), this study categorized four types of scaffolding strategies utilized by the Japanese instructors: partial answer, asking further questions, gestures, and giving more information. Findings also uncovered how Japanese teachers utilized these specific scaffolding tactics when students encountered difficulties in the language classroom. Then, this study discussed a more generalized frame of scaffolding strategies in question-answer interaction in the Japanese language classroom. Finally, the conclusion indicated the pedagogical implication of scaffolding strategies in Japanese language teacher education.
... At the same time, there has been much effort and emphasis to promote a dialogic discourse by encouraging more students' voices in the interaction (Chin 2006;Kelly 2007;Lee 2007). This emphasis on dialogic discourse is further supported by recent calls to integrate socioscientific issues and argumentation in science education (Bossér and Lindahl 2019;Knain 2015). ...
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One central issue for research in classrooms is to provide insights concerning characteristics of classroom interaction that can help teachers improve their teaching. In the present study, we analyse spoken interaction in one elementary physics classroom by the use of two different frameworks, targeting similar aspects of social communication, namely how discourse patterns shape the relations between participants. The two frameworks utilized are on the one hand analyses of the communicative approach according to Mortimer and Scott, combined with analyses of discourse patterns such as IRE-patterns, and on the other hand analyses related to the interpersonal meta-function in Halliday’s systemic-functional grammar, SFG. The aim was to highlight possibilities and limitations of the different frameworks. Our analyses reveal that the two analytical frameworks have partly the same, partly different affordances concerning what they can reveal about classroom interaction. The analyses of the communicative approaches have the potential of elucidating discursive patterns and power relations at a general level, while the analyses based on SFG can provide more details about the power relations in terms of how the participants actually structure their utterances. The results are also discussed regarding implications for education.
... In the last decades, interest in instructional process has drawn the attention of linguists to classroom discourse studies (Lee, 2007;Chen, 2007;Hall, 2007;Macbeth, 2004). Such growing attention has been attributed to the importance associated with verbal discourse in meaning making (Chin, 2006). ...
Article
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Doctorate programs in educational leadership have been criticized in recent years for failing to preparetheir graduates to effectively serve as instructional leaders in the nation’s schools. Criticisms haveincluded ambiguity of purpose and research foci, weak admission and graduation requirements,irrelevant curriculum, and the lack of applied practice. The purpose of this study was to analyze specificcharacteristics of thirteen highly ranked applied doctorate programs in educational leadership.Findings revealed that touchstone doctorate programs display many of the features that have beencriticized, and that they are largely similar in structure and foci to lower ranked programs.
... Expandiremos en este tipo de recursos y su desarrollo secuencial en la sección sobre el estado del arte del estudio de las trayectorias de reparación en el aula. Otros recursos que los profesores utilizamos para perseguir respuestas son las repeticiones, ya sea repetir el turno de iniciación, repetir la respuesta incorrecta con entonación ascendente, o incluso abstenerse de producir el tercer turno con el fin de mantener la relevancia condicional y dejar el sistema de turnos abierto para que otros estudiantes puedan participar (Hellermann, 2003;Lee, 2007;Park, 2013;Seedhouse, 2004;Zemel y Koschmann, 2011). En este sentido, retener el tercer turno es una práctica que promueve la participación estudiantil y su autonomía al proveerles de espacio interaccional para reparar sus propias respuestas (Lerner, 1995, p.116) y es, sin duda, una práctica que podemos explotar en nuestras aulas. ...
Chapter
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Este capítulo presenta un resumen temático sobre la reparación en el aula de lengua extranjera desde la perspectiva del Análisis Conversacional (AC) y las prácticas multimodales (corporales y gestuales) desplegadas al realizar esta acción. Reparar, desde el AC no es lo mismo que corregir, puesto que reparar incluye instancias más generales, como puede ser resolver un problema de comprensión auditiva o de otra naturaleza.
... La aplicación del AC al estudio de las interacciones en el salón de clases de lengua ha mostrado, por un lado, la complejidad de las secuencias IRE (particularmente la multifuncionalidad del tercer turno), y por otro lado, ha mostrado que estas secuencias no necesariamente son modelos rígidos y monótonos. Por ejemplo, Lee (2007) muestra cómo el tercer turno de las secuencias IRE, además de servir para dar evaluaciones o retroalimentaciones, focaliza el objetivo de enseñanza y el docente lo puede utilizar para determinadas acciones pedagógicas como la de dividir en partes alguna pregunta que los alumnos tengan dificultad en contestar y así ayudarlos a que ellos mismos formulen la respuesta correcta; o bien, maniobrar la interacción rumbo a objetivos pedagógicos muy particulares, como muestra el extracto (1) de arriba que reproduzco abajo como (5), en donde la profesora plantea las preguntas y con base en las respuestas de la alumna, o ausencia de ellas (líneas 04, 07, 10), va guiando la interacción desde el tercer turno de la secuencias IRE (líneas 05, 08, 12), a fin de que la alumna produzca la construcción gramatical en cuestión. En otras palabras, la profesora utiliza la posición secuencial del tercer turno de la secuencia IRE para cumplir con un objetivo pedagógico específico. ...
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En el presente capítulo muestro algunas de los vínculos que existen entre el AC y la enseñanza de lenguas; de manera puntual me enfoco en tres temáticas: 1) en cómo el AC nos ayuda a describir las características interaccionales de la enseñanza de lenguas en el salón de clase, 2) en cómo el aprendizaje de lenguas puede ser analizado como un logro interaccional, y 3) de qué manera el AC ha sido utilizado con fines prácticos en la enseñanza de lenguas. En esta sección introductoria, primero presento las características fundamentales del AC y después las características del habla institucional, lo cual es pertinente porque la interacción en el salón de clase de lengua es catalogado dentro de este tipo de habla.
... Both limitations and opportunities for learning within this triadic dialogue have been well documented by researchers. Following ethnomethodology and CA, based on 46 hours of ESL classroom instructions, Lee (2007) demonstrated how the third turn in the IRF sequence carries out the contingent task of responding to and acting on the prior turns while moving interaction forward. In content classrooms, Hellermann's (2005) findings showed systematic uses of pitch level and contour in triadic dialogue, and provided evidence for a unique action projection of the third part in the three-part sequence (also see Skidmore andMurakami 2010 andHellermann 2003 for prosody in IRF). ...
... Analysis, based on 46 hours of ESL classroom instructions, Lee (2007) demonstrated how the third turn in the IRF sequence carries out the contingent task of responding to and acting on the prior turns while moving interaction forward. In content classrooms, Hellermann's (2005) findings showed systematic uses of pitch level and contour in triadic dialogue, and provided evidence for a unique action projection of the third part in the three-part sequence (also see Skidmore andMurakami 2010 andHellermann, 2003 for prosody in IRF). ...
Thesis
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This PhD thesis primarily investigates the interactional unfolding and management of students' claims and teachers' interpretations of insufficient knowledge in two 'English as an Additional Language' classrooms from a multi-modal, conversation analytic perspective. The analyses draw on a close, micro-analytic account of turn-taking practices, repair, and preference organisation as well as various multi-semiotic resources the participants enact during talk-in-interaction including gaze, gestures, body movements, and orientations to classroom artefacts. In this respect, this is the first study to investigate claims of insufficient knowledge (e.g. I don't knows) from a multimodal perspective. Furthermore, although the phenomenon has been investigated from a CA perspective in casual talk and institutional interactions (e.g. Beach and Metzger 1997), this is the first study thus far to thoroughly examine students' claims and teachers' interpretations of insufficient knowledge in educational contexts, and in particular in instructed language learning environments, where English is taught as an additional language. The research draws upon transcriptions of 16 (classroom) hours of video recordings, which were collected over a six-week period in 2010 in a public school in a multilingual setting; Luxembourg. The findings show that establishing recipiency (Mortensen 2009) through mutual gaze and turn allocation practices have interactional and pedagogical consequences that may lead to claims of insufficient knowledge. The findings also illustrate various multi-modal resources the students use (e.g. gaze movements, facial gestures, and headshake) to initiate embodied claims of no knowledge and that are a focus of orientation for the teacher to interpret insufficient knowledge by initiating 'epistemic status checks'. Finally, it is suggested that certain interactional resources (e.g. embodied vocabulary explanations, Designedly Incomplete Utterances) deployed by the teacher after a student's claim of insufficient knowledge may lead to student engagement, which is a desirable pedagogical goal. The findings of this thesis have implications for the analysis of insufficient knowledge, teaching, and language teacher education. It also has direct implications for L2 Classroom Interactional Competence (Walsh 2006) and the effect of teachers' language use on student participation.
... In line with the analysis of the previous extract, this study shows that, far from being the slot for a solo answer, the second position after the teacher's question is understood and exploited by pupils to accomplish a range of different actions, besides and beyond canonical (or 'type-conforming' , as in Raymond 2003) answers. In this regard, it may be worth considering that answering has been, and still is, one of the main, if not the only, forms of conduct students are afforded, especially in whole-class and teacher-led activities (Nassaji and Wells 2000;Macbeth 2003;Lee 2007 andLyle 2008). In this study, I show the way in which, far from restricting themselves to responding to the content and to the requirements of the question, also with regard to the turn-allocation rules, the pupils in my data manage to exploit this option as an opportunity to take the floor to accomplish a range of actions, besides claiming or displaying (directly or indirectly) their knowledge on the matter at issue, using a variety of practices that involve different resources, types of turn constructions, and time management. ...
Chapter
Building on previous work focusing on teachers' questions in whole-class activities in an Italian primary school, this study focuses on pupils' responses in interactions organised according to the 'triadic dialogue' format (Lemke 1990), also known as the Initiation-Response-Evaluation (Sinclair and Coulthard 1975; McHoul 1978; Mehan 1979). The results show that the second position is a place where pupils perform many different actions. Using Conversation Analysis, it is argued that pupils follow two main and conflicting principles, associated with the institutional nature of interactions: being first to answer and being respectful of the classroom turn-taking system. By examining the features of turn design and the overlapping onset of answers, an interactional account of answering as a social, public, and conjoined activity is provided.
... There is much research in conversation analysis, especially in classroom interaction and the studies of second language acquisition (Hellermann, 2006;Lee, 2007;Koshik, 2010). The research focuses on the organization of talk in the classroom and how it can be a useful resource to understand and improve the teaching-learning process. ...
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The current study attempts to address the negotiation of gender identity in the Pakistani multilingualcontext to explore the gender identity of male and female speakers through conversation features ofopening, topic shifting, interruptions, and silence. The recorded and transcribed data of six peers in anacademic setting in the University of Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan, is analyzed in the light of the list ofcommonly occurring features of masculine and feminine talk suggested by Holmes (2006). The studyreveals that men and women exhibit varied verbal behavior and negotiate their identities throughdiscourse. The stance taken in this paper is that of respecting the differences among genders withoutlabeling their talk as inferior or superior. The paper lays an early brick to the present repository ofresearch in gender and language because the conversation analysis in the Pakistani multilingual contextis still an area that needs further exploration.
... As this study will later show, of particular interest to researchers is the third turn within the IRF sequence due to the sheer complexity of actions which take place there between the teacher and the learner. Previous research has demonstrated that the final turn must be analysed in relation to the task at hand and the overall progressivity of the sequence (Lee, 2007;Margutti & Drew, 2014) or that it holds different functions across different classroom contexts (Park, 2014). For example, Girgin and Brandt (2020) studied one teacher's use of the minimal response token "uh-um" in the final turn and demonstrated its function as a continuer; when it was deployed with a falling-rising intonation and accompanied by a specific type of head nod, the teacher effectively withheld the third-turn evaluation and gave her student a signal to continue, thus promoting the participation and creating space for learning. ...
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Within the sociolinguistic and interactional approaches to L2 acquisition, learner participation is considered a necessary prerequisite for language learning. However, recent studies (e.g. Walsh & Li, 2013) have demonstrated that simply letting learners talk is not enough, and that for any learning to emerge, a solid amount of interactional steering work must first be employed by the teacher. This conversation analytic study focuses on in-service EFL teachers. Based on video recordings of nine lessons (387 minutes) taught by six such teachers, it explores both the resources that they use to manage the participation of multiple learners at once during teacher-fronted whole-class activities, and the ways in which the learners respond to them. The study shows that there is a large range of resources which these teachers mobilise to secure the participation of their learners: these include Yes/No questions in the third-turn position, increased wait time, designedly incomplete utterances, continuers such as “uh-um” or acknowledging learners’ turns in advance by referencing a past learning event. Furthermore, the deployment of these resources is often tied to the pedagogical goal of an activity. These findings bear some implications for future teacher education, particularly in relation to the development of their Classroom Interactional Competence (Walsh, 2006).
... In contrast, the F move where a referential question is posed functions not only to confirm or disconfirm a student's response but also to add comments regarding the discussion topic. As Lee (2007) has argued the third move of the IRF scheme should not be a mere feedback, but it should have an analytical focus. Cullen's (2002) analysis of lesson transcripts in secondary school classes in Tanzania has revealed two pedagogical roles of the F move: evaluative and discoursal roles. ...
Article
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This study investigated the role of the teachers’ F move in the English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms and how it affected teacher-student interaction in the classroom. The F move, also known as feedback, is considered an important part of the classroom interaction as it serves two primary roles: evaluative and discoursal. This study used secondary data of classroom interaction during English lesson in two senior high schools in Indonesia. The data were then analysed using the Conversation Analysis (CA) approach. The findings of the current study showed that the teachers used the F move mostly served its evaluative role and there was no evidence of the F move serving its discoursal role. This study suggested the need for teachers to re-evaluate the current teaching practice, especially the way they provided feedback or used the F move as a response to students’ answers.
Chapter
Drawing on data from a baseline study (2015–2016) of pedagogical practices in Singapore, this article elucidates teachers’ pedagogical reasoning and their enactment of formative assessment practices in primary science classrooms. Based on classroom observations and teacher interviews, the article surfaces teachers’ pre-lesson and in class decision-making in relation to evidence of student learning in the classroom, which is pertinent given the curricular focus on Assessment for Learning (AfL) in line with the emphasis on inquiry-based learning. Data is drawn from classroom observations (video-recorded) of 49 lessons corresponding to five curricular units at the Primary 5 level in five primary schools islandwide. Descriptive data pertaining to formative assessment practices is based on coding analyses of lesson videos using a largely binary coding scheme, with subsequent compilation of the coded data in SPSS. Thematic analyses of post-lesson interviews (audio-recorded) yield insights into teachers’ immediate sense of the lesson and rationale for their decision-making. Data-driven, inductive analyses of semi-structured interviews (audio-recorded) surface teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and reasoning. The findings show that teachers largely provided detailed feedback focused on informing students’ learning during scientific investigations. The teacher’s exposition and whole class interactions show substantial evidence, with a dominance of teachers’ closed questions. Teachers gauged students’ ongoing learning via formative monitoring and elicitation of verbal responses, which formed bases for their teaching decisions. Student initiations and time constraints often caused teachers to alter their lesson plan. Teachers believed in helping students excel in high-stakes examinations. The findings warrant a stronger focus on learner-centred feedback, teachers’ questioning, and students’ metacognitive learning. Discipline-specific formative assessment needs more attention. Teachers’ tacit decision-making needs to be made more explicit. Overall, the article enhances our theoretical understanding of teachers’ pedagogical reasoning in relation to formative assessment, and surfaces the realities of employing AfL and realising the curricular emphasis on inquiry in primary science classrooms.
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This paper presents a study of video-mediated classroom interaction, a modality of teaching and learning which in the past two years has experienced a rapid growth as a consequence of the Coronavirus emergency. By analysing a collection of audio-and videorecorded virtual secondary school classes devoted to Italian as L2 in South Tyrol, we examine the way in which teachers and students cope with the challenges of not being physically co-present, and discuss how fundamental mechanisms of face-to-face classroom interaction-participants' mutual orientation, turn-taking, and instructors' actions like questions and evaluations-are partially modified in the online setting, making it more complex, for instructors, to sustain students' active participation. Final reflexions are devoted to potential didactic implications of the findings. Keywords DAD, italiano L2, interazione in classe, multimodalità, analisi della conversazione 1. Introduzione Con la diffusione di Internet, a partire dagli anni '90 la comunicazione mediata da computer (CMC) ha trovato applicazione non solo in contesti commerciali e privati (sms, e-mail, videoconferenze, ecc.), ma anche in ambito educativo, dove si è ovviato alla distanza fisica tra docenti e studenti con strumenti quali canali chat e lezioni pre-registrate (tipicamente utilizzati da università a distanza), come pure, più recentemente, lezioni online sincrone. Dalla primavera 2020, la necessità di distanziamento fisico determinata dallo scoppio della pandemia da Covid-19 ha esteso drasticamente il ricorso alla CMC, obbligando scuole e università a modificare la propria offerta formativa con il passaggio alla modalità online, sincrona e asincrona, e a confrontarsi così con la sfida di offrire una didattica di qualità in un contesto completamente digitale. Con il presente saggio si intende indagare su alcune di tali complessità prendendo in esame una collezione di lezioni di italiano L2 svoltesi online tra il 2020 e il 2021, sulla piattaforma Google Meets, in classi di tre istituti secondari di secondo grado in lingua tedesca in Alto Adige-Südtirol, analizzate da un'ottica di analisi della conversazione (Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson 1974; Sidnell & Stivers 2012). Prendendo le mosse dalla letteratura 1 Il presente articolo, che si rifà alla tesi di laurea magistrale in linguistica applicata di Katia Raineri (Raineri 2021), è frutto del lavoro congiunto delle due autrici; Katia Raineri è direttamente responsabile dei paragrafi 3, 4.1, 4.2 e 5, mentre Daniela Veronesi si è occupata nello specifico dei paragrafi 1, 2 e 4.3.
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In police interviews with child witnesses, ground rules like ‘correct me when I say something wrong’ are established. Establishing these ground rules is required by guidelines, with the aim of enhancing the reliability of children's testimonies. In this article, we use conversation analysis to examine how ground rules are practiced in thirty-eight Dutch police interviews with child witnesses. We focus on the police officers’ use of test questions to practice such ground rules. We found that, often, these questions (at first) only consist of an if -clause. Questions with this format leave open whose turn it is and what the appropriate response should be. If -clause questions allow flexibility in the difficulty of the test question, and a subtle pursuit of a response from the child. Yet, they are also treated as problematic by children, shown by silences and hesitations. Surprisingly, the practicing of ground rules sometimes occasions affiliation. (Police interviews, children, testing, practicing, affiliation, conversation analysis, hypothetical questions)*
Chapter
Silence in language learning is commonly viewed negatively, with language teachers often struggling to interpret learner silence and identify whether it is part of communication, mental processing, or low engagement. This book addresses silence in language pedagogy from a positive perspective, translating research into practice in order to inform teaching and to advocate greater use of positive silence in the classroom. The first half of the book examines the existing research into silence, and the second half provides research-informed practical strategies and classroom tasks. It offers applicable principles for task design that utilises rich resources, which include visual arts, mental representation, poetry, music, and other innovative tools, to allow both silence and speech to express their respective and interrelated roles in learning. Comprehensive yet accessible, it is essential reading for academic researchers and students in applied linguistics, TESOL, and language teaching, as well as for language teachers and educators.
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How do classroom exchanges shape the developing forms and functions of literacy learning and teaching as students transition across the years of schooling? We explore this question using excerpts from literacy lessons from primary and secondary classrooms, showing how lesson exchanges develop as trajectories connecting different forms of ‘knowing’ and ‘doing’ literacy as a meaning making, socially grounded action. In this article, we refer to transitions as the movements between place and time, and trajectories to refer to developmental progressions. We identify a variety of interactional moves that in lessons shift students’ attention to different facets of literacy learning, shuttling across material, social, cultural and disciplinary considerations, allowing the gradual functional connections between these dimensions of literacy to emerge and become routine. We show that these moves, whether sudden or gradual, remarked on or not, largely depend on how a teacher scaffolds the work interactionally, then-and-there, in the lesson. Drawing on Conversation Analysis we examine the details of selected classroom transcripts from recorded primary and secondary lessons. We show the emergence of literacy’s changing shape and significance (emerging as literacy trajectories), and we suggest what these changes might signify subsequent developments in students’ literacy learning as participants in pedagogical interactions. Our exhibits indicate that the emergence of literacy trajectories can be productively reconsidered in terms of Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of changes over time in the interfunctional relations among learning processes (e.g., ‘remembering’-‘thinking’) and the focus of literacy lessons (e.g., ‘vocabulary’ and ‘meaning’). We discuss how these interfunctional relations are signaled and made relevant in classroom exchanges.
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This study explores the facilitative use of learner-initiated translanguaging and teacher responsiveness to its use in 68 dyads of conversational interaction between a teacher and individual students in tertiary Japanese EFL contexts. Adopting conversation analysis as an analytical framework, it aims to extend our understanding of the use of learner-initiated translanguaging and teacher responsiveness to translanguaging as an important interactional resource for learners to achieve interactional goals. The study identifies eight facilitative uses of L1. On the one hand, these uses contribute to the progressivity of talk as self-addressed translanguaging . On the other, they support intersubjectivity as co-constructed translanguaging in L2 interaction. These uses include (1) connectives for topic management; (2) floor-holding devices; (3) explicit word searches; (4) lexical gap fillers; (5) understanding displays; (6) clarification requests; (7) confirmation checks; and (8) explicit request for assistance. The study also reveals that learners’ self-initiated repair using L1 was frequently observed and that its use was intertwined with translanguaging in its functionality in discourse for meaning-making as a discursive practice. This study suggests that the use of translanguaging in the L2 classroom can be an indispensable tool to optimise learners’ classroom interactional competence.
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This study examines the teacher's use of verbal and written designedly incomplete utterances (DIUs) within the initiation-response-feedback (IRF) sequence by analyzing data collected from synchronous online language learning classrooms conducted via Zoom. Multimodal conversation analysis was employed to demonstrate that both the teacher and the students paid close attention to the construction and completion of DIUs through both written and spoken modes. This practice was primarily deployed by the teacher to elicit talk from students by offering the initial part of the response turn. The 121 sequences containing DIUs solicited participation from students through collaborative writing of their answers on the shared screen. This study may contribute to recent CA research on the embodied work of teaching (Hall & Looney, 2019) and situated learning activities (Goodwin, 2013; Kyratzis & Johnson, 2017) by describing a pedagogic practice that may have been adopted to help students participate in online discourses. The results may also offer a much-needed description of the actual occurrences of DIUs in online L2 classrooms.
Book
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El presente volumen es un libro explicativo de temas sociolingüísticos dirigido principalmente a quienes se dedican a la docencia de lenguas (extranjeras o lenguas nacionales originarias), ya sea que estén formándose para este fin o que ya se encuentren en la labor de manera profesional. En particular, el libro tiene la finalidad general de crear conciencia sociolingüística (científica y actual) para el fortalecimiento de la profesionalización del quehacer docente. La colección de capítulos que componen esta edición está formada por contribuciones escritas por especialistas en temas sociolingüísticos y/o de enseñanza de lenguas y refleja sus intereses en diversas temáticas relacionadas con el uso de la lengua y en cómo estas se relacionan con la enseñanza de idiomas. Antes de hacer una descripción de las once entradas que componen el volumen, y a manera de introducción, en los siguientes párrafos hago una breve descripción del campo de la sociolingüística como disciplina y presento cuál es su relevancia para la enseñanza de lenguas.
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We contribute a previously unidentified way representational gestures are used to organise participation and the co-construction of knowledge in whole-class interactions in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) classrooms. Drawing on ethnomethodology and conversation analysis (EMCA), we characterise students’ gestured candidate responses and how teachers respond to them. To answer teachers’ questions, students sometimes use representational gestures to provide silent, ‘off-the-record’ tentative responses that we call gestured candidate responses (GCRs). Teachers can respond to GCRs by ratifying or declining students’ responses. Teachers’ responses to GCRs include (1) ratifying the GCR by nominating students to share the response, (2) ratifying the GCR by repeating the gestured response for the class, (3) declining the GCR by not publicly pursuing the contribution, or (4) declining the GCR by publicly rejecting the contribution. Our analysis contributes to a better understanding of how students use gesture and how teachers attend and respond to students’ gestures in STEM classroom discourse.
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In this paper we propose a model to study the learning process of one student during a course. We formulate a stochastic model based on the quality of the teacher’s class and the affinity of the student to understand the sessions, under the assumption that previous sessions have some influence in the understanding of the next sessions. The afore mentioned assumption implies that the process is not a Markov process. We derive some recursive expressions for the distribution of the number of sessions that the student comprehends. Furthermore, we study the convergence of this distribution and illustrate its speed of convergence through some numerical examples. Finally, we apply these results to propose a methodology to estimate the quality of this kind of courses.
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The article focuses on teacher talk and the extent to which teacher talk is structured to create a dialogic environment in secondary English language classrooms in China. This study is based on the data collected from three secondary schools of different types in order to present a more comprehensive picture. We identify and compare the features of teacher talk by looking closely at the initiative and follow-up moves used by the teachers in the 48 observed classes. In general, the quantitative analysis suggests that English language teaching in secondary schools in China does not present many features of the practice of dialogic teaching, although there are statistically significant differences between schools and between grade levels. The quantitative analysis is accompanied by sociocultural discourse analysis conducted to contextualise the pattern of teacher talk. It contributes to our understanding of the extent to which the teachers practised dialogic teaching in the classrooms. This study aims to gain a comprehensive picture of teacher talk in secondary EFL classrooms in China, shed light on how teacher talk mediates and shapes student engagement, and promote effective dialogic teaching in China.
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In this chapter, I describe and reflect on my use of multimodal conversation analysis (Kääntä & Kasper, 2018; Mondada, 2018) mainly with reference to Sert (2017), a research article that documents situated learning and teaching practices in an English language classroom. Conversation analysis (CA) publications within the field of TESOL (1) can be collection-based, (2) can draw on a single case, and (3) can be (micro)longitudinal. My investigations into TESOL classrooms have resulted in a number of collection-based research papers that draw on databases from Luxembourgish (Sert, 2013; Sert & Walsh, 2013), Danish (aus der Wieschen & Sert 2021), Turkish (e.g., Somuncu & Sert, 2019), and Swedish (Sert & Amri, 2021) primary and secondary school settings. While the experience I will share in this chapter will also reflect my collection-based CA research, I do, however, choose to focus particularly on Sert (2017), a single case analysis of a (micro)longitudinal learning project, since this paper attempts to bridge teaching and learning. While the paper documents interactional maneuvers of a novice English language teacher for creating opportunities for learning, it also empirically shows that learning occurs as the focal learner uses a newly learned phrase (i.e., each other – a reciprocal pronoun) in context in the classroom and orients to the novelty of this phrase. Although the methodological approach and the findings of the paper have recently had a positive impact in the field (see Kotilainen & Kurhila, 2020), the analytical procedures and theoretical framing were challenging, which I will reflect on in this chapter. In the subsections that follow, I will situate the study within its local context and international research arena. In the second and third sections, I will describe the data used and the decisions made in each phase of the research, while providing a meta-analysis of the decision-making processes. I hope that the chapter will be useful for anyone interested in using CA methodology in TESOL research.
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Stern (1983) reminds us of the ethical reasons for doing second language (L2) research. That is, given the considerable human and financial investments that go into language education, the practical activities of teaching “should not exclusively rely on tradition, opinion, or trial‐and‐error but should be able to draw on rational enquiry, systematic investigation, and, if possible, controlled experiment” (p. 57). Elsewhere Stern argues for the use of interdisciplinary teams to carry out such research. The studies in this special issue illustrate the aptness of Stern's advice. These articles present findings from a large‐scale classroom research project that compared a deductive approach to teaching Spanish grammar to guided induction using the PACE model. The multidisciplinary team made use of different types of data, which were examined through different theoretical lenses. This discussion article considers the implications of these studies for L2 research, educational practice, teacher education, and the relationship between theory and practice.
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One effect of the way in which human action is constituted and shaped within a rich multimodal ecology of sign systems is that participants orient to multiple orders of temporality simultaneously. Within talkininteraction, linguistic structure provides resources that can be used simultaneously to (1) structure time in the world being represented through talk and (2) provide hearers with resources for projecting future events in the current and future interactions. Such structure in the stream of speech is framed by the participants bodies. Through interactively organized gesture and posture, participants display crucial information about the temporal and sequential organization of their joint participation in the current interaction. This multiplicity of concurrently relevant embodied temporalities extends to the tools and documents used in a scientific work setting such as an archaeological excavation. To uncover a past world archaeologists use tools from a professional past (e.g., the coding sheet of a senior investigator, the history of research encapsulated in the Munsell color chart, etc.) to build a workrelevant future (the records that will form the basis for subsequent analysis). The data for the present analysis consist of videotapes of situated human interaction.
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This article connects the concept of "face" to interactionally characterizable locations in conversation and to a specific speaking practice used there. I consider the relevance of the "self/other" distinction for the organization of some action sequences in order to locate face concerns in interactional terms. In conversation, next speakers ordinarily begin speaking at or near a place where the current speaker could be finished. Occasionally, however, participants do not wait for the current speaker to finish, but complete the current turn themselves. One systematic basis for this relaxation of turn-taking practices is found in a preference organization for alternative actions in conversation. The anticipatory completion of a speaking turn by another speaker can be used to preempt an emerging dispreferred action and change it into the alternative preferred action. This preference structure includes a preference for agreement over disagreement, a preference for self-correction over other-correction, and a preference for offers over requests. A recipient's anticipatory completion of an ongoing speaking turn is one conversational practice that makes possible a preference relationship between asymmetrical (i.e., differently valued) action types, and furnishes a basis for the recognizability of face concerns.
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Conversation Analysis (CA) as a mode of inquiry is addressed to all forms of talk and other conduct in interaction, and, accordingly, touches on the concerns of applied linguists at many points. This review sketches and offers bibliographical guidance on several of the major relevant areas of conversation-analytic workand indicates past or potential points of contact with applied linguistics. After covering these areas, we include a brief discussion of some key themes in CA's treatment of talk in institutional contexts. Finally, we discuss several established areas of applied linguistic work in which conversation analytic work is being explored—native, nonnative, and multilingual talk; talk in educational institutions; grammar and interaction; intercultural communication and comparative CA; and implications for designing language teaching tasks, materials, and assessment tasks. We end with some cautions on applying CA findings to other applied linguistic research contexts.
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Talk in interaction is the prevailing form of instructional activity. To understand and improve second language literacy instruction, an appreciation of the interactional practices in which reading and writing are embedded is necessary. In this article I examine one aspect of these practices: speaker turn design. I focus on the uses of incomplete turn‐constructional units in structuring subsequent participation. First, I describe several ways teachers design their turns at talk and show how these furnish differing opportunities for subsequent participation by students. Next, I show how the task of producing written answers as complete stand‐alone sentences can be carried out as an utterance‐completion task in which turn design plays a key organizing part. Finally, I show how this form of sequential organization can be used as an analytic resource in diagnosing a problem one group of students encounters in writing the answer to a story question.
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In interviews, it may happen that a respondent gives an answer which seems well formatted, but is not receipted as acceptable by the interviewer. In this article I examine one way in which interviewers display their diagnosis of the problem and act to bring about its solution. In the cases I describe, the interviewers defer revision of the question until they have established a new, more personalized basis for it, informed by (and displaying) their knowledge of the respondents' circumstances. There are three things of interest. The first is how this actually works conversationally; it seems to be structured as an insertion sequence and played out by presequential turns which are highly projective of the respondent's agreement. The second is that the scenario that the interviewer inserts is (in these cases at least) a positive example of what would have been an answer to the `failed' original question. The third is that there is a difference between the original, general question and its subsequent, specific revision. I argue that all these features manifest interviewers' solution of their dilemma in choosing between literal and sensitive questioning.
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This paper presents an alternative viewpoint on classroom management. A field study was conducted to investigate classroom management from the perspective of high school students. Findings suggest that students use six strategies to achieve two major goals during classroom events and that the combination of strategies used by students is based on different context features of each classroom. The teacher’s clear expression of his or her academic and behavioral expectations to students and provision of a cooperative classroom environment for students to achieve their classroom goals are identified as important features affecting students’ views on classroom management.
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Transcription is an integral process in the qualitative analysis of language data and is widely employed in basic and applied research across a number of disciplines and in professional practice fields. Yet, methodological and theoretical issues associated with the transcription process have received scant attention in the research literature. In this article, the authors present a cross-disciplinary conceptual review of the place of transcription in qualitative inquiry, in which the nature of transcription and the epistemological assumptions on which it rests are considered. The authors conclude that transcription is theory laden; the choices that researchers make about transcription enact the theories they hold and constrain the interpretations they can draw from their data. Because it has implications for the interpretation of research data and for decision making in practice fields, transcription as a process warrants further investigation.
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Starting with Houtkoop and Mazeland’s (1985) study of discourse units, and touching upon recent studies aimed at detailing unit projection in interaction, this article argues that the drive toward abstract and discrete models for units and unit projection is potentially misleading. While it has been established that to engage in talk-in-interaction, as it unfolds in real time, participants rely on projectable units (Sacks et al., 1974, 1978), research aimed at defining units unintentionally backgrounds the contingency inherent in interaction. A central function of language for collaborative action is the management of simultaneously unfolding facets of action, sound production, gesture, and grammar – produced by multiple participants. This article draws upon classic and current data analyses foregrounding linguistic/interactional practices designed to manage local contingencies. It is argued that attention to participants’ regular methods for managing and exploiting contingencies be incorporated from the outset in our descriptions of language and the nature of unit building in interaction.
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Organizational features of ordinary conversation and other talk-in-interaction provide for the routine display of participants' understandings of one anothers' conduct and of the field of action, thereby building in a routine grounding for intersubjectivity. This same organization provides interactants the resources for recognizing breakdowns of intersubjectivity and for repairing them. This article sets the concern with intersubjectivity in theoretical context, sketches the organization by which it is grounded and defended in ordinary interaction, describes the practices by which trouble in understanding is dealt with, and illustrates what happens when this organization fails to function. Some consequences for contemporary theory and inquiry are suggested.
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Traditionally, when the human sciences consider foundational issues such as epistemology and method, they do so by theorising them. Ethnomethodology, however, attempts to make such foundational matters a focus of attention, and directly enquires into them. This book reappraises the significance of ethnomethodology in sociology in particular, and in the human sciences in general. It demonstrates how, through its empirical enquiries into the ordered properties of social action, ethnomethodology provides a radical respecification of the foundations of the human sciences, an achievement that has often been misunderstood. The chapters, by leading scholars, take up the specification of action and order in theorising, logic, epistemology, measurement, evidence, the social actor, cognition, language and culture, and moral judgement, and underscore the ramifications for the human sciences of the ethnomethodologist's approach. This is a systematic and coherent collection which explicitly addresses fundamental conceptual issues. The clear exposition of the central tenets of ethnomethodology is especially welcome.
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Philosophers, historians, and sociologists of science have grown interested in the daily practices of scientists. Recent studies have drawn linkages between scientific innovations and more ordinary procedures, craft skills, and sources of sponsorship. These studies dispute the idea that science is the application of a unified method or the outgrowth of a progressive history of ideas. This book critically reviews arguments and empirical studies in two areas of sociology that have played a significant role in the 'sociological turn' in science studies: ethnomethodology (the study of ordinary practical reasoning) and the sociology of scientific knowledge. In both fields, efforts to study scientific practices have led to intractable difficulties and debates, due in part to scientistic and foundationalist commitments that remain entrenched with social-scientific research policies and descriptive language. The central purpose of this book is to explore the possibility of an empirical approach to the epistemic contents of science that avoids the pitfalls of scientism and foundationalism.
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Furthermore, certain transcription conventions invite modification by others with expertise in the field. It was the purppose of this chapter to: I. Identify what constitute data for the developmental psycholinguist. 2. Expose theoretical and cultural underpinnings of the transcription process. 3. Provide a setof basic transcription conventions sensitive to psychological, linguistic, and cultural dimensions of young children's behavior. 4. Indicate the relevance and usefulness of these conventions to current theoretical concerns. A greater awareness of transcription form can move the field in productive directions. Not only will we able to read rrmch more off our own transcripts, we will be better equipped to read the transcriptions of others. This, in turn, should better equip us to .evaluate particular interpretations of data (i.e., transcribed behavior). Our data may have a future if we give them the attention they deserve.
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The studies in this book take an ethnomethodological approach to educational phenomena. Ethnomethodology’s concern is with the locally accomplished and situated character of social order. With reference to educational phenomena, this means that ethnomethodology investigates how the ‘natural facts’ of educational life, such as daily activities in school classrooms, are produced as such in the first place, rather than taking for granted the recognisability of these facts and then theorising their explanation. In this sense, ethnomethodological studies contrast markedly with other approaches to the study of education. Each of the chapters in the book consists of a new and original study. Collectively, they exhibit the continuing vitality of this tradition and demonstrate ethnomethodology’s special commitment to the analysis of educational phenomena as locally ordered and accomplished.
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I think this was a review???
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This article begins with a review of the place of Hugh Mehan’s Learning Lessons in the development of the naturalistic study of classroom discourse studies, and especially the sequential analysis of naturally occurring classroom discourse. It then turns to the emergence of an alternative program for classroom discourse studies, in the particulars of critical discourse analysis. There we find a “formal–analytic” program for discourse studies. The middle section of the article takes up the characterization and the differences between these two programs through a critique of formal—and critical—studies of classroom discourse. The article then concludes with an analysis of a fourth-grade lesson on fractions, to suggest what the sequential analysis of naturally occurring classroom discourse may tell us about the work of instruction in the early grades. My aim throughout is to reaffirm the premise and program of naturalistic inquiry as the central innovation of classroom studies in the last 30 years.
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This article illustrates a three-level analysis of classroom discourse as a means of examining in detail the implications of characterizing language teachers' questions as "display" questions. In particular, it attempts to demonstrate that the characterization of teachers' questions as display questions because they are non-referential is only relevant on one level of analysis. By using a three-level analysis, it has been possible to challenge a negative characterization of the exchanges initiated by teachers' questions, which were said to be purposeless in one pedagogical setting.
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The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
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In their examination of ESL teachers' questions in the classroom, Long and Sato (1983) found that teachers ask significantly more display questions, which request information already known by the questioner, than referential questions. The main purpose of the study reported in this article was to determine if higher frequencies of referential questions have an effect on adult ESL classroom discourse. Four experienced ESL teachers and 24 non-native speakers (NNSs) participated. Two of the teachers were provided with training in incorporating referential questions into classroom activity; the other 2 were not provided with training. Each of the 4 teachers taught the same reading and vocabulary lesson to a group of 6 NNSs. The treatment-group teachers asked significantly more referential questions than did the control-group teachers. Student responses in the treatment-group classes were significantly longer and more syntactically complex and contained greater numbers of connective.
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Transcription is the general procedure used in studies of discourse to re-present speech as written text. Different notation systems have been proposed, and emphasis is often placed on achieving a high level of precision and accuracy of transcripts. In this article, transcription is treated as an instance of the general problem of the representation of reality that appears in diverse fields, such as photography and the biological and natural sciences. Three studies are examined where alternative transcripts of the same stretch of speech were presented and analyzed. This comparison shows how different transcript formats both reflect and reflexively support theoretical aims and interpretations and serve rhetorical functions. The essential indeterminancy and ambiguity of the relationship be-tween language and meaning, which has emerged from the widespread critique of naive realism, both sets the problem and provides the context within which we can understand transcription as an interpretive practice. (Sociolinguistics)